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Yang Y, Yan C, Li A, Qiu J, Yan W, Dang H. Effects of the plastic additive 2,4-di-tert-butylphenol on intestinal microbiota of zebrafish. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 469:133987. [PMID: 38461668 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.133987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2023] [Revised: 02/20/2024] [Accepted: 03/06/2024] [Indexed: 03/12/2024]
Abstract
Plastic additives such as the antioxidant 2,4-di-tert-butylphenol (2,4-DTBP) have been widely detected in aquatic environments, over a wide range of concentrations reaching 300 μg/L in surface water, potentially threatening the health of aquatic organisms and ecosystems. However, knowledge of the specific effects of 2,4-DTBP on aquatic vertebrates is still limited. In this study, adult zebrafish were exposed to different concentrations of 2,4-DTBP (0, 0.01, 0.1 and 1.0 mg/L) for 21 days in the laboratory. The amplicon sequencing results indicated that the diversity and composition of the zebrafish gut microbiota were significantly changed by 2,4-DTBP, with a shift in the dominant flora to more pathogenic genera. Exposure to 2,4-DTBP at 0.1 and 1.0 mg/L significantly increased the body weight and length of zebrafish, suggesting a biological stress response. Structural assembly defects were also observed in the intestinal tissues of zebrafish exposed to 2,4-DTBP, including autolysis of intestinal villi, adhesions and epithelial detachment of intestinal villi, as well as inflammation. The transcriptional expression of some genes showed that 2,4-DTBP adversely affected protein digestion and absorption, glucose metabolism and lipid metabolism. These results are consistent with the PICRUSt2 functional prediction analysis of intestinal microbiota of zebrafish exposed to 2,4-DTBP. This study improves our understanding of the effects of 2,4-DTBP on the health of aquatic vertebrates and ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongmeng Yang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China
| | - Chen Yan
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China
| | - Aifeng Li
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China; Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ocean University of China, Ministry of Education, Qingdao 266100, China.
| | - Jiangbing Qiu
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China; Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ocean University of China, Ministry of Education, Qingdao 266100, China
| | - Wenhui Yan
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China
| | - Hui Dang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China
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2
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Bian C, Zhang J, Zheng X, Qiao M, Li Y, Chen X, Si S. Synthesis and structure-activity relationships of novel 14-membered 2-fluoro ketolides with structural modification at the C11 position. Eur J Med Chem 2024; 267:116181. [PMID: 38354519 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2024.116181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2023] [Revised: 01/16/2024] [Accepted: 01/24/2024] [Indexed: 02/16/2024]
Abstract
A series of novel C11 substituted 14-membered 2-fluoro ketolides were synthesized and evaluated for their antibacterial activity against erythromycin-resistant and erythromycin-susceptible clinical isolates and strains from ATCC. The overall antibacterial spectra of the semi-synthetic antibiotics are similar to that of telithromycin (TEL) and most of them exhibited excellent activity against Gram-positive bacteria (S. epidermidis, S. pneumoniae, S. aureus) and several Gram-negative bacteria (M. catarrhalis, H. influenza). Compounds 11c, 11g, 11h, 11q, 12a, 12b, 12d and 12e displayed 4-16 fold more potency than TEL against all the tested erythromycin-resistant S. epidermidis strains and S. pneumonia SPN19-8 and SPN19-8. Compounds 11b, 11c, 11e, 11g, 11h, 11q, 12a, 12b and 12c showed at least 8 fold potency than TEL against erythromycin-resistant M. catarrhalis BCA19-5 and BCA19-6. Molecular docking suggested compound 12d oriented the macrolide ring and side chain similarly to solithromycin (SOL). Noticeably an additional hydrogen bond was observed between the Lys90 residue of ribosome protein L22 and the carbamate group at the C11 position, which might provide a rational explanation for the enhanced antibacterial activity of target compounds. Therefore this research would offer a new perspective for further structural optimization of the C11 side chain. Based on the results of antibacterial activity, cytotoxicity and structural diversity, 5 compounds (11a, 11b, 11h, 12d and 12i) were selected for the stability testing of human liver microsomes and compound 11a exhibited preferable metabolic stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cong Bian
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, No.1 TiantanXili, Beijing 100050, China
| | - Jing Zhang
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, No.1 TiantanXili, Beijing 100050, China
| | - Xiao Zheng
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, No.1 TiantanXili, Beijing 100050, China
| | - Mengqian Qiao
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, No.1 TiantanXili, Beijing 100050, China
| | - Yan Li
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, No.1 TiantanXili, Beijing 100050, China.
| | - Xiaofang Chen
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, No.1 TiantanXili, Beijing 100050, China.
| | - Shuyi Si
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, No.1 TiantanXili, Beijing 100050, China.
