Zearalenone and 17 β-estradiol induced damages in male rats reproduction potential; evidence for ERα and ERβ receptors expression and steroidogenesis

Zearalenone modulates the function of goat endometrial cells via the mitochondrial quality control system

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a mycotoxin known for its estrogen-like effects, which can disrupt the normal physiological function of endometrial cells and potentially lead to abortion in female animals. However, the precise mechanism by which ZEN regulates endometrial function remains unclear. In this study, we found that the binding receptor estrogen receptors for ZEN is extensively expressed across various segments of the uterus and within endometrial cells, and a certain concentration of ZEN treatment reduced the proliferation capacity of goat endometrial epithelial cells (EECs) and endometrial stromal cells (ESCs). Meanwhile, cell cycle analysis revealed that ZEN treatment leaded to cell cycle arrest in goat EECs and ESCs. To explore the underlying mechanism, we investigated the mitochondrial quality control systems and observed that ZEN triggered excessive mitochondrial fission and disturbed the balance of mitochondrial fusion-fission dynamics, impaired mitochondrial biogenesis, increased mitochondrial unfolded protein response and mitophagy in goat EECs and ESCs. Additionally, ZEN treatment reduced the activities of mitochondrial respiratory chain complexes, heightened the production of hydrogen peroxide and reactive oxygen species, and caused cellular oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction. These results suggest that ZEN has adverse effects on goat endometrium cells by disrupting the mitochondrial quality control system and affecting cell cycle and proliferation. Understanding the underlying molecular pathways involved in ZEN-induced mitochondrial dysfunction and its consequences on cell function will provide critical insights into the reproductive toxicity of ZEN and contribute to safeguarding the health and wellbeing of animals and humans exposed to this mycotoxin.

Heme Oxygenase-1 Regulates Zearalenone-Induced Oxidative Stress and Apoptosis in Sheep Follicular Granulosa Cells

Zearalenone (ZEA) is a common non-steroidal estrogenic mycotoxin found in a range of animal feeds and poses a serious threat to the reproductive health of farm animals and humans. However, the mechanism underlying ZEA-induced reproductive toxicity in sheep remains unknown. Granulosa cells are crucial for egg maturation and the fertility of female sheep. In this study, we aimed to examine the impact of different ZEA concentrations on sheep follicular granulosa cells and to elucidate the potential molecular mechanism underlying ZEA-induced toxicity using transcriptome sequencing and molecular biological approaches. Treating primary sheep follicular granulosa cells with different concentrations of ZEA promoted the overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS), increased lipid peroxidation products, led to cellular oxidative stress, decreased antioxidant enzyme activities, and induced cell apoptosis. Using transcriptome approaches, 1395 differentially expressed genes were obtained from sheep follicular granulosa cells cultured in vitro after ZEA treatment. Among them, heme oxygenase-1 (HMOX1) was involved in 11 biological processes. The protein interaction network indicated interactions between HMOX1 and oxidative and apoptotic proteins. In addition, N-acetylcysteine pretreatment effectively reduced the ZEA-induced increase in the expression of HMOX1 and Caspase3 by eliminating ROS. Hence, we suggest that HMOX1 is a key differential gene involved in the regulation of ZEA-induced oxidative stress and apoptosis in follicular granulosa cells. These findings provide novel insights into the prevention and control of mycotoxins in livestock.

Isorhamnetin protects porcine oocytes from zearalenone-induced reproductive toxicity through the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway

BACKGROUND

Zearalenone (ZEA) widely exists in moldy grains, which seriously destroys the fertility of females. Isorhamnetin, a natural flavonoid, has extensive of pharmacological activities. However, the beneficial effect and the underlying molecular mechanism of isorhamnetin involvement in ZEA-induced porcine oocyte damage have not been investigated.

