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Malik JA, Zafar MA, Singh S, Nanda S, Bashir H, Das DK, Lamba T, Khan MA, Kaur G, Agrewala JN. From defense to dysfunction: Autophagy's dual role in disease pathophysiology. Eur J Pharmacol 2024; 981:176856. [PMID: 39068979 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2024.176856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2024] [Revised: 07/16/2024] [Accepted: 07/24/2024] [Indexed: 07/30/2024]
Abstract
Autophagy is a fundamental pillar of cellular resilience, indispensable for maintaining cellular health and vitality. It coordinates the meticulous breakdown of cytoplasmic macromolecules as a guardian of cell metabolism, genomic integrity, and survival. In the complex play of biological warfare, autophagy emerges as a firm defender, bravely confronting various pathogenic, infectious, and cancerous adversaries. Nevertheless, its role transcends mere defense, wielding both protective and harmful effects in the complex landscape of disease pathogenesis. From the onslaught of infectious outbreaks to the devious progression of chronic lifestyle disorders, autophagy emerges as a central protagonist, convolutedly shaping the trajectory of cellular health and disease progression. In this article, we embark on a journey into the complicated web of molecular and immunological mechanisms that govern autophagy's profound influence over disease. Our focus sharpens on dissecting the impact of various autophagy-associated proteins on the kaleidoscope of immune responses, spanning the spectrum from infectious outbreaks to chronic lifestyle ailments. Through this voyage of discovery, we unveil the vast potential of autophagy as a therapeutic linchpin, offering tantalizing prospects for targeted interventions and innovative treatment modalities that promise to transform the landscape of disease management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonaid Ahmad Malik
- Immunology Laboratory, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Ropar, Rupnagar, 140001, India
| | - Mohammad Adeel Zafar
- Immunology Laboratory, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Ropar, Rupnagar, 140001, India; Division of Immunology, Boston Children's Hospital Harvard Medical School Boston, MA, 02115, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Sanpreet Singh
- Immunology Laboratory, Institute of Microbial Technology, Chandigarh, 160016, India; Department of Dermatology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
| | - Sidhanta Nanda
- Immunology Laboratory, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Ropar, Rupnagar, 140001, India
| | - Hilal Bashir
- Immunology Laboratory, Institute of Microbial Technology, Chandigarh, 160016, India
| | - Deepjyoti Kumar Das
- Immunology Laboratory, Institute of Microbial Technology, Chandigarh, 160016, India
| | - Taruna Lamba
- Immunology Laboratory, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Ropar, Rupnagar, 140001, India
| | - Mohammad Affan Khan
- Immunology Laboratory, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Ropar, Rupnagar, 140001, India
| | - Gurpreet Kaur
- Department of Biotechnology, Chandigarh Group of Colleges, Landran, Mohali, Punjab, 140055, India
| | - Javed N Agrewala
- Immunology Laboratory, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Ropar, Rupnagar, 140001, India.
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Banerjee S, Gadpayle MP, Samanta S, Dutta P, Das S, Datta R, Maiti S. Role of Macrophage PIST Protein in Regulating Leishmania major Infection. ACS Infect Dis 2024; 10:1414-1428. [PMID: 38556987 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.4c00156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/04/2024]
Abstract
PDZ protein interacting specifically with Tc10 or PIST is a mammalian trans-Golgi resident protein that regulates subcellular sorting of plasma membrane receptors. PIST has recently emerged as a key player in regulating viral pathogenesis. Nevertheless, the involvement of PIST in parasitic infections remains unexplored. Leishmania parasites infiltrate their host macrophage cells through phagocytosis, where they subsequently multiply within the parasitophorous vacuole (PV). Host cell autophagy has been found to be important in regulating this parasite infection. Since PIST plays a pivotal role in triggering autophagy through the Beclin 1-PI3KC3 pathway, it becomes interesting to identify the status of PIST during Leishmania infection. We found that while macrophage cells are infected with Leishmania major (L. major), the expression of PIST protein remains unaltered; however, it traffics from the Golgi compartment to PV. Further, we identified that in L. major-infected macrophage cells, PIST associates with the autophagy regulatory protein Beclin 1 within the PVs; however, PIST does not interact with LC3. Reduction in PIST protein through siRNA silencing significantly increased parasite burden, whereas overexpression of PIST in macrophages restricted L. major infectivity. Together, our study reports that the macrophage PIST protein is essential in regulating L. major infectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sourav Banerjee
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education & Research Kolkata (IISER-Kolkata), Mohanpur Campus, Kolkata, West Bengal 741 246, India
| | - Mandip Pratham Gadpayle
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education & Research Kolkata (IISER-Kolkata), Mohanpur Campus, Kolkata, West Bengal 741 246, India
| | - Suman Samanta
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education & Research Kolkata (IISER-Kolkata), Mohanpur Campus, Kolkata, West Bengal 741 246, India
| | - Priyanka Dutta
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education & Research Kolkata (IISER-Kolkata), Mohanpur Campus, Kolkata, West Bengal 741 246, India
| | - Swagata Das
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education & Research Kolkata (IISER-Kolkata), Mohanpur Campus, Kolkata, West Bengal 741 246, India
| | - Rupak Datta
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education & Research Kolkata (IISER-Kolkata), Mohanpur Campus, Kolkata, West Bengal 741 246, India
| | - Sankar Maiti
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education & Research Kolkata (IISER-Kolkata), Mohanpur Campus, Kolkata, West Bengal 741 246, India
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Aguilera MO, Delgui LR, Reggiori F, Romano PS, Colombo MI. Autophagy as an innate immunity response against pathogens: a Tango dance. FEBS Lett 2024; 598:140-166. [PMID: 38101809 DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.14788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2023] [Revised: 10/18/2023] [Accepted: 10/27/2023] [Indexed: 12/17/2023]
Abstract
Intracellular infections as well as changes in the cell nutritional environment are main events that trigger cellular stress responses. One crucial cell response to stress conditions is autophagy. During the last 30 years, several scenarios involving autophagy induction or inhibition over the course of an intracellular invasion by pathogens have been uncovered. In this review, we will present how this knowledge was gained by studying different microorganisms. We intend to discuss how the cell, via autophagy, tries to repel these attacks with the objective of destroying the intruder, but also how some pathogens have developed strategies to subvert this. These two fates can be compared with a Tango, a dance originated in Buenos Aires, Argentina, in which the partner dancers are in close connection. One of them is the leader, embracing and involving the partner, but the follower may respond escaping from the leader. This joint dance is indeed highly synchronized and controlled, perfectly reflecting the interaction between autophagy and microorganism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milton O Aguilera
- Laboratorio de Mecanismos Moleculares Implicados en el Tráfico Vesicular y la Autofagia-Instituto de Histología y Embriología (IHEM), Universidad Nacional de Cuyo, CONICET, Mendoza, Argentina
- Facultad de Odontología, Microbiología, Parasitología e Inmunología, Universidad Nacional de Cuyo, Mendoza, Argentina
| | - Laura R Delgui
- Instituto de Histología y Embriología de Mendoza, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Centro Universitario M5502JMA, Universidad Nacional de Cuyo (UNCuyo), Mendoza, Argentina
- Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Cuyo (UNCuyo), Mendoza, Argentina
| | - Fulvio Reggiori
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Denmark
- Aarhus Institute of Advanced Studies (AIAS), Aarhus University, Denmark
| | - Patricia S Romano
- Laboratorio de Biología de Trypanosoma cruzi y la célula hospedadora - Instituto de Histología y Embriología de Mendoza, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Centro Universitario M5502JMA, Universidad Nacional de Cuyo (UNCuyo), Mendoza, Argentina
- Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Centro Universitario M5502JMA, Universidad Nacional de Cuyo (UNCuyo), Mendoza, Argentina
| | - María I Colombo
- Laboratorio de Mecanismos Moleculares Implicados en el Tráfico Vesicular y la Autofagia-Instituto de Histología y Embriología (IHEM), Universidad Nacional de Cuyo, CONICET, Mendoza, Argentina
- Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Centro Universitario M5502JMA, Universidad Nacional de Cuyo (UNCuyo), Mendoza, Argentina
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Garcia AR, Amorim MMB, Amaral ACF, da Cruz JD, Vermelho AB, Nico D, Rodrigues IA. Anti- Leishmania amazonensis Activity, Cytotoxic Features, and Chemical Profile of Allium sativum (Garlic) Essential Oil. Trop Med Infect Dis 2023; 8:375. [PMID: 37505671 PMCID: PMC10384145 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed8070375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2023] [Revised: 07/15/2023] [Accepted: 07/17/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Human tegumentary leishmaniasis (HTL) is a serious tropical disease caused by Leishmania amazonensis. Developing new leishmanicidal agents can help overcome current treatment challenges, such as drug resistance and toxicity. Essential oils are a source of lipophilic substances with diverse therapeutic properties. This study aimed to determine the anti-L. amazonensis activity, cytotoxicity, and chemical profile of Allium sativum essential oil (ASEO). The effect of ASEO on parasite and mammalian cells viability was evaluated using resazurin and MTT assays, respectively. The oil's effect against intracellular amastigotes was also determined. Transmission electron microscopy was used to assess the ultrastructural changes induced by ASEO. In addition, the chemical constituents of ASEO were identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The cytotoxic potential was evaluated in vitro and in silico. The oil displayed IC50 of 1.76, 3.46, and 3.77 µg/mL against promastigotes, axenic, and intracellular amastigotes, respectively. Photomicrographs of treated parasites showed plasma membrane disruption, increased lipid bodies, and autophagic-like structures. ASEO chemical profiling revealed 1,2,4,6-tetrathiepane (24.84%) and diallyl disulfide (16.75%) as major components. Computational pharmacokinetics and toxicological analysis of ASEO's major components demonstrated good oral bioavailability and better toxicological endpoints than the reference drugs. Altogether, the results suggest that ASEO could be an alternative drug candidate against HTL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreza R Garcia
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, Brazil
| | - Mariana M B Amorim