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Chen C, Song J, Pu Q, Liu X, Yan J, Wang X, Wang H, Qian Q. Azithromycin induces neurotoxicity in zebrafish by interfering with the VEGF/Notch signaling pathway. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 903:166505. [PMID: 37625730 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.166505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2023] [Revised: 08/08/2023] [Accepted: 08/21/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023]
Abstract
Azithromycin (AZM) is a widely used antibiotic in both human and veterinary medicine, and its use has significantly increased during the COVID-19 pandemic. However, potential adverse effects of AZM on aquatic organisms have not been well studied. In this study, we explored the neurotoxicity of AZM in zebrafish and delved into its underlying mechanisms. Our results showed that AZM exposure resulted in a spectrum of detrimental effects in zebrafish, encompassing abnormal behaviors, damaged neuronal development, aberrant lateral line nervous system development, vascular malformations and perturbed expression of genes related to neural development. Moreover, we observed a concentration-dependent exacerbation of these neurotoxic manifestations with increasing AZM concentrations. Notably, AZM induced excessive cell apoptosis and oxidative stress damage. In addition, alterations in the expression levels of the genes involved in the VEGF/Notch signaling pathway were evident in AZM-exposed zebrafish. Consequently, we hypothesize that AZM may induce neurotoxicity by influencing the VEGF/Notch signaling pathway. To validate this hypothesis, we introduced a VEGF signaling inhibitor, axitinib, and a Notch signaling agonist, valproic acid, alongside AZM exposure. Remarkably, the administration of these rescue compounds significantly mitigated the neurotoxic effects induced by AZM. This dual verification provides compelling evidence that AZM indeed induces neurotoxicity during the early developmental stages of zebrafish, primarily through its interference with the VEGF/Notch pathway. Innovatively, our study reveals the molecular mechanism of AZM-induced neurotoxicity from the perspective of the close connection between blood vessels and nervous system. These findings provide new insights into the potential mechanisms underlying the neurotoxic effect of antibiotics and highlight the need for further investigation into the ecotoxicological effects of antibiotics on aquatic organisms and the potential risks to human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen Chen
- National and Local Joint Engineering Laboratory of Municipal Sewage Resource Utilization Technology, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, Suzhou 215009, China
| | - Jie Song
- National and Local Joint Engineering Laboratory of Municipal Sewage Resource Utilization Technology, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, Suzhou 215009, China
| | - Qian Pu
- National and Local Joint Engineering Laboratory of Municipal Sewage Resource Utilization Technology, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, Suzhou 215009, China
| | - Xingcheng Liu
- National and Local Joint Engineering Laboratory of Municipal Sewage Resource Utilization Technology, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, Suzhou 215009, China
| | - Jin Yan
- National and Local Joint Engineering Laboratory of Municipal Sewage Resource Utilization Technology, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, Suzhou 215009, China
| | - Xuedong Wang
- National and Local Joint Engineering Laboratory of Municipal Sewage Resource Utilization Technology, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, Suzhou 215009, China
| | - Huili Wang
- National and Local Joint Engineering Laboratory of Municipal Sewage Resource Utilization Technology, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, Suzhou 215009, China.
| | - Qiuhui Qian
- National and Local Joint Engineering Laboratory of Municipal Sewage Resource Utilization Technology, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, Suzhou 215009, China.
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4
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Hou Y, Liu X, Qin Y, Hou Y, Hou J, Wu Q, Xu W. Zebrafish as model organisms for toxicological evaluations in the field of food science. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2023; 22:3481-3505. [PMID: 37458294 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.13213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2022] [Revised: 06/29/2023] [Accepted: 07/03/2023] [Indexed: 09/13/2023]
Abstract
Food safety has long been an area of concern. The selection of stable and efficient model organisms is particularly important for food toxicology studies. Zebrafish (Danio rerio) are small model vertebrates, and 70% of human genes have at least one zebrafish ortholog. Zebrafish have advantages as model organisms due to their short life cycle, strong reproductive ability, easy rearing, and low cost. Zebrafish embryos have the advantage of being sensitive to the breeding environment and thus have been used as biosensors. Zebrafish and their embryos have been widely used for food toxicology assessments. This review provides a systematic and comprehensive summary of food toxicology studies using zebrafish as model organisms. First, we briefly introduce the multidimensional mechanisms and structure-activity relationship studies of food toxicological assessment. Second, we categorize these studies according to eight types of hazards in foods, including mycotoxins, pesticides, antibiotics, heavy metals, endocrine disruptors, food additives, nanoparticles, and other food-related ingredients. Finally, we list the applications of zebrafish in food toxicology studies in line with future research prospects, aiming to provide a valuable reference for researchers in the field of food science.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingyu Hou
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Edible Wild Plants Conservation and Utilization, Hubei Normal University, Huangshi, Hubei, China
| | - Xixia Liu