METHODS

Oocytes were treated with different concentrations of ZEA (3, 5, 8 and 10 μmol/L) and isorhamnetin (5, 10, 20 and 30 μmol/L) for 44 h at 39 ℃. ZEA (5 μmol/L) and isorhamnetin (10 μmol/L) were selected for subsequent studies. Polar body exclusion rate, apoptosis rate and apoptosis related proteins, ROS levels and SOD2 protein, mitochondrial membrane potential and distribution, endoplasmic reticulum distribution and proteins expression, and PI3K, Akt and p-Akt proteins expression of oocytes were detected. In addition, the effect of PI3K antagonist (LY294002) on oocyte nuclear maturation and apoptosis were used to determine the involvement of PI3K/Akt signaling pathway.

RESULTS

Our findings showed that ZEA exposure damaged oocytes and isorhamnetin therapy restored the developmental capability of porcine oocytes. Isorhamnetin promoted polar body extrusion rate to rescue ZEA-induced meiotic arrest in porcine oocytes. Isorhamnetin alleviated ZEA-induced oxidative stress by stimulating SOD2 protein expression and inhibiting ROS production. Moreover, isorhamnetin enhanced normal mitochondrial distribution and mitochondrial membrane potential to prevent mitochondrial dysfunction induced by ZEA. Changing the expression of endoplasmic reticulum stress-related marker proteins (CHOP, GRP78) and the distribution rate of normal endoplasmic reticulum showed that isorhamnetin relieved ZEA-caused endoplasmic reticulum stress. Mechanistically, isorhamnetin decreased Bax/Bcl-2 protein expression and inhibited ZEA-induced apoptosis through PI3K/Akt signaling pathway.

CONCLUSIONS

Collectively, these results suggest that isorhamnetin protects oocytes from ZEA-caused damage through PI3K/Akt signaling pathway, which enhances meiotic maturation and mitochondrial function, and inhibits early apoptosis, oxidative stress and endoplasmic reticulum stress in porcine oocytes. Our study provides a new strategy for solving the reproductive toxicity induced by ZEA and treating woman infertility. A possible mechanism by which isorhamnetin protected porcine oocytes from ZEA-induced damage. Isorhamnetin inhibited meiosis arrest and apoptosis of porcine oocytes induced by ZEA through the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway. Moreover, isorhamnetin repaired ZEA-induced oocyte damage by alleviating oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction and ER stress.

Immunohistochemical Expression (IE) of Oestrogen Receptors in the Intestines of Prepubertal Gilts Exposed to Zearalenone

This study was conducted to determine if a low monotonic dose of zearalenone (ZEN) affects the immunohistochemical expression (IE) of oestrogen receptor alpha (ERα) and oestrogen receptor beta (ERβ) in the intestines of sexually immature gilts. Group C (control group; n = 18) gilts were given a placebo. Group E (experimental group; n = 18) gilts were dosed orally with 40 μg ZEN /kg body weight (BW), each day before morning feeding. Samples of intestinal tissue were collected post-mortem six times. The samples were stained to analyse the IE of ERα and Erβ in the scanned slides. The strongest response was observed in ERα in the duodenum (90.387-average % of cells with ERα expression) and in ERβ in the descending colon (84.329-average % of cells with ERβ expression); the opposite response was recorded in the caecum (2.484-average % of cells with ERα expression) and the ascending colon (2.448-average % of cells with ERα expression); on the first two dates of exposure, the digestive tract had to adapt to ZEN in feed. The results of this study, supported by a mechanistic interpretation of previous research findings, suggest that ZEN performs numerous functions in the digestive tract.

Tetramethyl bisphenol A stimulates proliferation but inhibits fetal Leydig cell function in male rats by targeting estrogen receptor α after in utero exposure