- Instituto Municipal de Vigilância Sanitária, Vigilância de Zoonoses e de Inspeção Agropecuária, Rio de Janeiro 22290-240, Brazil
| | - Ana Claudia F Amaral
- Departamento de Produtos Naturais, Farmanguinhos Fiocruz, Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro 21041-250, Brazil
| | - Jefferson D da Cruz
- Departamento de Produtos Naturais, Farmanguinhos Fiocruz, Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro 21041-250, Brazil
| | - Alane B Vermelho
- Departamento de Microbiologia Geral, Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, Brazil
| | - Dirlei Nico
- Departamento de Microbiologia Geral, Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, Brazil
| | - Igor A Rodrigues
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, Brazil
- Departamento de Produtos Naturais e Alimentos, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, Brazil
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Ayilam Ramachandran R, Sanches JM, Robertson DM. The roles of autophagy and mitophagy in corneal pathology: current knowledge and future perspectives. Front Med (Lausanne) 2023; 10:1064938. [PMID: 37153108 PMCID: PMC10160402 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2023.1064938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2022] [Accepted: 01/16/2023] [Indexed: 05/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The cornea is the clear dome that covers the front portion of the globe. The primary functions of the cornea are to promote the refraction of light and to protect the eye from invading pathogens, both of which are essential for the preservation of vision. Homeostasis of each cellular layer of the cornea requires the orchestration of multiple processes, including the ability to respond to stress. One mechanism whereby cells respond to stress is autophagy, or the process of "self-eating." Autophagy functions to clear damaged proteins and organelles. During nutrient deprivation, amino acids released from protein breakdown via autophagy are used as a fuel source. Mitophagy, a selective form of autophagy, functions to clear damaged mitochondria. Thus, autophagy and mitophagy are important intracellular degradative processes that sustain tissue homeostasis. Importantly, the inhibition or excessive activation of these processes result in deleterious effects on the cell. In the eye, impairment or inhibition of these mechanisms have been associated with corneal disease, degenerations, and dystrophies. This review summarizes the current body of knowledge on autophagy and mitophagy at all layers in the cornea in both non-infectious and infectious corneal disease, dystrophies, and degenerations. It further highlights the critical gaps in our understanding of mitochondrial dysfunction, with implications for novel therapeutics in clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jose Marcos Sanches
- Department of Ophthalmology, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, United States
| | - Danielle M Robertson
- Department of Ophthalmology, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, United States
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Romano PS, Akematsu T, Besteiro S, Bindschedler A, Carruthers VB, Chahine Z, Coppens I, Descoteaux A, Alberto Duque TL, He CY, Heussler V, Le Roch KG, Li FJ, de Menezes JPB, Menna-Barreto RFS, Mottram JC, Schmuckli-Maurer J, Turk B, Tavares Veras PS, Salassa BN, Vanrell MC. Autophagy in protists and their hosts: When, how and why? AUTOPHAGY REPORTS 2023; 2:2149211. [PMID: 37064813 PMCID: PMC10104450 DOI: 10.1080/27694127.2022.2149211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2022] [Accepted: 11/15/2022] [Indexed: 03/12/2023]
Abstract
Pathogenic protists are a group of organisms responsible for causing a variety of human diseases including malaria, sleeping sickness, Chagas disease, leishmaniasis, and toxoplasmosis, among others. These diseases, which affect more than one billion people globally, mainly the poorest populations, are characterized by severe chronic stages and the lack of effective antiparasitic treatment. Parasitic protists display complex life-cycles and go through different cellular transformations in order to adapt to the different hosts they live in. Autophagy, a highly conserved cellular degradation process, has emerged as a key mechanism required for these differentiation processes, as well as other functions that are crucial to parasite fitness. In contrast to yeasts and mammals, protist autophagy is characterized by a modest number of conserved autophagy-related proteins (ATGs) that, even though, can drive the autophagosome formation and degradation. In addition, during their intracellular cycle, the interaction of these pathogens with the host autophagy system plays a crucial role resulting in a beneficial or harmful effect that is important for the outcome of the infection. In this review, we summarize the current state of knowledge on autophagy and other related mechanisms in pathogenic protists and their hosts. We sought to emphasize when, how, and why this process takes place, and the effects it may have on the parasitic cycle. A better understanding of the significance of autophagy for the protist life-cycle will potentially be helpful to design novel anti-parasitic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Silvia Romano
- Laboratorio de Biología de Trypanosoma cruzi y de la célula hospedadora. Instituto de Histología y Embriología de Mendoza. Universidad Nacional de Cuyo. (IHEM-CONICET-UNCUYO). Facultad de Ciencias Médicas. Universidad Nacional de Cuyo. Av. Libertador 80 (5500), Mendoza, Argentina
| | - Takahiko Akematsu
- Department of Biosciences, College of Humanities and Sciences, Nihon University, Tokyo, Japan
| | | | | | - Vern B Carruthers
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan School of Medicine, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Zeinab Chahine
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Systems Biology, University of California Riverside, CA, USA
| | - Isabelle Coppens
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology. Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology. Johns Hopkins Malaria Research Institute. Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health. Baltimore 21205, MD, USA
| | - Albert Descoteaux
- Centre Armand-Frappier Santé Biotechnologie, Institut national de la recherche scientifique, Laval, QC
| | - Thabata Lopes Alberto Duque
- Autophagy Inflammation and Metabolism Center, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM, USA; Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM, USA
| | - Cynthia Y He
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Volker Heussler
- Institute of Cell Biology.University of Bern. Baltzerstr. 4 3012 Bern
| | - Karine G Le Roch
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Systems Biology, University of California Riverside, CA, USA
| | - Feng-Jun Li
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | | | | | - Jeremy C Mottram
- York Biomedical Research Institute, Department of Biology, University of York, York, UK
| | | | - Boris Turk
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, Jožef Stefan Institute, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Patricia Sampaio Tavares Veras
- Laboratory of Host-Parasite Interaction and Epidemiology, Gonçalo Moniz Institute, Fiocruz-Bahia
- National Institute of Science and Technology of Tropical Diseases - National Council for Scientific Research and Development (CNPq)
| | - Betiana Nebai Salassa
- Laboratorio de Biología de Trypanosoma cruzi y de la célula hospedadora. Instituto de Histología y Embriología de Mendoza. Universidad Nacional de Cuyo. (IHEM-CONICET-UNCUYO). Facultad de Ciencias Médicas. Universidad Nacional de Cuyo. Av. Libertador 80 (5500), Mendoza, Argentina
| | - María Cristina Vanrell
- Laboratorio de Biología de Trypanosoma cruzi y de la célula hospedadora. Instituto de Histología y Embriología de Mendoza. Universidad Nacional de Cuyo. (IHEM-CONICET-UNCUYO). Facultad de Ciencias Médicas. Universidad Nacional de Cuyo. Av. Libertador 80 (5500), Mendoza, Argentina
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Guhe V, Ingale P, Tambekar A, Singh S. Systems biology of autophagy in leishmanial infection and its diverse role in precision medicine. Front Mol Biosci 2023; 10:1113249. [PMID: 37152895 PMCID: PMC10160387 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2023.1113249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2022] [Accepted: 04/05/2023] [Indexed: 05/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Autophagy is a contentious issue in leishmaniasis and is emerging as a promising therapeutic regimen. Published research on the impact of autophagic regulation on Leishmania survival is inconclusive, despite numerous pieces of evidence that Leishmania spp. triggers autophagy in a variety of cell types. The mechanistic approach is poorly understood in the Leishmania parasite as autophagy is significant in both Leishmania and the host. Herein, this review discusses the autophagy proteins that are being investigated as potential therapeutic targets, the connection between autophagy and lipid metabolism, and microRNAs that regulate autophagy and lipid metabolism. It also highlights the use of systems biology to develop novel autophagy-dependent therapeutics for leishmaniasis by utilizing artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning (ML), mathematical modeling, network analysis, and other computational methods. Additionally, we have shown many databases for autophagy and metabolism in Leishmania parasites that suggest potential therapeutic targets for intricate signaling in the autophagy system. In a nutshell, the detailed understanding of the dynamics of autophagy in conjunction with lipids and miRNAs unfolds larger dimensions for future research.
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Expression Profile Analysis of Circular RNAs in Leishmaniasis. Trop Med Infect Dis 2022; 7:tropicalmed7080176. [PMID: 36006268 PMCID: PMC9415058 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed7080176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2022] [Revised: 08/05/2022] [Accepted: 08/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Leishmaniasis is a neglected tropical disease that seriously influences global public health. Among all the parasitic diseases, leishmaniasis is the third most common cause of morbidity after malaria and schistosomiasis. Circular RNAs (circRNAs) are a new type of noncoding RNAs that are involved in the regulation of biological and developmental processes. However, there is no published research on the function of circRNAs in leishmaniasis. This is the first study to explore the expression profiles of circRNAs in leishmaniasis. GO and KEGG analyses were performed to determine the potential function of the host genes of differentially expressed circRNAs. CircRNA–miRNA–mRNA (ceRNA) regulatory network analysis and protein–protein interaction (PPI) networks were analyzed by R software and the STRING database, respectively. A total of 4664 significant differentially expressed circRNAs were identified and compared to those in control groups; a total of 1931 were up-regulated and 2733 were down-regulated. The host genes of differentially expressed circRNAs were enriched in ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis, endocytosis, the MAPK signaling pathway, renal cell carcinoma, autophagy and the ErbB signaling pathway. Then, five hub genes (BRCA1, CREBBP, EP300, PIK3R1, and CRK) were identified. This study provides new evidence of the change of differentially expressed circRNAs and its potential function in leishmaniasis. These results may provide novel insights and evidence for the diagnosis and treatment of leishmaniasis.
