Tributyltin induces oxidative damage, inflammation and apoptosis via disturbance in blood–brain barrier and metal homeostasis in cerebral cortex of rat brain: An in vivo and in vitro study

Chronic tributyltin exposure induces metabolic disruption in an invertebrate model animal, Lymnaea stagnalis

Over the last 20 years, tributyltin (TBT) has been reported to cause metabolic disruption in both invertebrates and vertebrates, highlighting the need for further detailed analysis of its physiological effects. This study aimed to investigate the metabolic-disrupting effects of TBT from the behavioral to the molecular level. Adult specimens of the great pond snail (Lymnaea stagnalis) were exposed to an environmentally relevant concentration (100 ng L-1) of TBT for 21 days. After the chronic exposure, behavioral alterations as well as histological, cellular, and molecular changes were investigated in the central nervous system, kidney, and hepatopancreas. TBT exposure significantly decreased feeding activity, while locomotor activity remained unchanged. At the histological level, the cellular localization of tin was demonstrated in all tissues investigated and, in addition, characteristic morphological changes were observed in the kidney and hepatopancreas. Tissue-specific changes in lipid profiles confirmed TBT-induced disruption of lipid homeostasis in mollusks, characterized by a consistent reduction in the proportion of polyunsaturated fatty acids and a shift toward more saturated lipids. The expression of 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 12 (HSD17B12) enzyme, involved in lipid metabolism in vertebrates, was reduced in all three tissues after TBT exposure. Our results show that TBT induces significant multi-level metabolic changes in Lymnaea, including direct alterations in feeding activity and lipid composition. Our findings also suggest that HSD17B12 enzyme plays a key role in lipid metabolism in mollusks, as in mammals, and is likely involved in TBT-induced metabolic disruption. Overall, our study extends the findings of previous studies on mollusks by providing novel behavioral as well as tissue-specific histological and metabolic data and highlights the complexity and evolutionary conserved way of TBT-induced metabolic disruption.

Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals, Hypothalamic Inflammation and Reproductive Outcomes: A Review of the Literature

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are environmental and industrial agents that interfere with hormonal functions. EDC exposure is linked to various endocrine diseases, especially in reproduction, although the mechanisms remain unclear and effects vary among individuals. Neuroinflammation, particularly hypothalamic inflammation, is an emerging research area with implications for endocrine-related diseases like obesity. The hypothalamus plays a crucial role in regulating reproduction, and its inflammation can adversely affect reproductive health. EDCs can cross the blood-brain barrier, potentially causing hypothalamic inflammation and disrupting the reproductive axis. This review examines the existing literature on EDC-mediated hypothalamic inflammation. Our findings suggest that exposure to 2,3,7,8-tetrachloro-dibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD), polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB), tributyltin (TBT), phthalates, bisphenol A (BPA), and chlorpyrifos (CPF) in animals is linked to hypothalamic inflammation, specifically affecting the hypothalamic centers of the gonadotropic axis. To our knowledge, this is the first comprehensive review on this topic, indicating hypothalamic inflammation as a possible mediator between EDC exposure and reproductive dysfunction. Further human studies are needed to develop effective prevention and treatment strategies against EDC exposure.

Biological Evaluation of Triorganotin Derivatives as Potential Anticancer Agents

Metal-derived platinum complexes are widely used to treat solid tumors. However, systemic toxicity and tumor resistance to these drugs encourage further research into similarly effective compounds. Among others, organotin compounds have been shown to inhibit cell growth and induce cell death and autophagy. Nevertheless, the impact of the ligand structure and mechanisms involved in the toxicity of organotin compounds have not been clarified. In the present study, the biological activities of commercially available bis(tributyltin) oxide and tributyltin chloride, in comparison to those of specially synthesized tributyltin trifluoroacetate (TBT-OCOCF₃) and of cisplatin, were assessed using cells with different levels of tumorigenicity. The results show that tributyltins were more cytotoxic than cisplatin in all the tested cell lines. NMR revealed that this was not related to the interaction with DNA but to the inhibition of glucose uptake into the cells. Moreover, highly tumorigenic cells were less susceptible than nontumorigenic cells to the nonunique pattern of death induced by TBT-OCOCF₃. Nevertheless, tumorigenic cells became sensitive when cotreated with wortmannin and TBT-OCOCF₃, although no concomitant induction of autophagy by the compound was detected. Thus, TBT-OCOCF₃ might be the prototype of a family of potential anticancer agents.

Association of urinary heavy metals co-exposure and adult depression: Modification of physical activity

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to evaluate the association between urinary heavy metal mixture exposure and depression, and the modifying role of physical activity in the effects of heavy metal mixture on depression risk was also considered.

METHODS

Data of this study were derived from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2011-2016. Depression was measured by the Patient Health Questionnaire. We first selected 6 (cadmium, cobalt, tin, antimony, thallium, and mercury) from 14 heavy metals through elastic net regression for further analysis. Then binomial logistic regression, generalized additive model, environment risk score (ERS), and weighted quantile sum (WQS) regression were adopted to assess the effects of six metals individual and cumulative exposure on depression risk. Finally, we also examined whether physical activity could mitigate the effects of heavy metal co-exposure on depression risk.

RESULTS

Totally, 4212 participants were included and 7.40% of subjects were with depression. We found urinary tin and antimony were separately associated with increased odds of depression (Sb: OR = 1.285, 95% CI: 1.064-1.553; Sn: OR = 1.281, 95% CI: 1.097-1.495), and a linear dose-response relationship between tin and depression was also noticed (P < 0.05). Meanwhile, urinary heavy metals co-exposure was positively related to depression risk (ERS_Q4: OR = 2.691, 95% CI: 1.399-5.174; WQS_positive: OR = 1.465, 95% CI: 1.063-2.021), in which tin, antimony, and cadmium were identified with greater contributions to the overall mixture effect. In both ERS and WQS models, the significant positive association between the metal mixture and depression risk remained only in those who were inactive in physical activity.

CONCLUSION

Our study concluded the detrimental effect of heavy metals in combined exposure on the risk of depression, which might be attenuated by physical activity.

Tributyltin Exposure Is Associated With Recognition Memory Impairments, Alterations in Estrogen Receptor α Protein Levels, and Oxidative Stress in the Brain of Female Mice

Tributyltin (TBT) is a persistent organometallic pollutant widely used in several agricultural and industrial processes. TBT exposure is associated with various metabolic, reproductive, immune, and cardiovascular abnormalities. However, few studies have evaluated the effects of TBT on behavior. In the present study, we aimed to investigate whether TBT exposure results in oxidative, neuroendocrine, and behavioral alterations. TBT was administered to adult female mice (250, 500, or 750 ng/kg/day or veh for 14 days), and their recognition memory was assessed. We have also evaluated estrogen receptor (ER)α protein expression and oxidative stress (OS) in brain areas related to memory, as well as the correlation between them. A reduction in short- and long-term recognition memory (STM and LTM) performance, as well as in total exploration time was observed in TBT mice. Reduced ERα protein expression was observed in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and hippocampus of TBT mice, while an increase in TBARS concentration was observed in the PFC of treated animals. Collectively, these data suggest that TBT exposure impairs recognition memory in female mice as a result of, at least in part, its toxicological effects on ERα expression and OS in specific brain areas related to memory.