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Edible Wild Plants Conservation and Utilization, Hubei Normal University, Huangshi, Hubei, China
| | - Yanlin Qin
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Edible Wild Plants Conservation and Utilization, Hubei Normal University, Huangshi, Hubei, China
| | - Yaoyao Hou
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Edible Wild Plants Conservation and Utilization, Hubei Normal University, Huangshi, Hubei, China
| | - Jianjun Hou
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Edible Wild Plants Conservation and Utilization, Hubei Normal University, Huangshi, Hubei, China
| | - Qin Wu
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Edible Wild Plants Conservation and Utilization, Hubei Normal University, Huangshi, Hubei, China
| | - Wentao Xu
- Key Laboratory of Precision Nutrition and Food Quality, Beijing Laboratory for Food Quality and Safety, Department of Nutrition and Health, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
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5
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Chang C, Li H, Zhang R. Zebrafish facilitate non-alcoholic fatty liver disease research: Tools, models and applications. Liver Int 2023; 43:1385-1398. [PMID: 37122203 DOI: 10.1111/liv.15601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2022] [Revised: 04/14/2023] [Accepted: 04/20/2023] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) has become an increasingly epidemic metabolic disease worldwide. NAFLD can gradually deteriorate from simple liver steatosis, inflammation and fibrosis to liver cirrhosis and/or hepatocellular carcinoma. Zebrafish are vertebrate animal models that are genetically and metabolically conserved with mammals and have unique advantages such as high fecundity, rapid development ex utero and optical transparency. These features have rendered zebrafish an emerging model system for liver diseases and metabolic diseases favoured by many researchers in recent years. In the present review, we summarize a series of tools for zebrafish NAFLD research and the models established through different dietary feeding, hepatotoxic chemical treatments and genetic manipulations via transgenic or genome editing technologies. We also discuss how zebrafish models facilitate NAFLD studies by providing novel insights into NAFLD pathogenesis, toxicology research, and drug evaluation and discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheng Chang
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Huicong Li
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Ruilin Zhang
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
- Hubei Provincial Key Laboratory of Developmentally Originated Disease, Wuhan, China
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6
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Li Z, Lu T, Li M, Mortimer M, Guo LH. Direct and gut microbiota-mediated toxicities of environmental antibiotics to fish and aquatic invertebrates. CHEMOSPHERE 2023; 329:138692. [PMID: 37059203 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.138692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2023] [Revised: 04/11/2023] [Accepted: 04/12/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The accumulation of antibiotics in the environment has ecological impacts that have received less attention than the human health risks of antibiotics, although the effects could be far-reaching. This review discusses the effects of antibiotics on the health of fish and zooplankton, manifesting in direct or dysbiosis-mediated physiological impairment. Acute effects of antibiotics in these organism groups are usually induced at high concentrations (LC50 at ∼100-1000 mg/L) that are not commonly present in aquatic environments. However, when exposed to sub-lethal, environmentally relevant levels of antibiotics (ng/L-μg/L) disruption of physiological homeostasis, development, and fecundity can occur. Antibiotics at similar or lower concentrations can induce dysbiosis of gut microbiota which can affect the health of fish and invertebrates. We show that the data about molecular-level effects of antibiotics at low exposure concentrations are limited, hindering environmental risk assessment and species sensitivity analysis. Fish and crustaceans (Daphnia sp.) were the two groups of aquatic organisms used most often for antibiotic toxicity testing, including microbiota analysis. While low levels of antibiotics impact the composition and function of gut microbiota in aquatic organisms, the correlation and causality of these changes to host physiology are not straightforward. In some cases, negative or lack of correlation have occurred, and, unexpectedly, gut microbial diversity has been unaffected or increased upon exposure to environmental levels of antibiotics. Efforts to incorporate functional analyses of gut microbiota are beginning to provide valuable mechanistic information, but more data is needed for ecological risk assessment of antibiotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhi Li
- College of Life Science, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310018, China; Institute of Environmental and Health Sciences, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310018, China
| | - Tingyu Lu
- College of Life Science, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310018, China; Institute of Environmental and Health Sciences, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310018, China
| | - Minjie Li
- Institute of Environmental and Health Sciences, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310018, China; College of Quality and Safety Engineering, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310018, China
| | - Monika Mortimer
- Institute of Environmental and Health Sciences, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310018, China; College of Quality and Safety Engineering, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310018, China.
| | - Liang-Hong Guo
- Institute of Environmental and Health Sciences, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310018, China; College of Quality and Safety Engineering, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310018, China.