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Singhal J, Madan E, Chaurasiya A, Srivastava P, Singh N, Kaushik S, Kahlon AK, Maurya MK, Marothia M, Joshi P, Ranganathan A, Singh S. Host SUMOylation Pathway Negatively Regulates Protective Immune Responses and Promotes Leishmania donovani Survival. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:878136. [PMID: 35734580 PMCID: PMC9207379 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.878136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2022] [Accepted: 04/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
SUMOylation is one of the post-translational modifications that have recently been described as a key regulator of various cellular, nuclear, metabolic, and immunological processes. The process of SUMOylation involves the modification of one or more lysine residues of target proteins by conjugation of a ubiquitin-like, small polypeptide known as SUMO for their degradation, stability, transcriptional regulation, cellular localization, and transport. Herein, for the first time, we report the involvement of the host SUMOylation pathway in the process of infection of Leishmania donovani, a causative agent of visceral leishmaniasis. Our data revealed that infection of L. donovani to the host macrophages leads to upregulation of SUMOylation pathway genes and downregulation of a deSUMOylating gene, SENP1. Further, to confirm the effect of the host SUMOylation on the growth of Leishmania, the genes associated with the SUMOylation pathway were silenced and parasite load was analyzed. The knockdown of the SUMOylation pathway led to a reduction in parasitic load, suggesting the role of the host SUMOylation pathway in the disease progression and parasite survival. Owing to the effect of the SUMOylation pathway in autophagy, we further investigated the status of host autophagy to gain mechanistic insights into how SUMOylation mediates the regulation of growth of L. donovani. Knockdown of genes of host SUMOylation pathway led to the reduction of the expression levels of host autophagy markers while promoting autophagosome–lysosome fusion, suggesting SUMOylation-mediated autophagy in terms of autophagy initiation and autophagy maturation during parasite survival. The levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, nitric oxide (NO) production, and pro-inflammatory cytokines were also elevated upon the knockdown of genes of the host SUMOylation pathway during L. donovani infection. This indicates the involvement of the SUMOylation pathway in the modulation of protective immune responses and thus favoring parasite survival. Taken together, the results of this study indicate the hijacking of the host SUMOylation pathway by L. donovani toward the suppression of host immune responses and facilitation of host autophagy to potentially facilitate its survival. Targeting of SUMOylation pathway can provide a starting point for the design and development of novel therapeutic interventions to combat leishmaniasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jhalak Singhal
- *Correspondence: Jhalak Singhal, ; Anand Ranganathan, ; Shailja Singh,
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Anand Ranganathan
- *Correspondence: Jhalak Singhal, ; Anand Ranganathan, ; Shailja Singh,
| | - Shailja Singh
- *Correspondence: Jhalak Singhal, ; Anand Ranganathan, ; Shailja Singh,
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Lapaquette P, Ducreux A, Basmaciyan L, Paradis T, Bon F, Bataille A, Winckler P, Hube B, d’Enfert C, Esclatine A, Dubus E, Bringer MA, Morel E, Dalle F. Membrane protective role of autophagic machinery during infection of epithelial cells by Candida albicans. Gut Microbes 2022; 14:2004798. [PMID: 35086419 PMCID: PMC8803057 DOI: 10.1080/19490976.2021.2004798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Candida albicans (C. albicans) is an opportunistic pathogen causing infections ranging from superficial to life-threatening disseminated infections. In a susceptible host, C. albicans is able to translocate through the gut barrier, promoting its dissemination into deeper organs. C. albicans hyphae can invade human epithelial cells by two well-documented mechanisms: epithelial-driven endocytosis and C. albicans-driven active penetration. One mechanism by which host cells protect themselves against intracellular C. albicans is termed autophagy. The protective role of autophagy during C. albicans infection has been investigated in myeloid cells; however, far less is known regarding the role of this process during the infection of epithelial cells. In the present study, we investigated the role of autophagy-related proteins during the infection of epithelial cells, including intestinal epithelial cells and gut explants, by C. albicans. Using cell imaging, we show that key molecular players of the autophagy machinery (LC3-II, PI3P, ATG16L1, and WIPI2) were recruited at Candida invasion sites. We deepened these observations by electron microscopy analyses that reveal the presence of autophagosomes in the vicinity of invading hyphae. Importantly, these events occur during active penetration of C. albicans into host cells and are associated with plasma membrane damage. In this context, we show that the autophagy-related key proteins ATG5 and ATG16L1 contribute to plasma membrane repair mediated by lysosomal exocytosis and participate in protecting epithelial cells against C. albicans-induced cell death. Our findings provide a novel mechanism by which epithelial cells, forming the first line of defense against C. albicans in the gut, can react to limit C. albicans invasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre Lapaquette
- Univ. Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Agrosup Dijon, UMR PAM A 02.102, Dijon, France,CONTACT Pierre Lapaquette Univ. Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Agrosup Dijon, UMR PAM A 02.102, Dijon, France
| | - Amandine Ducreux
- Univ. Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Agrosup Dijon, UMR PAM A 02.102, Dijon, France
| | - Louise Basmaciyan
- Univ. Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Agrosup Dijon, UMR PAM A 02.102, Dijon, France,Laboratoire de Parasitologie-Mycologie, Plateforme de Biologie Hospitalo-Universitaire Gérard Mack, Dijon, France
| | - Tracy Paradis
- Univ. Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Agrosup Dijon, UMR PAM A 02.102, Dijon, France
| | - Fabienne Bon
- Univ. Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Agrosup Dijon, UMR PAM A 02.102, Dijon, France
| | | | - Pascale Winckler
- Univ. Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Agrosup Dijon, UMR PAM A 02.102, Dijon, France,Dimacell Imaging Facility, Agrosup Dijon, INRA, INSERM, Univ. Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Dijon, France
| | - Bernhard Hube
- Department of Microbial Pathogenicity Mechanisms, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology, Hans Knoell Institute, Jena, Germany,Institute of Microbiology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Friedrich Schiller University, Jena, Germany
| | - Christophe d’Enfert
- Unité Biologie et Pathogénicité Fongiques, Institut Pasteur, USC2019 INRA, Paris, France
| | - Audrey Esclatine
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Elisabeth Dubus
- Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l’Alimentation, AgroSup Dijon, CNRS, INRAE, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Dijon, France
| | - Marie-Agnès Bringer
- Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l’Alimentation, AgroSup Dijon, CNRS, INRAE, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Dijon, France
| | - Etienne Morel
- Institut Necker Enfants-Malades (INEM), INSERM U1151-CNRS UMR 8253, Université de Paris, Paris, France
| | - Frédéric Dalle
- Univ. Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Agrosup Dijon, UMR PAM A 02.102, Dijon, France,Laboratoire de Parasitologie-Mycologie, Plateforme de Biologie Hospitalo-Universitaire Gérard Mack, Dijon, France,Frédéric Dalle Laboratoire de Parasitologie-Mycologie
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11
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Haldar AK, Nigam U, Yamamoto M, Coers J, Goyal N. Guanylate Binding Proteins Restrict Leishmania donovani Growth in Nonphagocytic Cells Independent of Parasitophorous Vacuolar Targeting. mBio 2020; 11:e01464-20. [PMID: 32723921 PMCID: PMC7387799 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.01464-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2020] [Accepted: 06/18/2020] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Interferon (IFN)-inducible guanylate binding proteins (GBPs) play important roles in host defense against many intracellular pathogens that reside within pathogen-containing vacuoles (PVs). For instance, members of the GBP family translocate to PVs occupied by the protozoan pathogen Toxoplasma and facilitate PV disruption and lytic parasite killing. While the GBP defense program targeting Toxoplasma has been studied in some detail, the role of GBPs in host defense to other protozoan pathogens is poorly characterized. Here, we report a critical role for both mouse and human GBPs in the cell-autonomous immune response against the vector-borne parasite Leishmania donovani Although L. donovani can infect both phagocytic and nonphagocytic cells, it predominantly replicates inside professional phagocytes. The underlying basis for this cell type tropism is unclear. Here, we demonstrate that GBPs restrict growth of L. donovani in both mouse and human nonphagocytic cells. GBP-mediated restriction of L. donovani replication occurs via a noncanonical pathway that operates independent of detectable translocation of GBPs to L. donovan-containing vacuoles (LCVs). Instead of promoting the lytic destruction of PVs, as reported for GBP-mediated killing of Toxoplasma in phagocytic cells, GBPs facilitate the delivery of L. donovani into autolysosomal-marker-positive compartments in mouse embryonic fibroblasts as well as the human epithelial cell line A549. Together our results show that GBPs control a novel cell-autonomous host defense program, which renders nonphagocytic cells nonpermissible for efficient Leishmania replication.IMPORTANCE The obligate intracellular parasite Leishmania causes the disease leishmaniasis, which is transmitted to mammalian hosts, including humans, via the sandfly vector. Following the bite-induced breach of the skin barrier, Leishmania is known to live and replicate predominantly inside professional phagocytes. Although Leishmania is also able to infect nonphagocytic cells, nonphagocytic cells support limited parasitic replication for unknown reasons. In this study, we show that nonphagocytic cells possess an intrinsic property to restrict Leishmania growth. Our study defines a novel role for a family of host defense proteins, the guanylate binding proteins (GBPs), in antileishmanial immunity. Mechanistically, our data indicate that GBPs facilitate the delivery of Leishmania into antimicrobial autolysosomes, thereby enhancing parasite clearance in nonphagocytic cells. We propose that this GBP-dependent host defense program makes nonphagocytic cells an inhospitable host cell type for Leishmania growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arun Kumar Haldar
- Division of Biochemistry, Central Drug Research Institute, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, Lucknow, India
| | - Utsav Nigam
- Division of Biochemistry, Central Drug Research Institute, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, Lucknow, India
| | - Masahiro Yamamoto
- Department of Immunoparasitology, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Jörn Coers
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA
- Department of Immunology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Neena Goyal
- Division of Biochemistry, Central Drug Research Institute, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, Lucknow, India
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12
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Ghartey-Kwansah G, Aboagye B, Adu-Nti F, Opoku YK, Abu EK. Clearing or subverting the enemy: Role of autophagy in protozoan infections. Life Sci 2020; 247:117453. [PMID: 32088215 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2020.117453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2020] [Revised: 02/17/2020] [Accepted: 02/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The protozoan parasites are evolutionarily divergent, unicellular eukaryotic pathogens representing one of the essential sources of parasitic diseases. These parasites significantly affect the economy and cause public health burdens globally. Protozoan parasites share many cellular features and pathways with their respective host cells. This includes autophagy, a process responsible for self-degradation of the cell's components. There is conservation of the central structural and functional machinery for autophagy in most of the eukaryotic phyla, however, Plasmodium and Toxoplasma possess a decreased number of recognizable autophagy-related proteins (ATG). Plasmodium noticeably lacks clear orthologs of the initiating kinase ATG1/ULK1/2, and both Plasmodium and Toxoplasma lack proteins involved in the nucleation of autophagosomes. These organisms have essential apicoplast, a plastid-like non-photosynthetic organelle, which is an adaptation that is used in penetrating the host cell. Furthermore, available evidence suggests that Leishmania, an intracellular protozoan parasite, induces autophagy in macrophages. The autophagic pathway in Trypanosoma cruzi is activated during metacyclogenesis, a process responsible for the infective forms of parasites. Therefore, numerous pathogens have developed strategies to impair the autophagic mechanism in phagocytes. Regulating autophagy is essential to maintain cellular health as adjustments in the autophagy pathway have been linked to the progression of several physiological and pathological conditions in humans. In this review, we report current advances in autophagy in parasites and their host cells, focusing on the ramifications of these studies in the design of potential anti-protozoan therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- George Ghartey-Kwansah
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Health and Allied Sciences, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana; College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an 710119, China.