Evaluation of the effects produced by subacute tributyltin administration on vascular reactivity of male wistar rats

Tributyltin chloride (TBT) is an organotin compound widely used in several high biocides for agroindustrial applications, such as fungicides, and marine antifouling paints leading to endocrine disrupting actions, such as imposex development in mollusks. In female rats, TBT has been shown to promote ovarian dysfunction, reduction of estrogen protective effect in the vascular morphophysiology, at least in part by oxidative stress consequences. Estrogen causes coronary endothelium-dependent and independent vasodilation. However, the TBT effects on cardiovascular system of male rats are not fully understood. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of subacute TBT exposure in aorta vascular reactivity from male wistar rats. Rats were randomly divided into three groups: control (C), TBT 500 ng/kg/day and TBT 1000 ng/kg/day. TBT was administered daily for 30 days by oral gavage. We found that TBT exposure enhanced testosterone serum levels and it was also observed obesogenic properties. TBT exposure evoked an increase in endothelium-dependent and independent phenylephrine-induced contraction, associated to an inhibition in eNOS activity. On the other hand, it was observed an enhancement of iNOS and NF-kB protein expression. We also observed an increase in oxidative stress parameters, such as superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase expression, and also an increase in malondialdehyde production. Finally, TBT exposure produced aortic intima-media thickness. Taken together, these data suggest a potential cardiovascular toxicological effect after subacute TBT exposure in male rats.

Brain-derived estrogen and neural function

Although classically known as an endocrine signal produced by the ovary, 17β-estradiol (E₂) is also a neurosteroid produced in neurons and astrocytes in the brain of many different species. In this review, we provide a comprehensive overview of the localization, regulation, sex differences, and physiological/pathological roles of brain-derived E₂ (BDE₂). Much of what we know regarding the functional roles of BDE₂ has come from studies using specific inhibitors of the E₂ synthesis enzyme, aromatase, as well as the recent development of conditional forebrain neuron-specific and astrocyte-specific aromatase knockout mouse models. The evidence from these studies support a critical role for neuron-derived E₂ (NDE₂) in the regulation of synaptic plasticity, memory, socio-sexual behavior, sexual differentiation, reproduction, injury-induced reactive gliosis, and neuroprotection. Furthermore, we review evidence that astrocyte-derived E₂ (ADE₂) is induced following brain injury/ischemia, and plays a key role in reactive gliosis, neuroprotection, and cognitive preservation. Finally, we conclude by discussing the key controversies and challenges in this area, as well as potential future directions for the field.

Oral Exposure to Tributyltin Induced Behavioral Abnormality and Oxidative Stress in the Eyes and Brains of Juvenile Japanese Medaka (Oryzias latipes)

The widely used compound tributyltin (TBT), which can be continuously detected in aquatic species and seafood, may induce diverse adverse effects on aquatic organisms. However, little is known regarding the mechanistic links between behavioral abnormality and oxidative stress in different fish tissues in response to oral TBT exposure. Herein, juvenile Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes) were orally exposed to TBT at 1 and 10 ng/g-bw/d for four weeks. After exposure, the locomotor activity and social interaction of juvenile medaka were found to be significantly reduced in the 10 ng/g-bw/d TBT-exposed group. Furthermore, the antioxidant biomarkers in different tissues of juvenile medaka showed different levels of sensitivity to TBT exposure. The eye superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities markedly increased in both groups exposed to 1 and 10 ng/g-bw/d TBT, while the eye and brain malondialdehyde (MDA) levels increased in the higher dose group. Furthermore, the eye and brain ATPase activities markedly declined in the 1 ng/g-bw/d TBT-exposed group. A correlation analysis revealed that the decreased locomotor activity and social interaction in medaka were associated with the eye antioxidant enzyme (i.e., SOD and catalase (CAT)) activity and brain oxidative damage level. Thus, our findings suggested that there might be some mechanistic links between the behavioral abnormality induced by TBT exposure and oxidative stress in the eyes and brains of medaka. Thus, our findings indicate that the impacts of oral exposure to TBT should be considered to better assess its risk to the aquatic ecosystem and human health.

The ameliorative effect of Moringa oleifera oil on tributyltin-induced brain toxicity in albino rats

Tributyltin (TBT) is an organotin compound widely used as a biocide in antifouling paints. Moringa oleifera oil (MOO) has a promising antioxidant potential, which necessitates further exploration. This study was conducted to investigate the potential protective effect of MOO against TBT-induced brain toxicity. The 30 rats were grouped into five groups (six each), Group I negative control, Group II positive control (vehicle), Group III MOO (5 ml/kg body weight [b.wt.]), Group IV TBT (10 mg/kg b.wt.), and Group V TBT & MOO. All treatments were given orally for 28 days. Thereafter, brains were exposed to oxidative stress and neurological parameters analyses. Histopathological and immunohistochemical (caspase-3, Bax, Bcl-2) examinations were also carried out. In rats administered TBT, increased malondialdehyde level, decreased reduced glutathione, and low total antioxidant capacity levels were in support of oxidative stress mechanism. Neurotoxicity was indicated by high nitric oxide level and increased acetylcholinestrase activity. Along with the histopathological alterations, the dysregulated expression of caspase-3, Bax, and Bcl-2 were indicative of the apoptotic mechanism mediated by TBT. Co-administration of MOO with TBT ameliorated the aforementioned toxic effects. In conclusion, TBT causes brain toxicity via oxidative, nitrosative, and apoptotic mechanisms. MOO demonstrates protective effect against TBT-induced brain toxicity mostly via potent antioxidant and antiapoptotic properties.

Environmental neurotoxic pollutants: review

Environmental pollutants are recognized as one of the major concerns for public health and responsible for various forms of neurological disorders. Some of the common sources of environmental pollutants related to neurotoxic manifestations are industrial waste, pesticides, automobile exhaust, laboratory waste, and burning of terrestrial waste. Among various environmental pollutants, particulate matter, ultrafine particulate matter, nanoparticles, and lipophilic vaporized toxicant (acrolein) easily cross the blood-brain barrier, activate innate immune responses in the astrocytes, microglia, and neurons, and exert neurotoxicity. Growing shreds of evidence from human epidemiological studies have correlated the environmental pollutants with neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, endoplasmic reticulum stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, myelin sheath disruption, and alterations in the blood-brain barrier anatomy leading to cognitive dysfunction and poor quality of life. These environmental pollutants also considerably cause developmental neurotoxicity, exhibit teratogenic effect and mental growth retardance, and reduce IQ level. Until now, the exact mechanism of pollutant-induced neurotoxicity is not known, but studies have shown interference of pollutants with the endogenous antioxidant defense system, inflammatory pathway (Nrf2/NF-kB, MAPKs/PI3K, and Akt/GSK3β), modulation of neurotransmitters, and reduction in long-term potentiation. In the current review, various sources of pollutants and exposure to the human population, developmental neurotoxicity, and molecular mechanism of different pollutants involved in the pathogenesis of different neurological disorders have been discussed.

Short term chronic toxicity of tributyltin on the testes of adult albino rats and the possible protective role of omega-3

The declining rate of male fertility is a growing concern. Tributyltin (TBT) is a well-known endocrine disruptor (ED), that induces imposex in female gastropods and is widely used in various industrial applications. The aim of this study was to evaluate the toxic effects of TBT on the testes of adult albino rats and the possible role of omega-3. Forty two adult male albino rats were divided into five groups; control group (Group I) and four experimental groups: omega-3 treated group, TBT treated group, TBT & omega-3 treated group and follow up group. At the end of the study, the rats were subjected to biochemical, histological, immunohistochemical staining for Ki-67 and seminal examinations. Our results clarfied that TBT induced a significant decrease in testosterone, FSH, LH and serum glutathione peroxidase levels and a significant increase in the serum Malondialdehyde as compared to the control group. Tributyltin induced disorganization and shrinkage of seminiferous tubules, apoptosis, cellular damage and marked reduction in the germinal epithelium. A significant decrease in the cell proliferation and arrested spermatogenesis were also detected. Seminal analysis of TBT group showed a significant affection of all parameters as compared to other groups. Omega-3 ameliorated all of these hazardous effects. Follow up group still showed toxic effects. In conclusion, TBT has a toxic effect on the testis. Increased testicular oxidative stress, cellular damage and arrest of spermatogenesis with attenuation in antioxidant defenses are all contributing factors. Omega-3 can protect against TBT induced reproductive toxicity.