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7
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Zhang MQ, Wu GZ, Zhang JP, Hu CQ. The comparative analysis of gastrointestinal toxicity of azithromycin and 3'-decladinosyl azithromycin on zebrafish larvae. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2023; 469:116529. [PMID: 37100089 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2023.116529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2022] [Revised: 04/13/2023] [Accepted: 04/19/2023] [Indexed: 04/28/2023]
Abstract
The most commonly reported side effect of azithromycin is gastrointestinal (GI) disorders, and the main acid degradation product is 3'-Decladinosyl azithromycin (impurity J). We aimed to compare the GI toxicity of azithromycin and impurity J on zebrafish larvae and investigate the mechanism causing the differential GI toxicity. Results of our study showed that the GI toxicity induced by impurity J was higher than that of azithromycin in zebrafish larvae, and the effects of impurity J on transcription in the digestive system of zebrafish larvae were significantly stronger than those of azithromycin. Additionally, impurity J exerts stronger cytotoxic effects on GES-1 cells than azithromycin. Simultaneously, impurity J significantly increased ghsrb levels in the zebrafish intestinal tract and ghsr levels in human GES-1 cells compared to azithromycin, and ghsr overexpression significantly reduced cell viability, indicating that GI toxicity induced by azithromycin and impurity J may be correlated with ghsr overexpression induced by the two compounds. Meanwhile, molecular docking analysis showed that the highest -CDOCKER interaction energy scores with the zebrafish GHSRb or human GHSR protein might reflect the effect of azithromycin and impurity J on the expression of zebrafish ghsrb or human ghsr. Thus, our results suggest that impurity J has higher GI toxicity than azithromycin due to its greater ability to elevate ghsrb expression in zebrafish intestinal tract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miao-Qing Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Biotechnology of Antibiotics, The National Health Commission (NHC), Beijing Key Laboratory of Antimicrobial Agents, Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, China
| | - Gui-Zhi Wu
- National Center for ADR Monitoring, Beijing 100022, China
| | - Jing-Pu Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Biotechnology of Antibiotics, The National Health Commission (NHC), Beijing Key Laboratory of Antimicrobial Agents, Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, China.
| | - Chang-Qin Hu
- National Institutes for Food and Drug Control, Beijing 102629, China.
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8
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Monné Rodríguez JM, Frisk AL, Kreutzer R, Lemarchand T, Lezmi S, Saravanan C, Stierstorfer B, Thuilliez C, Vezzali E, Wieczorek G, Yun SW, Schaudien D. European Society of Toxicologic Pathology (Pathology 2.0 Molecular Pathology Special Interest Group): Review of In Situ Hybridization Techniques for Drug Research and Development. Toxicol Pathol 2023; 51:92-111. [PMID: 37449403 PMCID: PMC10467011 DOI: 10.1177/01926233231178282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/18/2023]
Abstract
In situ hybridization (ISH) is used for the localization of specific nucleic acid sequences in cells or tissues by complementary binding of a nucleotide probe to a specific target nucleic acid sequence. In the last years, the specificity and sensitivity of ISH assays were improved by innovative techniques like synthetic nucleic acids and tandem oligonucleotide probes combined with signal amplification methods like branched DNA, hybridization chain reaction and tyramide signal amplification. These improvements increased the application spectrum for ISH on formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissues. ISH is a powerful tool to investigate DNA, mRNA transcripts, regulatory noncoding RNA, and therapeutic oligonucleotides. ISH can be used to obtain spatial information of a cell type, subcellular localization, or expression levels of targets. Since immunohistochemistry and ISH share similar workflows, their combination can address simultaneous transcriptomics and proteomics questions. The goal of this review paper is to revisit the current state of the scientific approaches in ISH and its application in drug research and development.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Seong-Wook Yun
- Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co. KG, Biberach an der Riß, Germany
| | - Dirk Schaudien
- Fraunhofer Institute for Toxicology and Experimental Medicine, Hannover, Germany
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9
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Wang W, Weng Y, Luo T, Wang Q, Yang G, Jin Y. Antimicrobial and the Resistances in the Environment: Ecological and Health Risks, Influencing Factors, and Mitigation Strategies. TOXICS 2023; 11:185. [PMID: 36851059 PMCID: PMC9965714 DOI: 10.3390/toxics11020185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2023] [Revised: 02/10/2023] [Accepted: 02/15/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Antimicrobial contamination and antimicrobial resistance have become global environmental and health problems. A large number of antimicrobials are used in medical and animal husbandry, leading to the continuous release of residual antimicrobials into the environment. It not only causes ecological harm, but also promotes the occurrence and spread of antimicrobial resistance. The role of environmental factors in antimicrobial contamination and the spread of antimicrobial resistance is often overlooked. There are a large number of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria and antimicrobial resistance genes in human beings, which increases the likelihood that pathogenic bacteria acquire resistance, and also adds opportunities for human contact with antimicrobial-resistant pathogens. In this paper, we review the fate of antimicrobials and antimicrobial resistance in the environment, including the occurrence, spread, and impact on ecological and human health. More importantly, this review emphasizes a number of environmental factors that can exacerbate antimicrobial contamination and the spread of antimicrobial resistance. In the future, the timely removal of antimicrobials and antimicrobial resistance genes in the environment will be more effective in alleviating antimicrobial contamination and antimicrobial resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weitao Wang