| | - Benjamin Aboagye
- Department of Forensic Sciences, College of Agriculture and Natural Sciences, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana
| | - Frank Adu-Nti
- College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an 710119, China
| | - Yeboah Kwaku Opoku
- Department of Biology Education, Faculty of Science, University of Education, Winneba, Ghana
| | - Emmanuel Kwasi Abu
- Department of Optometry and Vision Science, College of Health and Allied Sciences, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana
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13
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Duque TLA, Cascabulho CM, Oliveira GM, Henriques-Pons A, Menna-Barreto RFS. Rapamycin Treatment Reduces Acute Myocarditis Induced by Trypanosoma cruzi Infection. J Innate Immun 2019; 12:321-332. [PMID: 31801138 DOI: 10.1159/000504322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2019] [Accepted: 10/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Chagas disease affects millions of people mainly in Latin America and is a protozoan illness caused by the parasite Trypanosoma cruzi. Chagasic cardiomyopathy is the leading cause of mortality of infected patients, due to compromised electrical and mechanical cardiac function induced by tissue remodeling, especially fibrosis, and lymphocytic infiltration. Some cellular biochemical pathways can be protective to the heart, and we tested if the in vivo activation of the autophagic machinery by rapamycin could reduce parasite-induced myocarditis. Regarding the expression of LC3, an autophagy marker, we observed its upregulation in the cardiac tissue of infected untreated mice. However, after rapamycin treatment, an autophagy inducer, infected mice showed reduced electrical cardiac dysfunctions, myocarditis, cardiac damage, and reduced production of pro-inflammatory cytokines by the heart. On the other hand, the parasite's life cycle was not affected, and we observed no modulations in cardiac tissue or blood parasitemia. Our data indicate that, at least partially, autophagy induction controls inflammation in the heart¸ illustrating the complexity of the pathways that concur to the development of the infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thabata L A Duque
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.,Laboratório de Inovações em Terapias, Ensino e Bioprodutos, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Cynthia M Cascabulho
- Laboratório de Inovações em Terapias, Ensino e Bioprodutos, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Gabriel M Oliveira
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Andrea Henriques-Pons
- Laboratório de Inovações em Terapias, Ensino e Bioprodutos, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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14
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de Carvalho RVH, Lima-Junior DS, da Silva MVG, Dilucca M, Rodrigues TS, Horta CV, Silva ALN, da Silva PF, Frantz FG, Lorenzon LB, Souza MM, Almeida F, Cantanhêde LM, Ferreira RDGM, Cruz AK, Zamboni DS. Leishmania RNA virus exacerbates Leishmaniasis by subverting innate immunity via TLR3-mediated NLRP3 inflammasome inhibition. Nat Commun 2019; 10:5273. [PMID: 31754185 PMCID: PMC6872735 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-019-13356-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2019] [Accepted: 10/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Leishmania RNA virus (LRV) is an important virulence factor associated with the development of mucocutaneous Leishmaniasis, a severe form of the disease. LRV-mediated disease exacerbation relies on TLR3 activation, but downstream mechanisms remain largely unexplored. Here, we combine human and mouse data to demonstrate that LRV triggers TLR3 and TRIF to induce type I IFN production, which induces autophagy. This process results in ATG5-mediated degradation of NLRP3 and ASC, thereby limiting NLRP3 inflammasome activation in macrophages. Consistent with the known restricting role of NLRP3 for Leishmania replication, the signaling pathway triggered by LRV results in increased parasite survival and disease progression. In support of this data, we find that lesions in patients infected with LRV+ Leishmania are associated with reduced inflammasome activation and the development of mucocutaneous disease. Our findings reveal the mechanisms triggered by LRV that contribute to the development of the debilitating mucocutaneous form of Leishmaniasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renan V H de Carvalho
- Departamento de Biologia Celular e Molecular e Bioagentes Patogênicos, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Djalma S Lima-Junior
- Departamento de Biologia Celular e Molecular e Bioagentes Patogênicos, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Marcus Vinícius G da Silva
- Departamento de Biologia Celular e Molecular e Bioagentes Patogênicos, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Marisa Dilucca
- Departamento de Biologia Celular e Molecular e Bioagentes Patogênicos, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Tamara S Rodrigues
- Departamento de Biologia Celular e Molecular e Bioagentes Patogênicos, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Catarina V Horta
- Departamento de Biologia Celular e Molecular e Bioagentes Patogênicos, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Alexandre L N Silva
- Departamento de Biologia Celular e Molecular e Bioagentes Patogênicos, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Patrick F da Silva
- Laboratório de Imunologia e Epigenética, Departamento de Análises Clínicas, Toxicológicas e Bromatologia, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Fabiani G Frantz
- Laboratório de Imunologia e Epigenética, Departamento de Análises Clínicas, Toxicológicas e Bromatologia, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Lucas B Lorenzon
- Departamento de Biologia Celular e Molecular e Bioagentes Patogênicos, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Marcos Michel Souza
- Departamento de Biologia Celular e Molecular e Bioagentes Patogênicos, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Fausto Almeida
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | | | - Angela K Cruz
- Departamento de Biologia Celular e Molecular e Bioagentes Patogênicos, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Dario S Zamboni
- Departamento de Biologia Celular e Molecular e Bioagentes Patogênicos, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil.