Estrogens counteract tributyltin-induced toxicity in the rat islets of Langerhans

Background

Tributyltin (TBT) is known as an endocrine disruptor able to interfere with estrogen receptors (ERs) leading to toxic effects on the related endocrine pathways. TBT is an obesogen, reported to disrupt glucose homeostasis leading to diabetes. The aim of this study was to assess the influence of TBT and β-estradiol on the pancreatic islets of Langerhans in simultaneous exposures.

Experimental

Pancreatic islets of 15 male rat were isolated and exposed to TBT (10 μM), β-estradiol, and TBT plus β-estradiol for 24 h. Therewith, cellular viability, oxidative stress, apoptosis, and insulin secretion markers were investigated.

Results

TBT decreased the viability and increased the apoptosis, reactive oxygen species, and insulin secretion TBT led to increased amounts of apaptosis, reactive oxygen species (ROS), and insulin secretion in pancreatic islets; however, cellular viability was reduced. Co-exposure with β-estradiol ameliorated the entire mentioned variables near to the control level.

Conclusion

These results showed that β-estradiol protect pancreatic islets of Langerhans against TBT-induced toxicity by counteracting oxidative stress and apoptosis as well as insulin secretion. In this way, it is postulated that pancreatic ER pathways particularly in β-cells might be the determinant target of toxic effects of xenoestrogens like TBT. Hence, evaluation of xenoestrogens-induced ER dysfunction in the endocrine pancreas can be helpful in diabetic risk assessment of these contaminants. Pharmacological modifications of ER pathway in the β-cells seems promising for better management of diabetes.

A proteomic study of Cunninghamella echinulata recovery during exposure to tributyltin

A proteomic study of Cunninghamella echinulata recovery during exposure to tributyltin was conducted with 2-D SDS-PAGE protein separation and profiling, MALDI-TOF/TOF protein identification, and PCA analysis. The presence of TBT resulted in an upregulation of enzymes related to energy production via cellular respiration. The unique overexpression of NADH dehydrogenase and mitochondrial malate dehydrogenase, together with an increased level of cytochrome c oxidase, ATP synthase subunits, and inorganic pyrophosphatase, indicates a strong energy deficit in the cells, leading to an increase in the ATP production. The overexpression of Prohibitin-1, a multifunctional protein associated with the proper functioning of mitochondria, was observed as well. The data also revealed oxidative stress condition. Among reactive oxygen species (ROS)-scavenging enzymes, only superoxide dismutase (SOD) showed active response against oxidative stress induced by the xenobiotic. The induction of a series of ROS-scavenging enzymes was supported by a microscopic analysis revealing a considerably large concentration of ROS in the hyphae. The overexpression of cytoskeleton-related proteins in the TBT presence was also noticed. The obtained results allow explaining the recovery strategy of the fungus in response to the energy depletion caused by TBT.

Pin1 Is Regulated by CaMKII Activation in Glutamate-Induced Retinal Neuronal Regulated Necrosis

In our previous study, we reported that peptidyl-prolyl isomerase 1 (Pin1)-modulated regulated necrosis (RN) occurred in cultured retinal neurons after glutamate injury. In the current study, we investigated the role of calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) in Pin1-modulated RN in cultured rat retinal neurons, and in an animal in vivo model. We first demonstrated that glutamate might lead to calcium overloading mainly through ionotropic glutamate receptors activation. Furthermore, CaMKII activation induced by overloaded calcium leads to Pin1 activation and subsequent RN. Inactivation of CaMKII by KN-93 (KN, i.e., a specific CaMKII inhibitor) application can decrease the glutamate-induced retinal neuronal RN. Finally, by using an animal in vivo model, we also demonstrated the important role of CaMKII in glutamate-induced RN in rat retina. In addition, flash electroretinogram results provided evidence that the impaired visual function induced by glutamate can recover after CaMKII inhibition. In conclusion, CaMKII is an up-regulator of Pin1 and responsible for the RN induced by glutamate. This study provides further understanding of the regulatory pathway of RN and is a complementary mechanism for Pin1 activation mediated necrosis. This finding will provide a potential target to protect neurons from necrosis in neurodegenerative diseases, such as glaucoma, diabetic retinopathy, and even central nervous system diseases.

RIP1 and RIP3 contribute to Tributyltin-induced toxicity in vitro and in vivo

Tributyltin (TBT), a widely distributed environmental pollutant, is toxic to animals and human beings. Although its toxicity, especially the immunosuppressive effect, has been reported a lot, the underlying molecular mechanisms are still unclear. In this study, we investigated the mechanisms of TBT-induced cytotoxicity both in vitro and in vivo. TBT induced cell death in both J774A.1 macrophages and mouse bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) as measured by the LDH and Annexin V-FITC/PI dual staining assays. Pretreatment with RIP1 inhibitor Necrostatin-1 (Nec-1) or transfection with Rip1 siRNA significantly suppressed TBT-induced cytotoxicity in J774A.1 macrophages or human embryonic kidney cell line (HEK293 cells). TBT-induced cell death was also markedly inhibited in RIP3^-/- BMDMs. In agreement with in vitro results, TBT-induced in vivo immunotoxic effects including leukocyte depletion and thymus atrophy were significantly attenuated in RIP3^-/- mice or WT mice treated with Nec-1. Notably, the mortality rate induced by TBT was remarkably reduced in RIP3^-/- mice (100% vs. 12.5% lethality) or Nec-1-treated mice (100% vs. 59.2% lethality) respectively. These results reveal a critical role of RIP1 and RIP3 in TBT-induced toxicity both in vitro and in vivo.

The tributyltin leads to obesogenic mammary gland abnormalities in adult female rats

Tributyltin chloride (TBT) is an obesogen associated with several complications. However, few investigations have evaluated TBT effects on adult mammary glands (MG). In this investigation, we assessed whether TBT's obesogenic effects resulted in abnormal MG fat pad expansion and other irregularities. TBT was administered to female rats (100 ng/kg/day for 15 days via gavage), and their MG morphophysiological development was assessed. We further assessed the MG fat pad for PPARγ, ERα, and aromatase protein expression, as well as inflammation, oxidative stress (OS), apoptosis and fibrosis. Irregular MG morphological development such as lower TEB number, alveolar (AB), lobule and differentiation (DF) score were observed in TBT rats. TBT rats had abnormal MG fat accumulation as evidenced by increased numbers of hypertrophic adipocytes, triglyceride (TG) levels and PPARγ expression. A strong negative correlation between the MG obesogenic makers and TEB number, AB and DF score were observed in TBT rats. MG inflammation was observed in TBT rats. A positive correlation between the MG obesogenic markers and inflammation were observed. High ERα and aromatase expression were observed in MG of TBT rats. MG OS, apoptosis and fibrosis were present in the TBT rats. Additionally, a positive correlation between the MG obesogenic markers and OS were observed in TBT rats. Thus, these data suggest that obesogenic TBT effects led to MG irregularities in the adult female rats.