- College of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310032, China
| | - You Weng
- College of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310032, China
| | - Ting Luo
- State Key Laboratory for Managing Biotic and Chemical Threats to the Quality and Safety of Agro-Products, Laboratory (Hangzhou) for Risk Assessment of Agricultural Products of Ministry of Agriculture, Institute of Agro-Product Safety and Nutrition, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310021, China
| | - Qiang Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Managing Biotic and Chemical Threats to the Quality and Safety of Agro-Products, Laboratory (Hangzhou) for Risk Assessment of Agricultural Products of Ministry of Agriculture, Institute of Agro-Product Safety and Nutrition, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310021, China
| | - Guiling Yang
- State Key Laboratory for Managing Biotic and Chemical Threats to the Quality and Safety of Agro-Products, Laboratory (Hangzhou) for Risk Assessment of Agricultural Products of Ministry of Agriculture, Institute of Agro-Product Safety and Nutrition, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310021, China
| | - Yuanxiang Jin
- College of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310032, China
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10
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Liu L, Yang Y, Yang F, Lin Y, Liu K, Wang X, Zhang Y. A mechanistic investigation about hepatoxic effects of borneol using zebrafish. Hum Exp Toxicol 2023; 42:9603271221149011. [PMID: 36594174 DOI: 10.1177/09603271221149011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Except for clinical value, borneol is routinely used in food and cosmetics with seldom safety evaluation. To investigate its hepatoxicity, we exposed 3 dpf (days post fertilization) larval zebrafish to borneol at a gradient of concentrations (200-500 μM) for 3 days. Herein, our results revealed that high doses of borneol (300-500 μM) caused liver size decrease or lateral lobe absence. Borneol also seriously disturbed the hepatic protein metabolism presented with the increased activity of alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and lipid metabolism shown with the increased level of triglycerides (TG) and total cholesterol (TC). The lipid accumulation (oil red staining) was detected as well. Additionally, significant upregulation of genes was detected that related to oxidative stress, lipid anabolism, endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS), and autophagy. Conversely, the lipid metabolism-related genes were markedly downregulated. Moreover, the changes in the superoxide dismutase activity and the level of glutathione and malondialdehyde raised the likelihood of lipid peroxidation. The outcomes indicated the involvement of oxidative stress, ERS, lipid metabolism, and autophagy in borneol-induced lipid metabolic disorder and hepatic injury. This study will provide a more comprehensive understanding of borneol hepatoxicity and the theoretical basis for the safe use of this compound.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Liu
- School of Pharmacy, 12412Changzhou University, Changzhou, China
| | - Y Yang
- School of Pharmacy, 12412Changzhou University, Changzhou, China.,Biology Institute, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan, China
| | - F Yang
- Biology Institute, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan, China
| | - Y Lin
- School of Pharmacy, 12412Changzhou University, Changzhou, China
| | - K Liu
- Biology Institute, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan, China
| | - X Wang
- Biology Institute, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan, China
| | - Y Zhang
- Biology Institute, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan, China
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11
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Zhang MQ, Zhang JP, Hu CQ. A Rapid Assessment Model for Liver Toxicity of Macrolides and an Integrative Evaluation for Azithromycin Impurities. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:860702. [PMID: 35444552 PMCID: PMC9014295 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.860702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2022] [Accepted: 03/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Impurities in pharmaceuticals of potentially hazardous materials may cause drug safety problems. Macrolide antibiotic preparations include active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) and different types of impurities with similar structures, and the amount of these impurities is usually very low and difficult to be separated for toxicity evaluation. Our previous study indicated that hepatotoxicity induced by macrolides was correlated with c-fos overexpression. Here, we report an assessment of macrolide-related liver toxicity by ADMET prediction, molecular docking, structure–toxicity relationship, and experimental verification via detection of the c-fos gene expression in liver cells. The results showed that a rapid assessment model for the prediction of hepatotoxicity of macrolide antibiotics could be established by calculation of the -CDOCKER interaction energy score with the FosB/JunD bZIP domain and then confirmed by the detection of the c-fos gene expression in L02 cells. Telithromycin, a positive compound of liver toxicity, was used to verify the correctness of the model through comparative analysis of liver toxicity in zebrafish and cytotoxicity in L02 cells