Tetramethyl bisphenol A (TMBPA) is a widely used flame retardant. TMBPA has been a toxic to Leydig cells in puberty, but it remains unclear whether TMBPA has a similar inhibitor effect on fetal Leydig cells (FLCs). This study reported morphological and functional alterations of FLCs in the testes of male offspring at birth after in utero exposure to TMBPA. Pregnant Sprague Dawley rats were dosed via continuous gavage of TMBPA (0, 10, 50, and 200 mg/kg/day) from gestational day 14 to 21. TMBPA markedly raised serum total testosterone level, testicular volume, and FLC number of male offspring at 200 mg/kg dose. The up-regulation of Insl3, Star, and Cyp11a1 mRNAs was observed after 200 mg/kg TMBPA exposure. After normalization to the number of FLCs, TMBPA significantly reduced Lhcgr and Hsd3b1 expressions at 10 mg/kg, and Cyp17a1 at 200 mg/kg paralleling with their protein levels. TMBPA compromised the expression of Esr1, while increased the expression of Cdk2 and Cdk4 as well as their protein levels. TMBPA particularly increased the phosphorylation of AKT1 and AKT2 at 200 mg/kg. In conclusion, the present study suggests that TMBPA may promote FLC proliferation via ESR1-CDK2/4-AKT pathway, while inhibits the function of FLCs by reducing steroidogenic enzyme activity.

Zearalenone Promotes Uterine Development of Weaned Gilts by Interfering with Serum Hormones and Up-Regulating Expression of Estrogen and Progesterone Receptors

In this study, we aimed to assess the effect of diet ZEA on serum hormones, the location and expression of estrogen receptor ERα/β and progesterone receptor (PR) of the uterus in weaned piglets and to reveal the mechanism underneath. A total of 40 healthy weaned gilts were randomly allocated to basal diet supplemented with 0 (Control), 0.5 (ZEA0.5), 1.0 (ZEA1.0) and 1.5 (ZEA1.5) mg ZEA/kg and fed individually for 35 days. Meanwhile, the porcine endometrial epithelial cells (PECs) were incubated for 24 h with ZEA at 0 (Control), 5 (ZEA5), 20 (ZEA20) and 80 (ZEA80) μmol/L, respectively. The results showed that nutrient apparent digestibility (CP and GE), nutrient apparent availability (ME/GE, BV and NPU), the uterine immunoreactive integrated optic density (IOD), relative mRNA and protein expression of ER-α, ER-β and PR and the relative mRNA and protein expression of ER-α and ER-β in PECs all increased linearly (p < 0.05) with ZEA. Collectively, ZEA can interfere with the secretion of some reproductive hormones in the serum and promote the expression of estrogen/progesterone receptors in the uterus and PECs. All these indicate that ZEA may promote the development of the uterus in weaned gilts through estrogen receptor pathway.

Toxicity of zearalenone and its nutritional intervention by natural products

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a toxic secondary metabolite mainly produced by fungi of the genus Fusarium, and is often present in various food and feed ingredients such as corn and wheat. The structure of ZEN is similar to that of natural estrogen, and it can bind to estrogen receptors and has estrogenic activity. Therefore, it can cause endocrine-disrupting effects and promote the proliferation of estrogen receptor-positive cell lines. In addition, ZEN can cause oxidative damage, endoplasmic reticulum stress, apoptosis, and other hazards, resulting in systemic toxic effects, including reproductive toxicity, hepatotoxicity, and immunotoxicity. In the past few decades, researchers have tried many ways to remove ZEN from food and feed, but it is still a challenge to eliminate it. In recent years, natural compounds have become of interest for their excellent protective effects on human health from food contaminants. Researchers have discovered that natural compounds often used as dietary supplements can effectively alleviate ZEN-induced systemic toxic effects. Most of the compounds mitigate ZEN-induced toxicity through antioxidant effects. In this article, the contamination of food and feed by ZEN and the various toxic effects and mechanisms of ZEN are reviewed, as well as the mitigation effects of natural compounds on ZEN-induced toxicity.

Oxidative stress as a plausible mechanism for zearalenone to induce genome toxicity

Zearalenone (ZEN), a common non-steroidal estrogenic mycotoxin of the Fusarium genus, is one of the most frequent and powerful contaminant of grains and cereal products representing a serious threat for people and livestock health. In fact, ZEN causes cytotoxicity and genotoxicity in a variety of cell types at least in part through binding to estrogen receptors (ERs). The main pathways through which ZEN induces such effects remain, however, elusive. In particular, how the mycotoxin causes DNA damage, dysregulates DNA repair mechanisms, changes epigenome of targeted cells and, not least, affects chromatin conformation and non-coding RNA (ncRNA), is unclear. In the present paper, following extensive review of the literature about such ZEN effects and our own experience in studying the effects of this compound on reproductive processes, we propose that increased production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and consequently oxidative stress (OS) are central in ZEN genotoxicity. Besides to shed light on the action mechanisms of the mycotoxin, this notion might help to develop effective strategies to counteract its deleterious biological effects.