The protective effects of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) scale collagen hydrolysate against oxidative stress induced by tributyltin in HepG2 cells

Oxidative stress is regarded as one of the most important factors associated with many diseases, such as atherosclerosis, cancer, and diabetes. Various chemicals are released into the environment, causing environmental pollution. Importantly, many of them may cause damage to organisms through oxidative stress. In this work, we investigated the possible protective effects of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) scale collagen hydrolysate (TSCH) (molecular weight approximately 4 kDa) against tributyltin (TBT)-induced oxidative stress in vitro. The results showed that pretreatment with TSCH protected against decreases in cell viability and changes in cell morphology in HepG2 cells exposed to TBT. Treatment with TSCH reduced the TBT-induced elevation in malondialdehyde (MDA) levels in HepG2 cells in a dose-dependent manner. Pretreatment with TSCH increased glutathione reductase (GR) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity. Moreover, TSCH decreased the expression of the proapoptotic protein Bax, reducing apoptosis. These results suggest that the protective mechanism of TSCH may be associated with its ability to scavenge MDA, increase antioxidant enzyme activity and downregulate the expression of Bax.

Effects of tributyltin on placental cytokine production

Objective Tributyltin (TBT) is a persistent pollutant but its effects on placental function are poorly understood as are its possible interactions with infection. We hypothesized that TBT alters the production of sex hormones and biomarkers for inflammation and neurodevelopment in an infection-dependent manner. Methods Placental explant cultures were treated with 0-5000 nM TBT in the presence and absence of Escherichia coli. A conditioned medium was harvested and concentrations of steroids (progesterone, P4; testosterone, T and estradiol, E2) as well as biomarkers of inflammation [interleukin (IL)-1β (IL-1β), tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α), IL-10, IL-6, soluble glycoprotein 130 (sgp-130) and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1)], oxidative stress [8-iso-prostaglandin (8-IsoP)] and neurodevelopment [brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)] were quantified. Results TBT increased P4 slightly but had little or no effect on T or E2 production. IL-1β, IL-6, sgp-130, IL-10 and 8-IsoP production was enhanced by TBT. P4 and IL-6 production was also enhanced by TBT for bacteria-stimulated cultures but TBT significantly inhibited bacteria-induced IL-1β and sgp-130 production. High doses of TBT also inhibited BDNF production. Conclusions TBT increases P4 but has minimal effect on downstream steroids. It enhances the production of inflammatory biomarkers such as IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-10 and IL-6. Inhibition of sgp-130 by TBT suggests that TBT may increase bioactive IL-6 production which has been associated with adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes. Reduced expression of BDNF also supports this possibility.

Tributyltin impacts in metabolic syndrome development through disruption of angiotensin II receptor signaling pathways in white adipose tissue from adult female rats

White adipose tissue (WAT) dysfunction and obesity are a consequence of a low-grade inflammation state. These WAT irregularities could result from abnormal metabolic renin-angiotensin system (RAS) control. Recently, tributyltin (TBT) has been found to play a critical role in these metabolic irregularities. However, TBT actions on the WAT-RAS functions are not currently well understood. In this study, we assessed whether TBT exposure resulted in metabolic syndrome (MetS) development and other metabolic complications as a result of abnormal modulation of WAT-RAS pathways. TBT (100 ng/kg/day) was administered to adult female Wistar rats, and their WAT morphophysiology and adipokine profiles were assessed. We further assessed the expression of Angiotensin-II receptor proteins (AT1R and AT2R) and proteins involved in downstream pathways mediating inflammation and adipogenesis modulation. TBT-exposed rats exhibited increases in body weight and adiposity. TBT rats present dyslipidemia and insulin resistance, suggesting MetS development. TBT promoted WAT inflammatory infiltration, AT1R protein overexpression and reduced Angiotensin-(1-7) expression. These TBT WAT abnormalities are reflected by NFκB activation, with higher adipokine levels (leptin, TNF-α and IL-6) and overexpression of AKT, ERK, P38, FAS and PPARγ protein. In vitro, TBT exposure stimulates lipid accumulation, reduces AT2R protein expression, and increases leptin, AKT and ERK protein expression in 3T3L1 cells. These findings suggest that TBT exposure participates in MetS development via the improper function of WAT-RAS metabolic control.

The obesogen tributyltin induces abnormal ovarian adipogenesis in adult female rats

Tributyltin chloride (TBT) is an obesogen associated with various metabolic and reproductive dysfunctions after in utero exposure. However, few studies have evaluated TBT's obesogenic effect on adult ovaries. In this study, we assessed whether TBT's obesogenic effects resulted in adult ovarian adipogenesis and other reproductive abnormalities. TBT was administered to adult female Wistar rats, and their reproductive tract morphophysiology was assessed. We further assessed the ovarian mRNA/protein expression of genes that regulate adipogenesis. Rats exposed to TBT displayed abnormal estrous cyclicity, ovarian sex hormone levels, ovarian follicular development and ovarian steroidogenic enzyme regulation. Rats exposed to TBT also demonstrated abnormal ovarian adipogenesis with increased cholesterol levels, lipid accumulation, and PPARγ, C/EBP-β and Lipin-1 expression. A negative correlation between the ovarian PPARγ expression and aromatase expression was observed in the TBT rats. Furthermore, TBT exposure resulted in reproductive tract atrophy, inflammation, oxidative stress and fibrosis. Ovarian dysfunctions also co-occurred with the uterine irregularities. Abnormal ovarian adipogenic markers occurring after TBT exposure may be associated with uterine irregularities. A positive correlation between the ovarian cholesterol levels and uterine inflammation was observed in the TBT rats. These findings suggest that TBT leads to ovarian obesogenic effects directly by abnormal adipogenesis and/or indirectly through adult reproductive tract irregularities.

Low-dose tributyltin exposure induces an oxidative stress-triggered JNK-related pancreatic β-cell apoptosis and a reversible hypoinsulinemic hyperglycemia in mice

Tributyltin (TBT), an endocrine disrupting chemical, can be found in food (particular in fish and seafood) and drinking water by contamination. Here, we elucidated the effects and possible mechanisms of low-dose TBT on the growth and function of pancreatic β-cells and glucose metabolism in mice. Submicromolar-concentration of TBT significantly induced β-cell cytotoxicity and apoptosis, which were accompanied by poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase cleavage and mitogen-activated protein kinases-JNK and ERK1/2 phosphorylation. TBT could also suppress the glucose-stimulated insulin secretion in β-cells and isolated mouse islets. TBT increased reactive oxygen species production. TBT-induced β-cell cytotoxicity and apoptosis were significantly prevented by antioxidant N-acetylcysteine (NAC) and JNK inhibitor SP600125, but not ERK1/2 inhibitor PD98059 and p38 inhibitor SB203580. Both NAC and SP600125 inhibited JNK phosphorylation and reduced cell viability in TBT-treated β-cells. Four-week exposure of TBT (0.25 mg/kg) to mice revealed the decreased plasma insulin, increased blood glucose and plasma malondialdehyde, suppressed islet insulin secretion, and increased islet caspase-3 activity, which could be reversed by NAC treatment. After removing the TBT exposure for 2 weeks, the TBT-induced glucose metabolism alteration was significantly reversed. These results suggest that low-dose TBT can induce β-cell apoptosis and interfere with glucose homeostasis via an oxidative stress-related pathway.