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15
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Veras PST, de Menezes JPB, Dias BRS. Deciphering the Role Played by Autophagy in Leishmania Infection. Front Immunol 2019; 10:2523. [PMID: 31736955 PMCID: PMC6838865 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.02523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2019] [Accepted: 10/10/2019] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
In recent decades, studies have shown that, depending on parasite species and host background, autophagy can either favor infection or promote parasite clearance. To date, relatively few studies have attempted to assess the role played by autophagy in Leishmania infection. While it has been consistently shown that Leishmania spp. induce autophagy in a variety of cell types, published results regarding the effects of autophagic modulation on Leishmania survival are contradictory. The present review, after a short overview of the general aspects of autophagy, aims to summarize the current body of knowledge surrounding how Leishmania spp. adaptively interact with macrophages, the host cells mainly involved in controlling leishmaniasis. We then explore the scarce studies that have investigated interactions between these parasite species and the autophagic pathway, and finally present a critical perspective on how autophagy influences infection outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Sampaio Tavares Veras
- Laboratory of Host - Parasite Interaction and Epidemiology, Gonçalo Moniz Institute, Salvador, Brazil.,National Institute of Science and Technology of Tropical Diseases - CNPq, Salvador, Brazil
| | | | - Beatriz Rocha Simões Dias
- Laboratory of Host - Parasite Interaction and Epidemiology, Gonçalo Moniz Institute, Salvador, Brazil
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16
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Quaresma JAS. Organization of the Skin Immune System and Compartmentalized Immune Responses in Infectious Diseases. Clin Microbiol Rev 2019; 32:e00034-18. [PMID: 31366611 PMCID: PMC6750136 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.00034-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The skin is an organ harboring several types of immune cells that participate in innate and adaptive immune responses. The immune system of the skin comprises both skin cells and professional immune cells that together constitute what is designated skin-associated lymphoid tissue (SALT). In this review, I extensively discuss the organization of SALT and the mechanisms involved in its responses to infectious diseases of the skin and mucosa. The nature of these SALT responses, and the cellular mediators involved, often determines the clinical course of such infections. I list and describe the components of innate immunity, such as the roles of the keratinocyte barrier and of inflammatory and natural killer cells. I also examine the mechanisms involved in adaptive immune responses, with emphasis on new cytokine profiles, and the role of cell death phenomena in host-pathogen interactions and control of the immune responses to infectious agents. Finally, I highlight the importance of studying SALT in order to better understand host-pathogen relationships involving the skin and detail future directions in the immunological investigation of this organ, especially in light of recent findings regarding the skin immune system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juarez Antonio Simões Quaresma
- Center of Biological and Health Sciences, State University of Pará, Belém, PA, Brazil
- Evandro Chagas Institute, Ministry of Health, Ananindeua, PA, Brazil
- Tropical Medicine Center, Federal University of Pará, Belém, PA, Brazil
- School of Medicine, São Paulo University, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
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17
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Gomez SR, Morgans S, Kristan DM. Rapamycin exposure to host and to adult worms affects life history traits of Heligmosomoides bakeri. Exp Parasitol 2019; 204:107720. [PMID: 31279929 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2019.107720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2018] [Revised: 03/26/2019] [Accepted: 07/03/2019] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Parasite life history can be affected by conditions of the host and of the external environment. Rapamycin, a known immunosuppressant of mammals, was fed to laboratory mice that were then infected with the Trichostrongylid nematode Heligmosomoides bakeri to determine if host rapamycin exposure would affect parasite survival, growth, and reproduction. In addition, adult worms from control fed mice were directly exposed to rapamycin to assess if rapamycin would affect worm viability and ex vivo reproduction. We found that host ingestion of rapamycin did not affect H. bakeri survival or growth for male or female worms, but female worms had increased reproduction both in vivo and when removed from the host and cultured ex vivo. After direct rapamycin exposure, motility of female worms was greater at low levels of rapamycin compared to high levels of rapamycin or high levels of DMSO (the vehicle used to solubilize rapamycin) in control media, but was similar to females in low levels of DMSO in control media. Male motility was not affected by the presence of rapamycin or DMSO in the media. Ex vivo egg deposition was higher when exposed to rapamycin than when cultured in control media that contained DMSO, regardless of DMSO dose. Overall, we conclude that host ingestion of rapamycin or direct exposure to rapamycin was generally favorable or neutral for parasite life history traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah R Gomez
- Department of Biological Sciences, 333 S. Twin Oaks Valley Rd, California State University San Marcos, San Marcos, CA, 92096, USA
| | - Scott Morgans
- Department of Biological Sciences, 333 S. Twin Oaks Valley Rd, California State University San Marcos, San Marcos, CA, 92096, USA
| | - Deborah M Kristan
- Department of Biological Sciences, 333 S. Twin Oaks Valley Rd, California State University San Marcos, San Marcos, CA, 92096, USA.
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18
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Pitale DM, Gendalur NS, Descoteaux A, Shaha C. Leishmania donovani Induces Autophagy in Human Blood–Derived Neutrophils. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2019; 202:1163-1175. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1801053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2018] [Accepted: 12/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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19
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Rane D, Patil T, More V, Patra SS, Bodhale N, Dandapat J, Sarkar A. Neutrophils: Interplay between host defense, cellular metabolism and intracellular infection. Cytokine 2018; 112:44-51. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2018.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2018] [Revised: 06/21/2018] [Accepted: 07/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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20
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Nandan D, Zhang N, Yu Y, Schwartz B, Chen S, Kima PE, Reiner NE. Miransertib (ARQ 092), an orally-available, selective Akt inhibitor is effective against Leishmania. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0206920. [PMID: 30399177 PMCID: PMC6219794 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0206920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2018] [Accepted: 10/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Leishmaniasis is amongst the most important neglected diseases, afflicting more than 12 million people in 88 countries. There is an urgent need for safe orally bioavailable and cost-effective drugs for the treatment of leishmaniasis. It has recently been shown that Leishmania activates host macrophage serine/threonine kinase Akt, to promote survival of both parasites and infected cells. Here, we sought to evaluate a compound, Miransertib (ARQ 092), an orally bioavailable and selective allosteric Akt inhibitor currently in clinical trials for patients with PI3K/Akt-driven tumors or Proteus syndrome. Miransertib was tested against Leishmania donovani and Leishmania amazonensis, causative agents of visceral and cutaneous leishmaniasis, respectively. Cultured promastigotes were susceptible to Miransertib. In addition, Miransertib was markedly effective against intracellular amastigotes of L. donovani or L. amazonensis-infected macrophages. Miransertib also enhanced mTOR dependent autophagy in Leishmania-infected macrophages, which may represent one mechanism of Miransertib-mediated killing of intracellular Leishmania. Whereas parasite clearance in the spleen of mice infected with L. donovani and treated with Miransertib was comparable to that when treated with miltefosine, Miransertib caused a greater reduction in the parasite load in the liver. In the cutaneous leishmaniasis infection model, lesions were reduced by 40% as compared to mock treated mice. Together, these results provide direct evidence to support the conclusion that Miransertib is an excellent lead compound for the development of a new oral drug therapy for visceral and cutaneous leishmaniasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Devki Nandan
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Naixin Zhang
- Department of Microbiology and Cell Science, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Yi Yu
- ArQule, Inc, Burlington, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Brian Schwartz
- ArQule, Inc, Burlington, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Stella Chen
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Peter E. Kima
- Department of Microbiology and Cell Science, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Neil E. Reiner
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- * E-mail:
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21
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Evans RJ, Sundaramurthy V, Frickel EM. The Interplay of Host Autophagy and Eukaryotic Pathogens. Front Cell Dev Biol 2018; 6:118. [PMID: 30271774 PMCID: PMC6146372 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2018.00118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2018] [Accepted: 08/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
For intracellular pathogens, host cells provide a replicative niche, but are also armed with innate defense mechanisms to combat the intruder. Co-evolution of host and pathogens has produced a complex interplay of host-pathogen interactions during infection, with autophagy emerging as a key player in the recent years. Host autophagy as a degradative process is a significant hindrance to intracellular growth of the pathogens, but also can be subverted by the pathogens to provide support such as nutrients. While the role of host cell autophagy in the pathogenesis mechanisms of several bacterial and viral pathogens have been extensively studied, less is known for eukaryotic pathogens. In this review, we focus on the interplay of host autophagy with the eukaryotic pathogens Plasmodium spp, Toxoplasma, Leishmania spp and the fungal pathogens Candida albicans, Aspergillus fumigatus and Cryptococcus neoformans. The differences between these eukaryotic pathogens in terms of the host cell types they infect, infective strategies and the host responses required to defend against them provide an interesting insight into how they respond to and interact with host cell autophagy. Due to the ability to infect multiple host species and cell types during the course of their usually complex lifestyles, autophagy plays divergent roles even for the same pathogen. The scenario is further compounded since many of the eukaryotic pathogens have their own sets of either complete or partial autophagy machinery. Eukaryotic pathogen-autophagy interplay is thus a complex relationship with many novel insights for the basic understanding of autophagy, and potential for clinical relevance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert J. Evans
- Host-Toxoplasma Interaction Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | | | - Eva-Maria Frickel
- Host-Toxoplasma Interaction Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
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22
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Dias BRS, de Souza CS, Almeida NDJ, Lima JGB, Fukutani KF, Dos Santos TBS, França-Cost J, Brodskyn CI, de Menezes JPB, Colombo MI, Veras PST. Autophagic Induction Greatly Enhances Leishmania major Intracellular Survival Compared to Leishmania amazonensis in CBA/j-Infected Macrophages. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:1890. [PMID: 30158914 PMCID: PMC6104192 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.01890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2018] [Accepted: 07/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