Microbial and enzymatic battle with food contaminant zearalenone (ZEN)

Zearalenone (ZEN) contamination of various foods and feeds is an important global problem. In some animals and humans, ZEN causes significant health issues in addition to massive economic losses, annually. Therefore, removal or degradation of the ZEN in foods and feeds is required to be done. The conventional physical and chemical methods have some serious issues including poor efficiency, decrease in nutritional value, palatability of feed, and use of costly equipment. Research examined microbes from diverse media for their ability to degrade zearalenone and other toxins, and the findings of several investigations revealed that enzymes produced from microbes play a significant role in the degradation of mycotoxins. In established bacterial hosts, genetically engineered technique was used to enhance heterologously produced degrading enzymes. Then, the bio-degradation of ZEN by the use of micro-organisms or their enzymes is much more advantageous and is close to nature and ecofriendly. Furthermore, an effort is made to put forward the work done by different scientists on the biodegradation of ZEN by the use of fungi, yeast, bacteria, and/or their enzymes to degrade the ZEN to non-toxic products. KEY POINTS: •Evolved microbial strains degraded ZEA more quickly •Different degrading properties were studied.

Potential protective effect of lactic acid bacteria against zearalenone causing reprotoxicity in male mice

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a worldwide fusarotoxin that poses a threat to the consumer due to its chronic toxicity. Herein we examined the effects of ZEN on adult mouse testis, focusing on oxidative stress, biochemical and morphological parameters. In addition, since cytoskeletal remodeling is a key event for the production of good quality gametes, the expression and localization of two proteins, Dishevelled-associated activator of morphogenesis 1 (DAAM1) and Prolyl endopeptidase (PREP), involved in cytoskeletal dynamics during spermatogenesis were evaluated. To ameliorate the testicular dysfunction induced by ZEN we tested the eventual protective effects of lactic bacteria Lactobacillus plantarum MON03 (LP) on its reprotoxicity. Adult male mice were then treated daily for 2 wks by oral gavage with ZEN and/or LP. The results confirmed that ZEN altered sperm parameters, generated oxidative stress and provoked structural alteration, evidenced by the increased number of abnormal seminiferous tubules and of apoptotic cells, particularly Leydig cells. Interestingly, at molecular level we evaluated, for the first time, the ability of ZEN to alter DAAM1 and PREP protein level and localization. Moreover, the co-treatment with LP, thanks to its capacity to reduce ZEN bioavailability in the gastrointestinal tract, ameliorated all the considered parameters. These results suggest the use of this probiotic as food supplement to prevent/counteract ZEN-induced reprotoxicity.

Intestinal Barrier, Claudins and Mycotoxins

The intestinal barrier is the main barrier against all of the substances that enter the body. Proper functioning of this barrier guarantees maintained balance in the organism. Mycotoxins are toxic, secondary fungi metabolites, that have a negative impact both on human and animal health. It was postulated that various mycotoxins may affect homeostasis by disturbing the intestinal barrier. Claudins are proteins that are involved in creating tight junctions between epithelial cells. A growing body of evidence underlines their role in molecular response to mycotoxin-induced cytotoxicity. This review summarizes the information connected with claudins, their association with an intestinal barrier, physiological conditions in general, and with gastrointestinal cancers. Moreover, this review also includes information about the changes in claudin expression upon exposition to various mycotoxins.