Tributyltin role on the serotonin and histamine receptors in human umbilical artery

Some studies in animals suggest that TBT may constitute a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases. Hence, the main purpose of this study was to investigate in human umbilical artery (HUA) the effect of TBT on vascular reactivity, manly in serotonin (5-HT) and histamine receptors. Using standard organ bath techniques, rings of HUA without endothelium were contracted by 5-HT and histamine. We also investigated the effect of TBT on the expression of the receptors using Real-time PCR. The results show that TBT short term effects include concentration-dependent relaxation. Moreover, at long term exposures, the arteries treated with 100 μM of TBT do not have contraction capacity when 5-HT is added, and the gene expression of 5-HT2A receptor decrease. Regarding histamine, it was demonstrated that TBT induces a concentration-dependent relaxation and the H1 gene expression levels decrease. In conclusion TBT modifies the activity and expression of 5-HT and histamine receptors.

Protective effects of fucoxanthin and fucoxanthinol against tributyltin-induced oxidative stress in HepG2 cells

Tributyltin (TBT) is a biocide extremely toxic to a wide range of organisms, which has been used for decades for industrial purposes. Fucoxanthin is a natural carotenoid that is isolated from seaweed, and fucoxanthinol is a major primary metabolite of fucoxanthin. Although fucoxanthin and fucoxanthinol have been reported to possess anti-oxidant activities in vitro, little is known as to whether they protect against TBT-induced oxidative stress in cultured cells. In the present study, the protective effect of fucoxanthin and fucoxanthinol against oxidative stress induced by TBT was investigated. The data showed that incubation of HepG2 cells with 0.2 μM TBT significantly increased cell apoptosis, whereas treatment with fucoxanthin or fucoxanthinol (3 μM) significantly recovered cell viability. In addition, fucoxanthinol treatment significantly decreased the intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) and malondialdehyde (MDA) in HepG2 cells incubated with TBT. Moreover, fucoxanthin and fucoxanthinol markedly increased the expression level of Bcl-2/Bax. These results demonstrated that both fucoxanthin and fucoxanthinol effectively prevented cytotoxicity in HepG2 cells treated with TBT, and the protective effect was likely associated with decreased intracellular ROS and MDA and increased Bcl-2/Bax levels.

Frontiers in endocrine disruption: Impacts of organotin on the hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid axis

Endocrine disruptors (EDs), chemical substances widely used in industry and ubiquitously distributed in the environment, are able to interfere with the synthesis, release, transport, metabolism, receptor binding, action, or elimination of endogenous hormones. EDs affect homeostasis mainly by acting on nuclear and nonnuclear steroid receptors but also on serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine and orphan receptors in addition to thyroid hormone receptors. Tributyltin (TBT), an ED widely used as a pesticide and biocide in antifouling paints, has well-documented actions that include inhibiting aromatase and affecting the nuclear receptors PPARγ and RXR. TBT exposure in humans and experimental models has been shown to mainly affect reproductive function and adipocyte differentiation. Since thyroid hormones play a fundamental role in regulating the basal metabolic rate and energy homeostasis, it is crucial to clarify the effects of TBT on the hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid axis. Therefore, we review herein the main effects of TBT on important metabolic pathways, with emphasis on disruption of the thyroid axis that could contribute to the development of endocrine and metabolic disorders, such as insulin resistance and obesity.

Organotins in Neuronal Damage, Brain Function, and Behavior: A Short Review

The consequences of exposure to environmental contaminants have shown significant effects on brain function and behavior in different experimental models. The endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDC) present various classes of pollutants with potential neurotoxic actions, such as organotins (OTs). OTs have received special attention due to their toxic effects on the central nervous system, leading to abnormal mammalian neuroendocrine axis function. OTs are organometallic pollutants with a tin atom bound to one or more carbon atoms. OT exposure may occur through the food chain and/or contaminated water, since they have multiple applications in industry and agriculture. In addition, OTs have been used with few legal restrictions in the last decades, despite being highly toxic. In addition to their action as EDC, OTs can also cross the blood-brain barrier and show relevant neurotoxic effects, as observed in several animal model studies specifically involving the development of neurodegenerative processes, neuroinflammation, and oxidative stress. Thus, the aim of this short review is to summarize the toxic effects of the most common OT compounds, such as trimethyltin, tributyltin, triethyltin, and triphenyltin, on the brain with a focus on neuronal damage as a result of oxidative stress and neuroinflammation. We also aim to present evidence for the disruption of behavioral functions, neurotransmitters, and neuroendocrine pathways caused by OTs.

Overview of the Pathophysiological Implications of Organotins on the Endocrine System

Organotins (OTs) are pollutants that are used widely by industry as disinfectants, pesticides, and most frequently as biocides in antifouling paints. This mini-review presents the main evidences from the literature about morphophysiological changes induced by OTs in the mammal endocrine system, focusing on the metabolism and reproductive control. Similar to other toxic compounds, the main effects with potential health risks to humans and experimental animals are not only related to dose and time of exposure but also to age, gender, and tissue/cell exposed. Regarding the underlying mechanisms, current literature indicates that OTs can directly damage endocrine glands, as well as interfere with neurohormonal control of endocrine function (i.e., in the hypothalamic-pituitary axis), altering hormone synthesis and/or bioavailability or activity of hormone receptors in the target cells. Importantly, OTs induces biochemical and morphological changes in gonads, abnormal steroidogenesis, both associated with reproductive dysfunctions such as irregular estrous cyclicity in female or spermatogenic disorders in male animals. Additionally, due to their role on endocrine systems predisposing to obesity, OTs are also included in the metabolism disrupting chemical hypothesis, either by central (e.g., accurate nucleus and lateral hypothalamus) or peripheral (e.g., adipose tissue) mechanisms. Thus, OTs should be indeed considered a major endocrine disruptor, being indispensable to understand the main toxic effects on the different tissues and its causative role for endocrine, metabolic, and reproductive dysfunctions observed.

Organotin Compounds Toxicity: Focus on Kidney

Organotin compounds (OTs) are synthetic persistent organometallic xenobiotics widely used in several commercial applications. They exert well-described harmful effects in brain, liver, adipose tissue, and reproductive organs, as they are endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs), but the effects in the kidneys are less known. The kidneys are especially vulnerable to environmental contaminants because they are a metabolizing site of xenobiotics, therefore, pollutants can accumulate in renal tissue, leading to impaired renal function and to several renal abnormalities. Individuals chronically exposed to OTs present a threefold increase in the prevalence of kidney stones. These compounds can directly inhibit H⁺/K⁺-ATPase in renal intercalated cells, resulting in hypokalemia, renal tubular acidity, and increased urinary pH, which is a known risk factor for kidney stones formation. OTs effects are not only limited to induce nephrolithiasis, its nephrotoxicity is also due to increased reactive oxygen species (ROS). This increase leads to lipid peroxidation, abnormal cellular function, and cell death. Combined, the enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant defense systems become deficient and there is a consequent uncontrolled generation of ROS that culminates in renal tissue damage. Still, few epidemiological and experimental studies have reported renal impact correlated to OTs exposure. This lack of investigation of the complete effect of OTs in renal function and structure led us to perform this review reporting the main researches about this subject.

Long term impact of the endocrine disruptor tributyltin on male fertility following a single acute exposure

Declining rate of human fertility is a growing concern, where lifestyle and environmental factors play an important role. We recently demonstrated that tributyltin (TBT), an omnipresent endocrine disruptor, affects testicular cells in vitro. In this study, male Wistar rats were gavaged a single dose of 10, 20, and 30 mg/kg TBT-chloride (TBTC) (to mimic accidental exposure in vivo) and sacrificed on day 3 and day 7, respectively. TBT bioavailability was evaluated by estimating total tin content, and essential metal levels were analyzed along with redox molecules (ROS and GSH/GSSG) to understand the effect on physiological conditions. Blood-testicular barrier (BTB) disruption, levels of associated proteins and activity of proteolytic enzymes were evaluated to understand the effect on BTB. Histological analysis of tissue architecture and effect on protein expression of steroidogenic, stress and apoptotic markers were also evaluated. Widespread TBTC pollution can be an eventual threat to male fertility worldwide.