exposed to telithromycin and azithromycin. The prediction interval (48.1∼53.1) for quantitative hepatotoxicity in the model was calculated from the docking scores of seven macrolide antibiotics commonly used in clinics. We performed the prediction interval to virtual screening of azithromycin impurities with high hepatotoxicity and then experimentally confirmed by liver toxicity in zebrafish and c-fos gene expression. Simultaneously, we found the hepatotoxicity of azithromycin impurities may be related to the charge of nitrogen (N) atoms on the side chain group at the C5 position via structure–toxicity relationship of azithromycin impurities with different structures. This study provides a theoretical basis for improvement of the quality of macrolide antibiotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miao-Qing Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Biotechnology of Antibiotics, The National Health Commission (NHC), Beijing Key Laboratory of Antimicrobial Agents, Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Jing-Pu Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Biotechnology of Antibiotics, The National Health Commission (NHC), Beijing Key Laboratory of Antimicrobial Agents, Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Chang-Qin Hu
- National Institutes for Food and Drug Control, Beijing, China
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Wang G, Fan C, Wang H, Jia C, Li X, Yang J, Zhang T, Gao S, Min X, Huang J. Type VI secretion system-associated FHA domain protein TagH regulates the hemolytic activity and virulence of Vibrio cholerae. Gut Microbes 2022; 14:2055440. [PMID: 35383540 PMCID: PMC8993066 DOI: 10.1080/19490976.2022.2055440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The type VI secretion system (T6SS) and hemolysin HlyA are important virulence factors in Vibrio cholerae. The forkhead-associated (FHA) domain is a conserved phosphopeptide binding domain that exists in many regulatory modules. The FHA domain protein-encoding gene is conserved in the T6SS gene cluster and regulates the assembly and secretion of the T6SS. This study shows for the first time that the FHA domain protein TagH plays a role in controlling the hemolytic activity of V. cholerae, in addition to regulating the T6SS. TagH negatively regulates HlyA expression at the transcriptional and post-translational levels. The phosphopeptide binding sites of the FHA domain of TagH play a key role in the regulation of hemolytic activity. The deletion of tagH enhances the intestinal pathogenicity and extraintestinal invasion ability of V. cholerae, which mainly depend on the expression of HlyA. This study provides evidence that helps unravel the novel regulatory role of TagH in HlyA and provides critical insights which will aid in the development of strategies to manage HlyA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guangli Wang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China
| | - Chan Fan
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China,School of Laboratory Medicine, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China
| | - Hui Wang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China,School of Laboratory Medicine, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China
| | - Chengyi Jia
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China,School of Laboratory Medicine, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China
| | - Xiaoting Li
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China,School of Laboratory Medicine, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China
| | - Jianru Yang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China,School of Laboratory Medicine, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China
| | - Tao Zhang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China,School of Laboratory Medicine, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China
| | - Song Gao
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China,School of Laboratory Medicine, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China
| | - Xun Min
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China,School of Laboratory Medicine, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China,CONTACT Xun Min Department of Laboratory Medicine, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China
| | - Jian Huang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China,School of Laboratory Medicine, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China,Jian Huang School of Laboratory Medicine, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi,Guizhou, China
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13
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Mendonça-Gomes JM, da Costa Araújo AP, da Luz TM, Charlie-Silva I, Braz HLB, Jorge RJB, Ahmed MAI, Nóbrega RH, Vogel CFA, Malafaia G. Environmental impacts of COVID-19 treatment: Toxicological evaluation of azithromycin and hydroxychloroquine in adult zebrafish. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 790:148129. [PMID: 34380260 PMCID: PMC8164503 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.148129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2021] [Revised: 05/24/2021] [Accepted: 05/26/2021] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