Maternal Zearalenone exposure impacted ovarian follicle formation and development of suckled offspring

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a secondary metabolite, which is mainly produced by Fusarium fungi and exists in various feeds and agricultural products. Recently, an increasing amount of data has shown that ZEN, as an estrogen-like hormone, can have harmful effects on the female reproductive system, especially on oogenesis and folliculogenesis. Breast milk is considered to be the ideal form of nutrition for infants; however, there are some records of contaminants in food, such as mycotoxins, which may be transferred from maternal blood to milk. In this study, we investigated the toxic effects of breast milk on folliculogenesis in offspring following maternal ZEN exposure. Our results showed that maternal ZEN exposure significantly inhibited the process of primordial follicle (PF) assembly and reduced the number of PFs in suckled offspring's ovaries. In addition, RNA-seq analysis showed that RIG-I-like receptor (RLRs) signaling pathways were activated after exposed to ZEN, which increased the expression levels of DNA damage (γ-H2AX, RAD51, and PARP1) and apoptosis related protein (BAX/BCL2 and Caspase-3). Finally, ZEN exposure interfered with follicular development, as evidenced by the reduced percentages of oocyte maturation and embryonic development when the offspring grew to adolescence. It is worth noting that maternal ZEN exposure disrupted the tri-methylation levels of H3K4, H3K9, and H3K27 in the offspring's oocytes. Our results indicated that maternal ZEN exposure affected ovarian development in offspring through the breast milk, which may be detrimental to their reproductive capability in adult life.

Male reproductive toxicity of zearalenone-meta-analysis with mechanism review

Zearalenone (ZEA) is an oestrogen-like mycotoxin produced by Fusarium fungi, which has a considerable impact on human and animal health and results in substantial economic losses worldwide. This study aimed to demonstrate the reproductive injury induced by ZEA in rodents. We conducted a rigorous meta-analysis of the related literature via PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science. The scope of the study includes the following: development of reproductive organs, serum testosterone, oestradiol, and luteinizing hormone (LH) levels; parameters of Leydig cells; and parameters of semen. In total, 19 articles were reviewed. Compared with the control group, the increased relative epididymis weight, increased serum oestradiol level, and decreased LH levels in the prenatally exposed group were observed. In pubertal and adult rodents, the relative testicular weight, serum oestradiol level, Leydig cell number, and percentage of ST (+) Leydig cells decreased under ZEA exposure. In rodents at all ages, decreased serum testosterone level, sperm concentration, sperm motility rate, and increased serum deformity rate were observed in exposed groups compared with control groups. Although subgroup analysis failed to identify a clear dose-response relationship between ZEA exposure and reproductive system damage in male rodents, we still managed to confirm that zearalenone could decrease the serum testosterone level at the dosage of 50 mg/kg*day, 1.4 mg/kg*day, and 84 mg/kg*day, of prenatal, pubertal, and mature rodents respectively; pubertal zearalenone exposure impairs the quality and quantity of sperms of rodents at the dosage of 1.4 mg/kg*day and mature zearalenone exposure has the same effect at the dosage of 84 mg/kg*day. In conclusion, we found that ZEA exposure can cause considerable damage to the reproductive system of rodents of all ages. While the exact underlying mechanism of ZEA-induced toxicity in the reproductive system remains largely unknown, the theories of oestrogen-like effects and oxidative stress damage are promising.

Cross-link between mitochondrial-dependent apoptosis and cell cycle checkpoint proteins after experimental torsion and detorsion in rats

The current study assessed the cross-link between mitochondria-related apoptosis and cell cycle machinery systems during ischemia and reperfusion in a rat model of testicular torsion and detorsion. The Wistar male rats were divided into control, 1 h, 2 h, 4 h and 8 h testicular torsion-induced, and 1 h, 2 h, 4 h and 8 h testicular detorsion-induced groups. The Johnson's score was analyzed. The mRNA and protein contents of Bcl-2, Bax, Caspase-3, Cyclin D1, Cdk4, P21 and P53 were investigated by sqRT-PCR and immunohistochemical staining, respectively. The apoptosis index was analyzed by TUNEL staining. The mRNA levels of bax, p53, p21 and cyclin D1 were increased, and the mRNA levels of bcl-2 and cdk4 were decreased in torsion and reperfusion-induced groups, time-dependently. The caspase-3 mRNA was increased in torsion-induced and diminished in detorsion-induced groups. A time-dependent reduction in Bcl-2⁺, Caspase-3⁺, Cyclin D1⁺, Cdk4⁺ and P53⁺ and increment in P21⁺ cells distribution per mm² of tissue were revealed after torsion and detorsion. The apoptosis index was increased after torsion and decreased after detorsion. In conclusion, torsion-induced severe DNA damage stimulates the cyclin D1, p53 and p21 mRNA expression while more than 8 h is needed to reveal them as protein content in testicular tissue. About detorsion, decreased Cyclin D1 and Cdk4 proteins and the P53-induced transcriptional effect on p21 expression, stimulates the p21 bind to cdk4 and consequent failure in Cyclin D1/Cdk4 complex formation. This situation in association with apoptotic genes results in spermatogenesis failure.