Tributyltin bioaccumulation and toxic effects in freshwater gastropods Pomacea canaliculata after a chronic exposure: field and laboratory studies

Freshwater samples and gastropod mollusks (Pomacea canaliculata) were collected at 5 sampling stations located along the lower Río de la Plata basin, Argentina, to assess the extent of tributyltin (TBT) contamination. Determined data revealed the presence of TBT and some of its breakdown products (dibutyltin: DBT, and monobutyltin: MBT) in all freshwater samples and also in soft tissues of P. canaliculata gastropods. Chronic bioassays (6 months) were performed using female gastropods that had been reared under laboratory conditions and exposed to a similar TBT concentration than the value determined in freshwater samples (1 µg L^-1). The aims of this study were to evaluate the extent of TBT accumulation, the tissue distribution, and the effects on selected biomarkers (activity of superoxide dismutasa: SOD, activity of catalase: CAT, levels of total glutathione: t-GSH, lipid peroxidation, and activity of acetylcholinesterase: AChE). Gonads presented the highest accumulation, followed by the cephalopedal region, albumin gland, and finally hepatopancreas. Both metabolites, DBT and MBT, were also found. All exposed female animals presented development of a penis reflecting the potential of TBT as an endocrine disrupting chemical for this gastropod species. Results on the selected biomarkers confirmed additional adverse effects induced by TBT. An increase in CAT activity and changes in t-GSH levels are indicative of alterations on the cellular redox status. The inhibition of AChE could reflect signs of neurotoxicity. Altogether, these results reveal a negative impact on the health of this gastropod population.

Triphenyltin hydroxide induces changes in the oxidative stress parameters of fish

Among all organotin compounds , triphenyltin hydroxide (TPhTH) is widely used as fungicide and moluscicide in Brazil. However, the effects of TPhTH on the biochemical parameters of non-target organisms, such as fish, are little known. The aim of the present study is to assess the possible toxic effects of different concentrations of waterborne TPhTH on silver catfish belonging to species Rhamdia quelen. The fish were exposed to two different concentrations of TPhTH (1.08 and 1.70 µg/L as Sn) for 15 days and then compared to the control group (triplicate, n = 3). The antioxidant profile (catalase (CAT) and the glutathione S-transferase (GST)) and the oxidative stress parameters (TBARS-thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances and protein carbonyl (PC)) were set after the exposure to TPhTH. The TBARS level and the PC content increased in several organs of the Rhamdia quelen (brain, liver, muscle and gills) under the two concentrations of TPhTH in comparison to the control group. The CAT activity in the liver and gills has enhanced in all tested TPhTH concentrations. The GST activity increased in the brain, liver and muscle tissues under all the TPhTH concentrations. The significant changes in the biomarkers indicated that the investigated pesticide could have harmful effect on fish, in the field. However, these biomarkers were measured after the fish received doses lower than the recommended for use in agriculture.

Tributyltin exposure at noncytotoxic doses dysregulates pancreatic β-cell function in vitro and in vivo

Tributyltin (TBT) is an endocrine disruptor. TBT can be found in food and in human tissues and blood. Several animal studies revealed that organotins induced diabetes with decreased insulin secretion. The detailed effect and mechanism of TBT on pancreatic β-cell function still remain unclear. We investigated the effect and mechanism of TBT exposure at noncytotoxic doses relevant to human exposure on β-cell function in vitro and in vivo. The β-cell-derived RIN-m5F cells and pancreatic islets from mouse and human were treated with TBT (0.05-0.2 μM) for 0.5-4 h. Adult male mice were orally exposed to TBT (25 μg/kg/day) with or without antioxidant N-acetylcysteine (NAC) for 1-3 weeks. Assays for insulin secretion and glucose metabolism were carried out. Unlike previous studies, TBT at noncytotoxic concentrations significantly increased glucose-stimulated insulin secretion and intracellular Ca²⁺ ([Ca²⁺]_i) in β-cells. The reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and phosphorylation of protein kinase C (PKC-pan) and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)1/2 were also increased. These TBT-triggered effects could be reversed by antiestrogen ICI182780 and inhibitors of ROS, [Ca²⁺]_i, and PKC, but not ERK. Similarly, islets treated with TBT significantly increased glucose-stimulated insulin secretion, which could be reversed by ICI182780, NAC, and PKC inhibitor. Mice exposed to TBT for 3 weeks significantly increased blood glucose and plasma insulin and induced glucose intolerance and insulin resistance, which could be reversed by NAC. These findings suggest that low/noncytotoxic doses of TBT induce insulin dysregulation and disturb glucose homeostasis, which may be mediated through the estrogen receptor-regulated and/or oxidative stress-related signaling pathways.

The Pollutant Organotins Leads to Respiratory Disease by Inflammation: A Mini-Review

Organotins (OTs) are organometallic pollutants. The OTs are organometallic pollutants that are used in many industrial, agricultural, and domestic products, and it works as powerful biocidal compound against large types of microorganisms such as fungi and bacteria. In addition, OTs are well known to be endocrine-disrupting chemicals, leading abnormalities an "imposex" phenomenon in the female mollusks. There are some studies showing that OTs' exposure is responsible for neural, endocrine, and reproductive dysfunctions in vitro and in vivo models. However, OTs' effects over the mammalian immune system are poorly understood, particularly in respiratory diseases. The immune system, as well as their cellular components, performs a pivotal role in the control of the several physiologic functions, and in the maintenance and recovery of homeostasis. Thus, it is becoming important to better understand the association between environmental contaminants, as OTs, and the physiological function of immune system. There are no many scientific works studying the relationship between OTs and respiratory disease, especially about immune system activation. Herein, we reported studies in animal, humans, and in vitro models. We searched studies in PUBMED, LILACS, and Scielo platforms. Studies have reported that OTs exposure was able to suppress T helper 1 (Th1) and exacerbate T helper 2 (Th2) response in the immune system. In addition, OTs' contact could elevate in the airway inflammatory response, throughout a mechanism associated with the apoptosis of T-regulatory cells and increased oxidative stress response. In addition, OTs induce macrophage recruitment to the tissue, leading to the increased necrosis, which stimulates an inflammatory cytokines secretion exacerbating the local inflammation and tissue function loss. Thus, the main intention of this mini-review is to up to date the main findings involving the inflammatory profile (especially Th1 and Th2 response) in the respiratory tract as a result of OTs' exposure.

Tributyltin induces G2/M cell cycle arrest via NAD(+)-dependent isocitrate dehydrogenase in human embryonic carcinoma cells

Organotin compounds, such as tributyltin (TBT), are well-known endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs). We have recently reported that TBT induces growth arrest in the human embryonic carcinoma cell line NT2/D1 at nanomolar levels by inhibiting NAD(+)-dependent isocitrate dehydrogenase (NAD-IDH), which catalyzes the irreversible conversion of isocitrate to α-ketoglutarate. However, the molecular mechanisms by which NAD-IDH mediates TBT toxicity remain unclear. In the present study, we examined whether TBT at nanomolar levels affects cell cycle progression in NT2/D1 cells. Propidium iodide staining revealed that TBT reduced the ratio of cells in the G1 phase and increased the ratio of cells in the G2/M phase. TBT also reduced cell division cycle 25C (cdc25C) and cyclin B1, which are key regulators of G2/M progression. Furthermore, apigenin, an inhibitor of NAD-IDH, mimicked the effects of TBT. The G2/M arrest induced by TBT was abolished by NAD-IDHα knockdown. Treatment with a cell-permeable α-ketoglutarate analogue recovered the effect of TBT, suggesting the involvement of NAD-IDH. Taken together, our data suggest that TBT at nanomolar levels induced G2/M cell cycle arrest via NAD-IDH in NT2/D1 cells. Thus, cell cycle analysis in embryonic cells could be used to assess cytotoxicity associated with nanomolar level exposure of EDCs.