CBA mouse macrophages control Leishmania major infection yet are permissive to Leishmania amazonensis. Few studies have been conducted to assess the role played by autophagy in Leishmania infection. Therefore, we assessed whether the autophagic response of infected macrophages may account for the differential behavior of these two parasite strains. After 24 h of infection, the LC3-II/Act ratio increased in both L. amazonensis- and L. major-infected macrophages compared to uninfected controls, but less than in chloroquine-treated cells. This suggests that L. amazonensis and L. major activate autophagy in infected macrophages, without altering the autophagic flux. Furthermore, L. major-infected cells exhibited higher percentages of DQ-BSA-labeled parasitophorous vacuoles (50%) than those infected by L. amazonensis (25%). However, L. major- and L. amazonensis-induced parasitophorous vacuoles accumulated LysoTracker similarly, indicating that the acidity in both compartment was equivalent. At as early as 30 min, endogenous LC3 was recruited to both L. amazonensis- and L. major-induced parasitophorous vacuoles, while after 24 h a greater percentage of LC3 positive vacuoles was observed in L. amazonensis-infected cells (42.36%) compared to those infected by L. major (18.10%). Noteworthy, principal component analysis (PCA) and an hierarchical cluster analysis completely discriminated L. major-infected macrophages from L. amazonensis-infected cells accordingly to infection intensity and autophagic features of parasite-induced vacuoles. Then, we evaluated whether the modulation of autophagy exerted an influence on parasite infection in macrophages. No significant changes were observed in both infection rate or parasite load in macrophages treated with the autophagic inhibitors wortmannin, chloroquine or VPS34-IN1, as well as with the autophagic inducers rapamycin or physiological starvation, in comparison to untreated control cells. Interestingly, both autophagic inducers enhanced intracellular L. amazonensis and L. major viability, while the pharmacological inhibition of autophagy exerted no effects on intracellular parasite viability. We also demonstrated that autophagy induction reduced NO production by L. amazonensis- and L. major-infected macrophages but not alters arginase activity. These findings provide evidence that although L. amazonensis-induced parasitophorous vacuoles recruit LC3 more markedly, L. amazonensis and L. major similarly activate the autophagic pathway in CBA macrophages. Interestingly, the exogenous induction of autophagy favors L. major intracellular viability to a greater extent than L. amazonensis related to a reduction in the levels of NO.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatriz R S Dias
- Laboratory of Parasite-Host Interaction and Epidemiology, Gonçalo Moniz Institute, Salvador, Brazil
| | - Carina S de Souza
- Laboratory of Parasite-Host Interaction and Epidemiology, Gonçalo Moniz Institute, Salvador, Brazil
| | - Niara de Jesus Almeida
- Laboratory of Parasite-Host Interaction and Epidemiology, Gonçalo Moniz Institute, Salvador, Brazil
| | - José G B Lima
- Laboratory of Parasite-Host Interaction and Epidemiology, Gonçalo Moniz Institute, Salvador, Brazil
| | - Kiyoshi F Fukutani
- Laboratory of Inflammation and Biomarkers, Gonçalo Moniz Institute, Salvador, Brazil
| | - Thiale B S Dos Santos
- Laboratory of Inflammation and Biomarkers, Gonçalo Moniz Institute, Salvador, Brazil
| | - Jaqueline França-Cost
- Laboratory of Inflammation and Biomarkers, Gonçalo Moniz Institute, Salvador, Brazil.,Department of Biointeraction, Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, Brazil
| | - Claudia I Brodskyn
- Laboratory of Parasite-Host Interaction and Epidemiology, Gonçalo Moniz Institute, Salvador, Brazil
| | - Juliana P B de Menezes
- Laboratory of Parasite-Host Interaction and Epidemiology, Gonçalo Moniz Institute, Salvador, Brazil
| | - Maria I Colombo
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Institute of Histology and Embryology-CONICET, National University of Cuyo, Mendoza, Argentina
| | - Patricia S T Veras
- Laboratory of Parasite-Host Interaction and Epidemiology, Gonçalo Moniz Institute, Salvador, Brazil
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Abstract
INTRODUCTION Parasitic diseases that pose a threat to human life include leishmaniasis - caused by protozoan parasite Leishmania species. Existing drugs have limitations due to deleterious side effects like teratogenicity, high cost and drug resistance. This calls for the need to have an insight into therapeutic aspects of disease. Areas covered: We have identified different drug targets via. molecular, imuunological, metabolic as well as by system biology approaches. We bring these promising drug targets into light so that they can be explored to their maximum. In an effort to bridge the gaps between existing knowledge and prospects of drug discovery, we have compiled interesting studies on drug targets, thereby paving the way for establishment of better therapeutic aspects. Expert opinion: Advancements in technology shed light on many unexplored pathways. Further probing of well established pathways led to the discovery of new drug targets. This review is a comprehensive report on current and emerging drug targets, with emphasis on several metabolic targets, organellar biochemistry, salvage pathways, epigenetics, kinome and more. Identification of new targets can contribute significantly towards strengthening the pipeline for disease elimination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shyam Sundar
- Department of Medicine, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221 005, UP, India
| | - Bhawana Singh
- Department of Medicine, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221 005, UP, India
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PDL-1 Blockade Prevents T Cell Exhaustion, Inhibits Autophagy, and Promotes Clearance of Leishmania donovani. Infect Immun 2018; 86:IAI.00019-18. [PMID: 29610255 PMCID: PMC5964517 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00019-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2018] [Accepted: 03/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Leishmania donovani is a causative pathogen of potentially fatal visceral leishmaniasis (VL). Therapeutic agents are available; however, their use is limited because of high cost, serious side effects, and development of antimicrobial resistance. Protective immunity against VL depends on CD4+ Th1 cell-mediated immunity. Studies have shown that progression of VL is due to exhaustion of T cells; however, the mechanism involved is not clearly understood. Here, we examined the role of PD1/PDL-1 in the pathogenesis of VL by using a murine model of VL. Our data indicate that L. donovani is able to elicit initial expansion of gamma interferon-producing CD4+ Th1 and CD8+ T cells at day 7 postinfection (p.i.); however, the frequency of those cells and inflammatory response decreased at day 21 p.i., despite persistence of parasites. Persistent infection-induced expansion of interleukin-10+ FOXP3+ Treg and CD4+ and CD8+ T cells expressing PD1. Blocking of PDL-1 signaling in vivo resulted in restoration of protective type 1 responses by both CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, which resulted in a significant decrease in the parasite burden. Mechanistically, PDL-1 blocking inhibited autophagy, a cellular degradation process hijacked by Leishmania to acquire host cell nutrients for their survival. Inhibition of autophagy was marked by decreased lipidation of microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3, a marker of autophagosome formation, and P62 accumulation. Together, our findings show for the first time that anti-PDL-1 antibody is an effective therapeutic approach for restoration of effector arms of protective immunity against VL and subsequent parasite clearance.
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Thomas SA, Nandan D, Kass J, Reiner NE. Countervailing, time-dependent effects on host autophagy promotes intracellular survival of Leishmania. J Biol Chem 2017; 293:2617-2630. [PMID: 29269416 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m117.808675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2017] [Revised: 12/18/2017] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Autophagy is essential for cell survival under stress and has also been implicated in host defense. Here, we investigated the interactions between Leishmania donovani, the main etiological agent of visceral leishmaniasis, and the autophagic machinery of human macrophages. Our results revealed that during early infection-and via activation of the Akt pathway-Leishmania actively inhibits the induction of autophagy. However, by 24 h, Leishmania switched from being an inhibitor to an overall inducer of autophagy. These findings of a dynamic, biphasic response were based on the accumulation of lipidated light chain 3 (LC3), an autophagosome marker, by Western blotting and confocal fluorescence microscopy. We also present evidence that Leishmania induces delayed host cell autophagy via a mechanism independent of reduced activity of the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR). Notably, Leishmania actively inhibited mTOR-regulated autophagy even at later stages of infection, whereas there was a clear induction of autophagy via some other mechanism. In this context, we examined host inositol monophosphatase (IMPase), reduced levels of which have been implicated in mTOR-independent autophagy, and we found that IMPase activity is significantly decreased in infected cells. These findings indicate that Leishmania uses an alternative pathway to mTOR to induce autophagy in host macrophages. Finally, RNAi-mediated down-regulation of host autophagy protein 5 (ATG5) or autophagy protein 9A (ATG9A) decreased parasite loads, demonstrating that autophagy is essential for Leishmania survival. We conclude that Leishmania uses an alternative pathway to induce host autophagy while simultaneously inhibiting mTOR-regulated autophagy to fine-tune the timing and magnitude of this process and to optimize parasite survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sneha A Thomas
- From the Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6H 3Z6 and
| | - Devki Nandan
- From the Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6H 3Z6 and
| | - Jennifer Kass
- From the Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6H 3Z6 and
| | - Neil E Reiner
- From the Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6H 3Z6 and .,the Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z3, Canada
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26
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Franco LH, Fleuri AKA, Pellison NC, Quirino GFS, Horta CV, de Carvalho RVH, Oliveira SC, Zamboni DS. Autophagy downstream of endosomal Toll-like receptor signaling in macrophages is a key mechanism for resistance to Leishmania major infection. J Biol Chem 2017; 292:13087-13096. [PMID: 28607148 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m117.780981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2017] [Revised: 05/26/2017] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Leishmaniasis is caused by protozoan parasites of the genus Leishmania In mammalians, these parasites survive and replicate in macrophages and parasite elimination by macrophages is critical for host resistance. Endosomal Toll-like receptors (TLRs) have been shown to be crucial for resistance to Leishmania major in vivo For example, mice in the resistant C57BL/6 genetic background that are triple-deficient for TLR3, -7, and -9 (Tlr3/7/9-/-) are highly susceptible to L. major infection. Tlr3/7/9-/- mice are as susceptible as mice deficient in MyD88 or UNC93B1, a chaperone required for appropriate localization of endosomal TLRs, but the mechanisms are unknown. Here we found that macrophages infected with L. major undergo autophagy, which effectively accounted for restriction of parasite replication. Signaling via endosomal TLRs was required for autophagy because macrophages deficient for TLR3, -7, and 9, UNC93B1, or MyD88 failed to undergo L. major-induced autophagy. We also confirmed that Myd88-/-, Tlr3/7/9-/-, and Unc93b1-/- cells were highly permissive to L. major replication. Accordingly, shRNA-mediated suppression of Atg5, an E3 ubiquitin ligase essential for autophagosome elongation, in macrophages impaired the restriction of L. major replication in C57BL/6, but did not affect parasite replication in Myd88-/- or Unc93b1-/- macrophages. Rapamycin treatment reduced inflammatory lesions formed in the ears of Leishmania-infected C57BL/6 and Tlr3/7/9-/- mice, indicating that autophagy operates downstream of TLR signaling and is relevant for disease development in vivo Collectively, our results indicate that autophagy contributes to macrophage resistance to L. major replication, and mechanistically explain the previously described endosomal TLR-mediated resistance to L. major infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis H Franco
- From the Department of Cell Biology, School of Medicine of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP 14049-900 and
| | - Anna K A Fleuri
- From the Department of Cell Biology, School of Medicine of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP 14049-900 and
| | - Natália C Pellison
- From the Department of Cell Biology, School of Medicine of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP 14049-900 and
| | - Gustavo F S Quirino
- From the Department of Cell Biology, School of Medicine of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP 14049-900 and
| | - Catarina V Horta
- From the Department of Cell Biology, School of Medicine of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP 14049-900 and
| | - Renan V H de Carvalho
- From the Department of Cell Biology, School of Medicine of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP 14049-900 and
| | - Sérgio C Oliveira
- the Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte MG 31270-901, Brazil
| | - Dario S Zamboni
- From the Department of Cell Biology, School of Medicine of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP 14049-900 and
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Endoplasmic reticulum stress and unfolded protein response in infection by intracellular parasites. Future Sci OA 2017; 3:FSO198. [PMID: 28883998 PMCID: PMC5583660 DOI: 10.4155/fsoa-2017-0020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2017] [Accepted: 03/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Perturbations of the physiological status of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) trigger a specific response known as the ER stress response or unfolded protein response (UPR). In mammalian cells, the UPR is mediated by three ER transmembrane proteins (IRE1, PERK and ATF6) which activate three signaling cascades to restore ER homeostasis. In recent years, a cross-talk between UPR, inflammatory and microbial sensing pathways has been elucidated. Pathogen infection can lead to UPR activation; moreover, several pathogens subvert the UPR to promote their survival and replication. While the UPR in viral and bacterial infection has been characterized, little is known about the role of UPR in intracellular parasite infection. Here, we review recent findings on UPR induction/modulation by intracellular parasites in host cells.