One of the most impact issues in recent years refers to the COVID-19 pandemic, the consequences of which thousands of deaths recorded worldwide, are still inferior understood. Its impacts on the environment and aquatic biota constitute a fertile field of investigation. Thus, to predict the impact of the indiscriminate use of azithromycin (AZT) and hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) in this pandemic context, we aim to assess their toxicological risks when isolated or in combination, using zebrafish (Danio rerio) as a model system. In summary, we observed that 72 h of exposure to AZT and HCQ (alone or in binary combination, both at 2.5 μg/L) induced the reduction of total protein levels, accompanied by increased levels of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, hydrogen peroxide, reactive oxygen species and nitrite, suggesting a REDOX imbalance and possible oxidative stress. Molecular docking analysis further supported this data by demonstrating a strong affinity of AZT and HCQ with their potential antioxidant targets (catalase and superoxide dismutase). In the protein-protein interaction network analysis, AZT showed a putative interaction with different cytochrome P450 molecules, while HCQ demonstrated interaction with caspase-3. The functional enrichment analysis also demonstrated diverse biological processes and molecular mechanisms related to the maintenance of REDOX homeostasis. Moreover, we also demonstrated an increase in the AChE activity followed by a reduction in the neuromasts of the head when zebrafish were exposed to the mixture AZT + HCQ. These data suggest a neurotoxic effect of the drugs. Altogether, our study demonstrated that short exposure to AZT, HCQ or their mixture induced physiological alterations in adult zebrafish. These effects can compromise the health of these animals, suggesting that the increase of AZT and HCQ due to COVID-19 pandemic can negatively impact freshwater ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Amanda Pereira da Costa Araújo
- Laboratório de Pesquisas Biológicas, Instituto Federal Goiano, Urutaí, GO, Brazil; Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Ambientais, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Goiânia, GO, Brazil
| | | | - Ives Charlie-Silva
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | | | - Roberta Jeane Bezerra Jorge
- Drug Research and Development Center, Federal University of Ceará, Brazil; Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Federal University of Ceará, Brazil
| | | | - Rafael Henrique Nóbrega
- Reproductive and Molecular Biology Group, Department of Structural and Functional Biology, Institute of Biosciences, São Paulo State University, Botucatu, SP, Brazil
| | - Christoph F A Vogel
- Department of Environmental Toxicology and Center for Health and the Environment, University of California, Davis, USA
| | - Guilherme Malafaia
- Laboratório de Pesquisas Biológicas, Instituto Federal Goiano, Urutaí, GO, Brazil; Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biotecnologia e Biodiversidade, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Goiânia, GO, Brazil; Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia e Conservação de Recursos Naturais, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia, MG, Brazil; Programa de Pós-Graduação em Conservação de Recursos Naturais do Cerrado, Instituto Federal Goiano, Urutaí, GO, Brazil.
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14
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Veseli A, Švorc Ľ, Sopaj F. Additional Studies on the Electrochemical Behaviour of Three Macrolides on Pt and Carbon Based Electrodes. ELECTROANAL 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/elan.202100183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Albana Veseli
- Department of Chemistry Faculty of Natural and Mathematical Sciences University of Prishtina ‘Hasan Prishtina' St. “Nëna Tereze” nr. 5 10 000 Prishtina Kosovo
- Academy of Science of Albania Unit of Albanian Nanoscience and Nanotechnology – NanoAlb 1000 Tirana Albania
| | - Ľubomír Švorc
- Institute of Analytical Chemistry Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava Radlinského 9 Bratislava SK-812 37 Slovak Republic
| | - Flamur Sopaj
- Department of Chemistry Faculty of Natural and Mathematical Sciences University of Prishtina ‘Hasan Prishtina' St. “Nëna Tereze” nr. 5 10 000 Prishtina Kosovo
- Academy of Science of Albania Unit of Albanian Nanoscience and Nanotechnology – NanoAlb 1000 Tirana Albania
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15
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Quantitative assessment of transferable antibiotic resistance genes in zebrafish (Danio rerio) fed Hermetia illucens-based feed. Anim Feed Sci Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2021.114978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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16
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Identification of Erythromycin and Clarithromycin Metabolites Formed in Chicken Liver Microsomes Using Liquid Chromatography-High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry. Foods 2021; 10:foods10071504. [PMID: 34209740 PMCID: PMC8304660 DOI: 10.3390/foods10071504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2021] [Revised: 06/24/2021] [Accepted: 06/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Nontargeted analysis can be used for the rapid screening and confirmatory analysis of veterinary drugs and their metabolites, which are important for the comprehensive safety evaluation of animal-derived foods. Here, a novel nontargeted screening approach based on liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray ionization-high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC/ESI-HR-MS) was developed to determine erythromycin, clarithromycin, and their metabolites in chicken liver microsomes. Erythromycin and clarithromycin were incubated in vitro in the presence of NADPH for 60 min to generate metabolites in chicken liver microsomes. After the incubation, the supernatant was extracted using ultrasonic shaking, orbital shaking, and centrifugation before analysis using LC/ESI-HR-MS in positive ion mode on an Agilent Eclipse Plus C18 column (100 mm × 2.1 mm; i.d. 3.5 µm) with 0.1 percent formic acid-water and acetonitrile as the mobile phases for gradient elution at 0.4 mL/min. The results show that erythromycin can produce N-desmethyl-erythromycin A in chicken liver microsomes, but clarithromycin cannot produce N-desmethyl-clarithromycin in chicken liver microsomes. The N-desmethyl-erythromycin A and N-desmethyl-clarithromycin were tentatively identified in chicken liver microsomes using the established quick analytic method, which will provide a theoretical foundation for future research on pharmacokinetics and drug elimination in poultry.