Tributyltin chloride induces renal dysfunction by inflammation and oxidative stress in female rats

Tributyltin chloride (TBT) is an organometallic pollutant that is used as a biocide in antifouling paints. TBT induces several toxic and endocrine-disrupting effects. However, studies evaluating the effects of TBT on renal function are rare. This study demonstrates that TBT exposure is responsible for improper renal function as well as the development of abnormal morphophysiology in mammalian kidneys. Female rats were treated with TBT, and their renal morphophysiology was assessed. Morphophysiological abnormalities such as decreased glomerular filtration rate and increased proteinuria levels were observed in TBT rats. In addition, increases in inflammation, collagen deposition and α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) protein expression were observed in TBT kidneys. A disrupted cellular redox balance and apoptosis in kidney tissue were also observed in TBT rats. TBT rats demonstrated reduced serum estrogen levels and estrogen receptor-α (ERα) protein expression in renal cortex. Together, these data provide in vivo evidence that TBT is toxic to normal renal function and that these effects may be associated with renal histopathology complications, such as inflammation and fibrosis.

The Environmental Pollutant Tributyltin Chloride Disrupts the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis at Different Levels in Female Rats

Tributyltin chloride (TBT) is an environmental contaminant that is used as a biocide in antifouling paints. TBT has been shown to induce endocrine-disrupting effects. However, studies evaluating the effects of TBT on the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis are especially rare. The current study demonstrates that exposure to TBT is critically responsible for the improper function of the mammalian HPA axis as well as the development of abnormal morphophysiology in the pituitary and adrenal glands. Female rats were treated with TBT, and their HPA axis morphophysiology was assessed. High CRH and low ACTH expression and high plasma corticosterone levels were detected in TBT rats. In addition, TBT leads to an increased in the inducible nitric oxide synthase protein expression in the hypothalamus of TBT rats. Morphophysiological abnormalities, including increases in inflammation, a disrupted cellular redox balance, apoptosis, and collagen deposition in the pituitary and adrenal glands, were observed in TBT rats. Increases in adiposity and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ protein expression in the adrenal gland were observed in TBT rats. Together, these data provide in vivo evidence that TBT leads to functional dissociation between CRH, ACTH, and costicosterone, which could be associated an inflammation and increased of inducible nitric oxide synthase expression in hypothalamus. Thus, TBT exerts toxic effects at different levels on the HPA axis function.

Deleterious effects of tributyltin on porcine vascular stem cells physiology

The vascular functional and structural integrity is essential for the maintenance of the whole organism and it has been demonstrated that different types of vascular progenitor cells resident in the vessel wall play an important role in this process. The purpose of the present research was to observe the effect of tributyltin (TBT), a risk factor for vascular disorders, on porcine Aortic Vascular Precursor Cells (pAVPCs) in term of cytotoxicity, gene expression profile, functionality and differentiation potential. We have demonstrated that pAVPCs morphology deeply changed following TBT treatment. After 48h a cytotoxic effect has been detected and Annexin binding assay demonstrated that TBT induced apoptosis. The transcriptional profile of characteristic pericyte markers has been altered: TBT 10nM substantially induced alpha-SMA, while, TBT 500nM determined a significant reduction of all pericyte markers. IL-6 protein detected in the medium of pAVPCs treated with TBT at both doses studied and with a dose response. TBT has interfered with normal pAVPC functionality preventing their ability to support a capillary-like network. In addition TBT has determined an increase of pAVPC adipogenic differentiation. In conclusion in the present paper we have demonstrated that TBT alters the vascular stem cells in terms of structure, functionality and differentiating capability, therefore effects of TBT in blood should be deeply explored to understand the potential vascular risk associated with the alteration of vascular stem cell physiology.

Differential susceptibility of brain regions to tributyltin chloride toxicity

Tributyltin (TBT), a well-known endocrine disruptor, is an omnipresent environmental pollutant and is explicitly used in many industrial applications. Previously we have shown its neurotoxic potential on cerebral cortex of male Wistar rats. As the effect of TBT on other brain regions is not known, we planned this study to evaluate its effect on four brain regions (cerebellum, hippocampus, hypothalamus, and striatum). Four-week-old male Wistar rats were gavaged with a single dose of TBT-chloride (TBTC) (10, 20, and 30 mg/kg) and sacrificed on days 3 and 7, respectively. Effect of TBTC on blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability and tin (Sn) accumulation were measured. Oxidative stress indexes such as reactive oxygen species (ROS), reduced and oxidized glutathione (GSH/GSSG) ratio, lipid peroxidation, and protein carbonylation were analyzed as they play an imperative role in various neuropathological conditions. Since metal catalyzed reactions are a major source of oxidant generation, levels of essential metals like iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), and calcium (Ca) were estimated. We found that TBTC disrupted BBB and increased Sn accumulation, both of which appear significantly correlated. Altered metal homeostasis and ROS generation accompanied by elevated lipid peroxidation and protein carbonylation indicated oxidative damage which appeared more pronounced in the striatum than in cerebellum, hippocampus, and hypothalamus. This could be associated to the depleted GSH levels in striatum. These results suggest that striatum is more susceptible to TBTC induced oxidative damage as compared with other brain regions under study.

Tributyltin induces mitochondrial fission through NAD-IDH dependent mitofusin degradation in human embryonic carcinoma cells

Organotin compounds, such as tributyltin (TBT), are well-known endocrine disruptors. TBT acts at the nanomolar level through genomic pathways via the peroxisome proliferator activated receptor (PPAR)/retinoid X receptor (RXR). We recently reported that TBT inhibits cell growth and the ATP content in the human embryonic carcinoma cell line NT2/D1 via a non-genomic pathway involving NAD(+)-dependent isocitrate dehydrogenase (NAD-IDH), which metabolizes isocitrate to α-ketoglutarate. However, the molecular mechanisms by which NAD-IDH mediates TBT toxicity remain unclear. In the present study, we evaluated the effects of TBT on mitochondrial NAD-IDH and energy production. Staining with MitoTracker revealed that nanomolar TBT levels induced mitochondrial fragmentation. TBT also degraded the mitochondrial fusion proteins, mitofusins 1 and 2. Interestingly, apigenin, an inhibitor of NAD-IDH, mimicked the effects of TBT. Incubation with an α-ketoglutarate analogue partially recovered TBT-induced mitochondrial dysfunction, supporting the involvement of NAD-IDH. Our data suggest that nanomolar TBT levels impair mitochondrial quality control via NAD-IDH in NT2/D1 cells. Thus, mitochondrial function in embryonic cells could be used to assess cytotoxicity associated with metal exposure.

Evaluation of single and joint toxicity of perfluorooctane sulfonate, perfluorooctanoic acid, and copper to Carassius auratus using oxidative stress biomarkers

Perfluorooctane sulfonate, perfluorooctanoic acid, and copper have been recently regarded as ubiquitous environmental contaminants in aquatic ecosystems worldwide. However, data on their possible combined toxic effects on aquatic organisms are still lacking. In this study, a systematic experimental approach was used to assess the impacts of these chemicals and their mixtures on hepatic antioxidant status of Carassius auratus after 4 days. Oxidative stress was apparently observed for joint exposure by determining biochemical parameters (superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, reduced glutathione, and malondialdehyde). The integrated biomarker response index was calculated to rank the toxicity order, from which the synergistic effect was tentatively proposed for joint-toxicity action. In addition, these treatments significantly altered trace element homeostasis in different fish tissues, and the concentration distribution of these test chemicals was also measured. Taken together, these results provided some valuable toxicological data on the joint effects of perfluorinated compounds and heavy metals on aquatic species, which can facilitate further understanding on the potential risks of other coexisting pollutants in the natural aquatic environment.