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Pérez-Morales D, Hernández KDR, Martínez I, Agredano-Moreno LT, Jiménez-García LF, Espinoza B. Ultrastructural and physiological changes induced by different stress conditions on the human parasite Trypanosoma cruzi. Cell Stress Chaperones 2017; 22:15-27. [PMID: 27714535 PMCID: PMC5225055 DOI: 10.1007/s12192-016-0736-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2016] [Accepted: 09/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi is the etiological agent of Chagas disease. The life cycle of this protozoan parasite is digenetic because it alternates its different developmental forms through two hosts, a vector insect and a vertebrate host. As a result, the parasites are exposed to sudden and drastic environmental changes causing cellular stress. The stress response to some types of stress has been studied in T. cruzi, mainly at the molecular level; however, data about ultrastructure and physiological state of the cells in stress conditions are scarce or null. In this work, we analyzed the morphological, ultrastructural, and physiological changes produced on T. cruzi epimastigotes when they were exposed to acid, nutritional, heat, and oxidative stress. Clear morphological changes were observed, but the physiological conditions varied depending on the type of stress. The maintenance of the physiological state was severely affected by heat shock, acidic, nutritional, and oxidative stress. According to the surprising observed growth recovery after damage by stress alterations, different adaptations from the parasite to these harsh conditions were suggested. Particular cellular death pathways are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deyanira Pérez-Morales
- Laboratorio de Estudios sobre Tripanosomiasis. Departamento de Inmunología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, A.P. 70228, C.P. 04510, Ciudad de México, México
| | - Karla Daniela Rodríguez Hernández
- Laboratorio de Estudios sobre Tripanosomiasis. Departamento de Inmunología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, A.P. 70228, C.P. 04510, Ciudad de México, México
| | - Ignacio Martínez
- Laboratorio de Estudios sobre Tripanosomiasis. Departamento de Inmunología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, A.P. 70228, C.P. 04510, Ciudad de México, México
| | - Lourdes Teresa Agredano-Moreno
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, A.P. 70228, C.P. 04510, México, D.F., México
| | - Luis Felipe Jiménez-García
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, A.P. 70228, C.P. 04510, México, D.F., México
| | - Bertha Espinoza
- Laboratorio de Estudios sobre Tripanosomiasis. Departamento de Inmunología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, A.P. 70228, C.P. 04510, Ciudad de México, México.
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Microfilariae of Brugia malayi Inhibit the mTOR Pathway and Induce Autophagy in Human Dendritic Cells. Infect Immun 2016; 84:2463-72. [PMID: 27297394 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00174-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2016] [Accepted: 09/08/2016] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Immune modulation is a hallmark of patent filarial infection, including suppression of antigen-presenting cell function and downmodulation of filarial antigen-specific T cell responses. The mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway has been implicated in immune regulation, not only by suppressing T cell responses but also by regulating autophagy (through mTOR sensing amino acid availability). Global proteomic analysis (liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry) of microfilaria (mf)-exposed monocyte-derived dendritic cells (DC) indicated that multiple components of the mTOR signaling pathway, including mTOR, eIF4A, and eIF4E, are downregulated by mf, suggesting that mf target this pathway for immune modulation in DC. Utilizing Western blot analysis, we demonstrate that similar to rapamycin (a known mTOR inhibitor), mf downregulate the phosphorylation of mTOR and its regulatory proteins, p70S6K1 and 4E-BP1, a process essential for DC protein synthesis. As active mTOR signaling regulates autophagy, we examined whether mf exposure alters autophagy-associated processes. mf-induced autophagy was reflected in marked upregulation of phosphorylated Beclin 1, known to play an important role in both autophagosome formation and autolysosome fusion, in induction of LC3II, a marker of autophagosome formation, and in induced degradation of p62, a ubiquitin-binding protein that aggregates protein in autophagosomes and is degraded upon autophagy that was reduced significantly by mf exposure and by rapamycin. Together, these results suggest that Brugia malayi mf employ mechanisms of metabolic modulation in DC to influence the regulation of the host immune response by downregulating mTOR signaling, resulting in increased autophagy. Whether this is a result of the parasite-secreted rapamycin homolog is currently under study.
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Singh AK, Pandey RK, Shaha C, Madhubala R. MicroRNA expression profiling of Leishmania donovani-infected host cells uncovers the regulatory role of MIR30A-3p in host autophagy. Autophagy 2016; 12:1817-1831. [PMID: 27459332 DOI: 10.1080/15548627.2016.1203500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Leishmania is an obligate intracellular parasite that replicates inside phagolysosomes or parasitophorous vacuoles (PV) of the monocyte/macrophage lineage. It reprograms macrophages and produces a metabolic state conducive to successful infection and multiplication. MicroRNAs (miRNAs), a class of small 22 to 24 nucleotide noncoding regulatory RNAs alter the gene expression and consequently proteome output by targeting mRNAs, may play a regulatory role in modulating host cell functions. In the present study, we demonstrate the novel regulatory role of host microRNA, MIR30A-3p in modulation of host cell macroautophagy/autophagy after infection with L. donovani. Our in vitro studies showed that MIR30A-3p expression was significantly enhanced after L. donovani infection in a time-dependent manner. Transient transfection with a MIR30A-3p inhibitor followed by L. donovani infection promoted the autophagic response and decreased the intracellular parasite burden in both THP-1 cells and human monocyte-derived macrophages (HsMDM). BECN1/Beclin 1, the mammalian ortholog of yeast Vps30/Atg6, is a key autophagy-promoting protein that plays a key role in the regulation of cell death and survival. We report BECN1-dependent modulation of host cell autophagy in response to L. donovani infection. Pretreatment of L. donovani-infected macrophages with the MIR30A-3p mimic decreased and with antagomir increased the expression of BECN1 protein. We demonstrate that BECN1 is a potential target of MIR30A-3p and this miRNA negatively regulates BECN1 expression. Our present study reveals for the first time a novel role of MIR30A-3p in regulating autophagy-mediated L. donovani elimination by targeting BECN1. The present study has significant impact for the treatment of visceral leishmaniasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alok Kumar Singh
- a School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University , New Delhi , India
| | - Rajeev Kumar Pandey
- b Cell Death and Differentiation Research Laboratory, National Institute of Immunology , New Delhi , India
| | - Chandrima Shaha
- b Cell Death and Differentiation Research Laboratory, National Institute of Immunology , New Delhi , India
| | - Rentala Madhubala
- a School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University , New Delhi , India
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Dias-Teixeira KL, Pereira RM, Silva JS, Fasel N, Aktas BH, Lopes UG. Unveiling the Role of the Integrated Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress Response in Leishmania Infection - Future Perspectives. Front Immunol 2016; 7:283. [PMID: 27499755 PMCID: PMC4956655 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2016.00283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2016] [Accepted: 07/13/2016] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The integrated endoplasmic reticulum stress response (IERSR) is an evolutionarily conserved adaptive mechanism that ensures endoplasmic reticulum (ER) homeostasis and cellular survival in the presence of stress including nutrient deprivation, hypoxia, and imbalance of Ca(+) homeostasis, toxins, and microbial infection. Three transmembrane proteins regulate integrated signaling pathways that comprise the IERSR, namely, IRE-1 that activates XBP-1, the pancreatic ER kinase (PERK) that phosphorylates the eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2 and transcription factor 6 (ATF6). The roles of IRE-1, PERK, and ATF4 in viral and some bacterial infections are well characterized. The role of IERSR in infections by intracellular parasites is still poorly understood, although one could anticipate that IERSR may play an important role on the host's cell response. Recently, our group reported the important aspects of XBP-1 activation in Leishmania amazonensis infection. It is, however, necessary to address the relevance of the other IERSR branches, together with the possible role of IERSR in infections by other Leishmania species, and furthermore, to pursue the possible implications in the pathogenesis and control of parasite replication in macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- K L Dias-Teixeira
- Institute of Biophysics Carlos Chagas Filho, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro , Rio de Janeiro , Brazil
| | - R M Pereira
- Institute of Microbiology Paulo de Goes, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro , Rio de Janeiro , Brazil
| | - J S Silva
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, University of São Paulo , Ribeirão Preto , Brazil
| | - N Fasel
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, Center for Immunity and Infection Lausanne, University of Lausanne , Lausanne , Switzerland
| | - B H Aktas
- Laboratory of Translation, Department of Hematology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School , Boston, MA , USA
| | - U G Lopes
- Institute of Biophysics Carlos Chagas Filho, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro , Rio de Janeiro , Brazil
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DeSouza-Vieira T, Guimarães-Costa A, Rochael NC, Lira MN, Nascimento MT, Lima-Gomez PDS, Mariante RM, Persechini PM, Saraiva EM. Neutrophil extracellular traps release induced by Leishmania: role of PI3Kγ, ERK, PI3Kσ, PKC, and [Ca2+]. J Leukoc Biol 2016; 100:801-810. [PMID: 27154356 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.4a0615-261rr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2015] [Accepted: 04/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Upon in vitro stimulation, neutrophils undergo a cell death named netosis. This process is characterized by extracellular release of chromatin scaffold associated with granular and cytoplasmic proteins, which together, ensnare and kill microbes. We have previously described that interaction of Leishmania amazonensis with human neutrophils leads to the release of neutrophil extracellular traps, which trap and kill the parasite. However, the signaling leading to Leishmania induced netosis is still unknown. Thus, we sought to evaluate signaling events that drive L. amazonensis induced neutrophil extracellular trap release from human neutrophils. Here, we found that PI3K, independently of protein kinase B, has a role in parasite-induced netosis. We also described that the main isoforms involved are PI3Kγ and PI3Kδ, which work in reactive oxygen species-dependent and -independent ways, respectively. We demonstrated that activation of ERK downstream of PI3Kγ is important to trigger reactive oxygen species-dependent, parasite-induced netosis. Pharmacological inhibition of protein kinase C also significantly decreased parasite-induced neutrophil extracellular trap release. Intracellular calcium, regulated by PI3Kδ, represents an alternative reactive oxygen species-independent pathway of netosis stimulated by L. amazonensis Finally, intracellular calcium mobilization and reactive oxygen species generation are the major regulators of parasite-induced netosis. Our results contribute to a better understanding of the signaling behind netosis induced by interactions between Leishmania and neutrophils.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thiago DeSouza-Vieira