Zearalenone and deoxynivalenol inhibited IL-4 receptor-mediated Th2 cell differentiation and aggravated bacterial infection in mice

The immunotoxicity of zearalenone (ZEA) and deoxynivalenol (DON), two of the most common environmental mycotoxins, has been well investigated. However, due to the complexity of the immune system, especially during bacterial infection, many types of immune cells are involved in invasion resistance and bacterial clearance. Of these, T helper 2 (Th2) cells, which are members of the helper T cell family, assist B cells to activate and differentiate into antibody-secreting cells, participate in humoral immune response, and, ultimately, eliminate pathogens. Thus, it is important to identify the stage at which these toxins affect the immune function, and to clarity the underlying mechanisms. In this study, mice infected with Listeria monocytogenes (Listeria) were used to study the effects of ZEA, DON, and ZEA + DON on Th2 differentiation, Interleukin-4 Receptor (IL-4R) expression, costimulatory molecules expression and cytokine secretion after Listeria infection. Naive CD4+ T cells, isolated from mice, were used to verify the in vivo effects and the associated mechanisms. In vivo experiments showed that these toxins aggravated spleen damage after Listeria infection and reduced the differentiation of Th2 cells by affecting the synthesis of IL-4R of CD4+ T cells. In addition, the level of the costimulatory molecule CD154 decreased. Consistent with this, in vitro studies showed that these toxins inhibited the differentiation of mouse naive CD4+ T cell into Th2 subtype and decreased IL-4R levels. In addition, the levels of costimulatory molecules CD154, CD278 and the Th2 cells secrete cytokines IL-4, IL-6, and IL-10 decreased. Based on our in vivo and in vitro experiments, we suggest that ZEA, DON, and ZEA + DON inhibit the expression of costimulatory molecules on CD4+ T cell, and inhibit the IL-4R-mediated Th2 cell differentiation. This may indicate that the body cannot normally resist or clear the pathogen after mycotoxin poisoning.

Expression of cyclin D1, p21, and estrogen receptor alpha in aflatoxin G1-induced disturbance in testicular tissue of albino mice

Background and purpose

Aflatoxin (AF) is a mycotoxin produced by various strains of the Aspergillus family. AFG1 as one of the most important types is highly found in cereals and grains. AF affects sperm production or even its quality. This study was designed to test the effects of AFG1 on mice testicular tissue.

Experimental approach

Twenty-four Albino mice were divided into four groups of 6 each; a control group (0.2 mL corn oil and ethanol), three treatment groups with different periods (20 μg/kg AFG1 for 7, 15, and 35 consecutive days). All treatments were applied intraperitoneally. Biosynthesis of cyclin D1, p21, and estrogen receptor alpha (ERα) proteins was evaluated by immunohistochemistry (IHC) staining. Levels of cyclin D1, p21, and ERα mRNA were evaluated by the real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) technique. Tubular differentiation index (TDI), reproductive index (RI), and spermiogenesis indices were also analyzed.

Findings/Results

AFG1 increased the percentage of seminiferous tubules with negative TDI, RI, and SPI compared to the control group (P < 0.05). RT-PCR and IHC analyses illustrated time-dependent enhancement in p21 expression and cyclin D1 biosynthesis in AFG1-treated groups significantly (P < 0.05). While the protein and mRNA levels of ERα were significantly (P < 0.05) decreased in a time-dependent manner.