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Jijie R, Mihalache G, Balmus IM, Strungaru SA, Baltag ES, Ciobica A, Nicoara M, Faggio C. Zebrafish as a Screening Model to Study the Single and Joint Effects of Antibiotics. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2021; 14:ph14060578. [PMID: 34204339 PMCID: PMC8234794 DOI: 10.3390/ph14060578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2021] [Revised: 06/11/2021] [Accepted: 06/12/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The overuse of antibiotics combined with the limitation of wastewater facilities has resulted in drug residue accumulation in the natural environment. Thus, in recent years, the presence of antibiotic residues in the environment has raised concerns over the potential harmful effects on ecosystems and human health. The in vivo studies represent an essential step to study the potential impact induced by pharmaceutical exposure. Due to the limitations of traditional vertebrate model systems, zebrafish (Danio rerio) has recently emerged as a promising animal model to study the toxic effects of drugs and their therapeutic efficacy. The present review summarizes the recent advances made on the toxicity of seven representative classes of antibiotics, namely aminoglycosides, β-lactams, macrolides, quinolones, sulfonamides, tetracyclines and polyether antibiotics, in zebrafish, as well as the combined effects of antibiotic mixtures, to date. Despite a significant amount of the literature describing the impact of single antibiotic exposure, little information exists on the effects of antibiotic mixtures using zebrafish as an animal model. Most of the research papers on this topic have focused on antibiotic toxicity in zebrafish across different developmental stages rather than on their efficacy assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roxana Jijie
- Marine Biological Station “Prof. dr. I. Borcea”, “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Iasi, Nicolae Titulescu Street, No. 163, 9007018 Agigea, Romania;
- Department of Exact and Natural Sciences, Institute of Interdisciplinary Research, “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Iasi, 11 Carol I, 700506 Iasi, Romania; (I.-M.B.); (S.-A.S.)
- Correspondence: (R.J.); (C.F.)
| | - Gabriela Mihalache
- Integrated Center of Environmental Science Studies in the North Eastern Region (CERNESIM), “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Iasi, 11 Carol I, 700506 Iasi, Romania;
- Department of Horticultural Technologies, “Ion Ionescu de la Brad” University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, 700440 Iasi, Romania
| | - Ioana-Miruna Balmus
- Department of Exact and Natural Sciences, Institute of Interdisciplinary Research, “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Iasi, 11 Carol I, 700506 Iasi, Romania; (I.-M.B.); (S.-A.S.)
| | - Stefan-Adrian Strungaru
- Department of Exact and Natural Sciences, Institute of Interdisciplinary Research, “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Iasi, 11 Carol I, 700506 Iasi, Romania; (I.-M.B.); (S.-A.S.)
| | - Emanuel Stefan Baltag
- Marine Biological Station “Prof. dr. I. Borcea”, “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Iasi, Nicolae Titulescu Street, No. 163, 9007018 Agigea, Romania;
| | - Alin Ciobica
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Biology, “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Iasi, B-dul Carol I, 700505 Iasi, Romania; (A.C.); (M.N.)
| | - Mircea Nicoara
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Biology, “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Iasi, B-dul Carol I, 700505 Iasi, Romania; (A.C.); (M.N.)
- Doctoral School of Geosciences, Faculty of Geography-Geology, “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Iasi, B-dul Carol I, 700505 Iasi, Romania
| | - Caterina Faggio
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Viale F. Stagno, d’Alcontres, 31 98166 S. Agata-Messina, Italy
- Correspondence: (R.J.); (C.F.)
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Veterinary Drug Residues in Animal-Derived Foods: Sample Preparation and Analytical Methods. Foods 2021; 10:foods10030555. [PMID: 33800096 PMCID: PMC8000452 DOI: 10.3390/foods10030555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2021] [Accepted: 03/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Veterinary drugs are used to treat livestock and aquatic diseases and thus are introduced into animal-derived foods, endangering consumer health and safety. Antibiotic resistance is rapidly becoming a major worldwide problem, and there has been a steady increase in the number of pathogens that show multi-drug resistance. Illegal and excessive use of veterinary drugs in animals and aquaculture has serious adverse effects on humans and on all other environmental organisms. It is necessary to develop simple extraction methods and fast analytical methods to effectively detect veterinary drug residues in animal-derived foods. This review summarizes the application of various sample extraction techniques and detection and quantification methods for veterinary drug residues reported in the last decade (2010-2020). This review compares the advantages and disadvantages of various extraction techniques and detection methods and describes advanced methods, such as those that use electrochemical biosensors, piezoelectric biosensors, optical biosensors, and molecularly imprinted polymer biosensors. Finally, the future prospects and trends related to extraction methods, detection methods and advanced methods for the analysis of veterinary drug residues in animal-derived foods are summarized.
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