- Laboratório de Imunobiologia das Leishmanioses, Departamento de Imunologia, Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Anderson Guimarães-Costa
- Laboratório de Imunobiologia das Leishmanioses, Departamento de Imunologia, Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Natalia C Rochael
- Laboratório de Imunobiologia das Leishmanioses, Departamento de Imunologia, Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Maria N Lira
- Laboratório de Imunobiofísica, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Michelle T Nascimento
- Laboratório de Imunobiologia das Leishmanioses, Departamento de Imunologia, Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Phillipe de Souza Lima-Gomez
- Laboratório de Imunobiologia das Leishmanioses, Departamento de Imunologia, Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Rafael M Mariante
- Laboratório de Neurogênese, Departamento de Neurobiologia, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; and Laboratório de Biologia Estrutural, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, Brazil
| | - Pedro M Persechini
- Laboratório de Imunobiofísica, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Elvira M Saraiva
- Laboratório de Imunobiologia das Leishmanioses, Departamento de Imunologia, Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil;
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Frank B, Marcu A, de Oliveira Almeida Petersen AL, Weber H, Stigloher C, Mottram JC, Scholz CJ, Schurigt U. Autophagic digestion of Leishmania major by host macrophages is associated with differential expression of BNIP3, CTSE, and the miRNAs miR-101c, miR-129, and miR-210. Parasit Vectors 2015; 8:404. [PMID: 26226952 PMCID: PMC4521392 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-015-0974-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2014] [Accepted: 06/30/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Autophagy participates in innate immunity by eliminating intracellular pathogens. Consequently, numerous microorganisms have developed strategies to impair the autophagic machinery in phagocytes. In the current study, interactions between Leishmania major (L. m.) and the autophagic machinery of bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDM) were analyzed. METHODS BMDM were generated from BALB/c mice, and the cells were infected with L. m. promastigotes. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and electron tomography were used to investigate the ultrastructure of BMDM and the intracellular parasites. Affymetrix chip analyses were conducted to identify autophagy-related messenger RNAs (mRNAs) and microRNAs (miRNAs). The protein expression levels of autophagy related 5 (ATG5), BCL2/adenovirus E1B 19 kDa protein-interacting protein 3 (BNIP3), cathepsin E (CTSE), mechanistic target of rapamycin (MTOR), microtubule-associated proteins 1A/1B light chain 3B (LC3B), and ubiquitin (UB) were investigated through western blot analyses. BMDM were transfected with specific small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) against autophagy-related genes and with mimics or inhibitors of autophagy-associated miRNAs. The infection rates of BMDM were determined by light microscopy after a parasite-specific staining. RESULTS The experiments demonstrated autophagy induction in BMDM after in vitro infection with L. m.. The results suggested a putative MTOR phosphorylation-dependent counteracting mechanism in the early infection phase and indicated that intracellular amastigotes were cleared by autophagy in BMDM in the late infection phase. Transcriptomic analyses and specific downregulation of protein expression with siRNAs suggested there is an association between the infection-specific over expression of BNIP3, as well as CTSE, and the autophagic activity of BMDM. Transfection with mimics of mmu-miR-101c and mmu-miR-129-5p, as well as with an inhibitor of mmu-miR-210-5p, demonstrated direct effects of the respective miRNAs on parasite clearance in L. m.-infected BMDM. Furthermore, Affymetrix chip analyses revealed a complex autophagy-related RNA network consisting of differentially expressed mRNAs and miRNAs in BMDM, which indicates high glycolytic and inflammatory activity in the host macrophages. CONCLUSIONS Autophagy in L. m.-infected host macrophages is a highly regulated cellular process at both the RNA level and the protein level. Autophagy has the potential to clear parasites from the host. The results obtained from experiments with murine host macrophages could be translated in the future to develop innovative and therapeutic antileishmanial strategies for human patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Frank
- Institute for Molecular Infection Biology, University of Wuerzburg, Josef-Schneider-Str. 2/D15, 97080, Wuerzburg, Germany.
| | - Ana Marcu
- Institute for Molecular Infection Biology, University of Wuerzburg, Josef-Schneider-Str. 2/D15, 97080, Wuerzburg, Germany.
| | - Antonio Luis de Oliveira Almeida Petersen
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK.
- Laboratório de Patologia e Biointervenção, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz-BA, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil.
| | - Heike Weber
- Interdisciplinary Center for Clinical Research (IZKF), University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany.
| | - Christian Stigloher
- Division of Electron Microscopy, Biocenter of the University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany.
| | - Jeremy C Mottram
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK.
| | - Claus Juergen Scholz
- Interdisciplinary Center for Clinical Research (IZKF), University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany.
| | - Uta Schurigt
- Institute for Molecular Infection Biology, University of Wuerzburg, Josef-Schneider-Str. 2/D15, 97080, Wuerzburg, Germany.
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Steele S, Brunton J, Kawula T. The role of autophagy in intracellular pathogen nutrient acquisition. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2015; 5:51. [PMID: 26106587 PMCID: PMC4460576 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2015.00051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2015] [Accepted: 05/26/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Following entry into host cells intracellular pathogens must simultaneously evade innate host defense mechanisms and acquire energy and anabolic substrates from the nutrient-limited intracellular environment. Most of the potential intracellular nutrient sources are stored within complex macromolecules that are not immediately accessible by intracellular pathogens. To obtain nutrients for proliferation, intracellular pathogens must compete with the host cell for newly-imported simple nutrients or degrade host nutrient storage structures into their constituent components (fatty acids, carbohydrates, and amino acids). It is becoming increasingly evident that intracellular pathogens have evolved a wide variety of strategies to accomplish this task. One recurrent microbial strategy is to exploit host degradative processes that break down host macromolecules into simple nutrients that the microbe can use. Herein we focus on how a subset of bacterial, viral, and eukaryotic pathogens leverage the host process of autophagy to acquire nutrients that support their growth within infected cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaun Steele
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Jason Brunton
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Thomas Kawula
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, NC, USA
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Podinovskaia M, Descoteaux A. Leishmania and the macrophage: a multifaceted interaction. Future Microbiol 2015; 10:111-29. [DOI: 10.2217/fmb.14.103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
ABSTRACT Leishmania, the causative agent of leishmaniases, is an intracellular parasite of macrophages, transmitted to humans via the bite of its sand fly vector. This protozoan organism has evolved strategies for efficient uptake into macrophages and is able to regulate phagosome maturation in order to make the phagosome more hospitable for parasite growth and to avoid destruction. As a result, macrophage defenses such as oxidative damage, antigen presentation, immune activation and apoptosis are compromised whereas nutrient availability is improved. Many Leishmania survival factors are involved in shaping the phagosome and reprogramming the macrophage to promote infection. This review details the complexity of the host–parasite interactions and summarizes our latest understanding of key events that make Leishmania such a successful intracellular parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Podinovskaia
- INRS – Institut Armand-Frappier & Center for Host–Parasite Interactions, 531 boul. des Prairies, Laval, Quebec, H7V 1B7, Canada
| | - Albert Descoteaux
- INRS – Institut Armand-Frappier & Center for Host–Parasite Interactions, 531 boul. des Prairies, Laval, Quebec, H7V 1B7, Canada
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Chargui A, El May MV. Autophagy mediates neutrophil responses to bacterial infection. APMIS 2014; 122:1047-58. [PMID: 24735202 DOI: 10.1111/apm.12271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2013] [Accepted: 02/13/2014] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Neutrophils constitute the first line of cellular defense against pathogens and autophagy is a fundamental cellular homeostasis pathway that operates with the intracellular degradation/recycling system. Induction of the autophagic process in neutrophils, in response to invading pathogens, constitutes a crucial mechanism in innate immunity. Exploration of autophagy has greatly progressed and diverse strategies have been reported for studying this molecular process in different biological systems; especially in infectious and inflammatory diseases. Furthermore, the role of autophagy in neutrophils, during pathogenic infection, continues to be of interest, due to the role of the cell in immunity function, its recruitment to the site of infection and its implication in inflammatory diseases. This review focuses on the known role of autophagy in neutrophils defence against pathogenic infections. A more detailed discussion will concern the recent findings highlighting the role of autophagy in inflammation and cell death in infected neutrophils.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abderrahman Chargui
- Laboratory of Histology, Embryology and Cell Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Tunis, Tunisia; Higher School of Agriculture, Kef, Tunisia
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