Acrylamide exposure impairs blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier function

Previous studies show that chronic acrylamide exposure leads to central and peripheral neu-ropathy. However, the underlying mechanisms remained unclear. In this study, we examined the permeability of the blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier, and its ability to secrete transthyretin and transport leptin of rats exposed to acrylamide for 7, 14, 21 or 28 days. Transthyretin levels in cerebrospinal fluid began to decline on day 7 after acrylamide exposure. The sodium fluorescein level in cerebrospinal fluid was increased on day 14 after exposure. Evans blue concentration in cerebrospinal fluid was increased and the cerebrospinal fluid/serum leptin ratio was decreased on days 21 and 28 after exposure. In comparison, the cerebrospinal fluid/serum albumin ratio was increased on day 28 after exposure. Our findings show that acrylamide exposure damages the blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier and impairs secretory and transport functions. These changes may underlie acrylamide-induced neurotoxicity.

The roles of DNA damage-dependent signals and MAPK cascades in tributyltin-induced germline apoptosis in Caenorhabditis elegans

The induction of apoptosis is recognized to be a major mechanism of tributyltin (TBT) toxicity. However, the underlying signaling pathways for TBT-induced apoptosis remain unclear. In this study, using the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, we examined whether DNA damage response (DDR) pathway and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling cascades are involved in TBT-induced germline apoptosis and cell cycle arrest. Our results demonstrated that exposing worms to TBT at the dose of 10nM for 6h significantly increased germline apoptosis in N2 strain. Germline apoptosis was absent in strains that carried ced-3 or ced-4 loss-of-function alleles, indicating that both caspase protein CED-3 and Apaf-1 protein CED-4 were required for TBT-induced apoptosis. TBT-induced apoptosis was blocked in the Bcl-2 gain-of-function strain ced-9(n1950), whereas TBT induced a minor increase in the BH3-only protein EGL-1 mutated strain egl-1(n1084n3082). Checkpoint proteins HUS-1 and CLK-2 exerted proapoptotic effects, and the null mutation of cep-1, the homologue of tumor suppressor gene p53, significantly inhibited TBT-induced apoptosis. Apoptosis in the loss-of-function strains of ERK, JNK and p38 MAPK signaling pathways were completely or mildly suppressed under TBT stress. These results were supported by the results of mRNA expression levels of corresponding genes. The present study indicated that TBT-induced apoptosis required the core apoptotic machinery, and that DDR genes and MAPK pathways played essential roles in signaling the processes.

Temporal dynamics of cerebral blood flow, cortical damage, apoptosis, astrocyte-vasculature interaction and astrogliosis in the pericontusional region after traumatic brain injury

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) results in a loss of brain tissue at the moment of impact in the cerebral cortex. Subsequent secondary injury involves the release of molecular signals with dramatic consequences for the integrity of damaged tissue, leading to the evolution of a pericontusional-damaged area minutes to days after in the initial injury. The mechanisms behind the progression of tissue loss remain under investigation. In this study, we analyzed the spatial–temporal profile of blood flow, apoptotic, and astrocytic–vascular events in the cortical regions around the impact site at time points ranging from 5 h to 2 months after TBI. We performed a mild–moderate controlled cortical impact injury in young adult mice and analyzed the glial and vascular response to injury. We observed a dramatic decrease in perilesional cerebral blood flow (CBF) immediately following the cortical impact that lasted until days later. CBF finally returned to baseline levels by 30 days post-injury (dpi). The initial impact also resulted in an immediate loss of tissue and cavity formation that gradually increased in size until 3 dpi. An increase in dying cells localized in the pericontusional region and a robust astrogliosis were also observed at 3 dpi. A strong vasculature interaction with astrocytes was established at 7 dpi. Glial scar formation began at 7 dpi and seemed to be compact by 60 dpi. Altogether, these results suggest that TBI results in a progression from acute neurodegeneration that precedes astrocytic activation, reformation of the neurovascular unit to glial scar formation. Understanding the multiple processes occurring after TBI is critical to the ability to develop neuroprotective therapeutics to ameliorate the short and long-term consequences of brain injury.

Nickel nanowires induce cell cycle arrest and apoptosis by generation of reactive oxygen species in HeLa cells

Nickel nanowires (Ni NWs) have great potential to be used as a living cell manipulation tool and developed into an anticancer agent. However, their candidacy as biomedical appliances need detailed human cell studies, such as study of the interaction between Ni NWs and tumor cells. The present study investigated the cytotoxicity of Ni NWs in HeLa cells. A dose-dependent inhibition of cell growth was observed by using the MTT assay. We demonstrated that Ni NWs induced oxidative stress by generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Apoptosis induction was evidenced by flow cytometry, annexin V binding assay and DAPI staining. DNA flow cytometric analysis indicated that Ni NWs significantly increased the percentages of cells in S phase compared with control cells. This process was accompanied by the loss of mitochondrial membrane potential. These results revealed that Ni NWs induced apoptosis in HeLa cells via ROS generation and cell cycle arrest.

Early cellular responses against tributyltin chloride exposure in primary cultures derived from various brain regions

Tributyltin (TBT) is a potent biocide and commonly used in various industrial sectors. Humans are mainly exposed through the food chain. We have previously demonstrated tin accumulation in brain following TBT-chloride (TBTC) exposure. In this study, effect of TBTC on dissociated cells from different brain regions was evaluated. Cytotoxicity assay (MTT), mode of cell death (Annexin V/PI assay), oxidative stress parameters (ROS and lipid peroxidation), reducing power of the cell (GSH), mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) and intracellular Ca(2+) were evaluated to ascertain the effect of TBTC. Expression of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) was measured to understand the effect on astroglial cells. TBTC as low as 30 nM was found to reduce GSH levels, whereas higher doses of 300 and 3000 nM induced ROS generation and marked loss in cell viability mainly through apoptosis. Striatum showed higher susceptibility than other regions, which may have further implications on various neurological aspects.

Mechanism of immunotoxicological effects of tributyltin chloride on murine thymocytes

Tributyltin-chloride, a well-known organotin compound, is a widespread environmental toxicant. The immunotoxic effects of tributyltin-chloride on mammalian system and its mechanism is still unclear. This study is designed to explore the mode of action of tributyltin-induced apoptosis and other parallel apoptotic pathways in murine thymocytes. The earliest response in oxidative stress followed by mitochondrial membrane depolarization and caspase-3 activation has been observed. Pre-treatment with N-acetyl cysteine and buthionine sulfoximine effectively inhibited the tributyltin-induced apoptotic DNA and elevated the sub G1 population, respectively. Caspase inhibitors pretreatment prevent tributyltin-induced apoptosis. Western blot and flow cytometry indicate no translocation of apoptosis-inducing factor and endonuclease G in the nuclear fraction from mitochondria. Intracellular Ca(2+) levels are significantly raised by tributyltin chloride. These results clearly demonstrate caspase-dependent apoptotic pathway and support the role of oxidative stress, mitochondrial membrane depolarization, caspase-3 activation, and calcium during tributyltin-chloride (TBTC)-induced thymic apoptosis.