Conclusion and implications

The chronic exposure to AFG1 reduced the expression and synthesis of ERα, increased the expression and synthesis of p21 and cyclin D1, impaired apoptosis, which in turn could impair spermatogenesis.

Zearalenone Induces Endothelial Cell Apoptosis through Activation of a Cytosolic Ca2+/ERK1/2/p53/Caspase 3 Signaling Pathway

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a mycotoxin that has been reported to damage various types of cells/tissues, yet its effects on endothelial cells (ECs) have never been investigated. Therefore, this study investigates the potential effects of ZEN using bovine aortic ECs (BAECs). In this study, we found that ZEN induced apoptosis of BAECs through increased cleavage of caspase 3 and poly ADP-ribose polymerase (PARP). ZEN also increased phosphorylation of ERK1/2 and p53, and treatment with the ERK1/2 or p53 inhibitor reversed ZEN-induced EC apoptosis. Transfection of BAECs with small interfering RNA against ERK1/2 or p53 revealed ERK1/2 as an upstream target of p53 in ZEN-stimulated apoptosis. ZEN increased the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), yet treatment with the antioxidant did not prevent EC apoptosis. Similarly, blocking of estrogen receptors by specific inhibitors also did not prevent ZEN-induced apoptosis. Finally, chelation of cytosolic calcium (Ca²⁺) using BAPTA-AM or inhibition of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Ca²⁺ channel using 2-APB reversed ZEN-induced EC apoptosis, but not by inhibiting ER stress using 4-PBA. Together, our findings demonstrate that ZEN induces EC apoptosis through an ERK1/2/p53/caspase 3 signaling pathway activated by Ca²⁺ release from the ER, and this pathway is independent of ROS production and estrogen receptor activation.

Resveratrol alleviates zea-induced decidualization disturbance in human endometrial stromal cells

Decidualization, which endows the endometrium competency to adopt developing embryo and maintain appropriate milieu for following growth, is a pivotal process for human pregnancy. The delicate collaboration between ovarian steroid hormones estrogen and progesterone governs the process of decidualization and subsequent establishment of embryo implantation. Mycotoxin zearalenone (ZEA) is well known as endocrine disruptor due to its potent estrogenic activity. In this study, we investigated effects of ZEA on decidualization of human endometrial stromal cells. Results indicated that ZEA exhibited its inhibitory action through nuclear translocation of ERα. ZEA exposure led to dampened progress of decidualization, which could be attenuated by estrogen receptor antagonist. Notably, resveratrol (RSV) administration restored impaired decidualization process by induction of anti-oxidative gene glutathione peroxidase 3 (GPX3). This study provides novel insights into the mechanism underlying adverse effects of ZEA in human decidual stromal cells and suggests RSV a potential therapeutic candidate to alleviate ZEA-induced cytotoxicity during decidualization.

Zearalenone affects reproductive functions of male offspring via transgenerational cytotoxicity on spermatogonia in mouse

Previous studies have demonstrated that Zearalenone (ZEA) affects not only maternal reproductive function but also that of the offspring. However, the transgenerational toxic effects of ZEA on the spermatogonia of male F1 mice are not clear. The present study was thus designed to determine whether the fertility of male F1 mice was affected following exposure of F0 pregnant mice to ZEA. In present study, 32 pregnant female mice were divided into 4 groups and exposed to ZEA of 0, 2.5 and 5.0 mg/kg, respectively, and the testis development and reproductive performance of 96 male F1 mice were analyzed. The results demonstrated that the F0 pregnant mice treated with ZEA resulted in increased anogenital distances in the newborn male F1 mice. Moreover, ZEA caused abnormal vacuole structures and loose connections in the testes of male F1 offspring, compared with the controls. Further ultramicrostructural analysis showed that the mitochondria appeared to be vacuolated with ablated membranes and cristae, and this was accompanied by the presence of large lipid droplets in the spermatogonia. Further, the semen quality and sperm counts declined significantly, and increased malformation rates and decreased testosterone levels were observed in the male F1 offspring from experimental groups. Our results reveal the toxic effects of ZEA on F0 pregnant mice is transgenerational, and affects the fertility of male F1 mice by damaging the spermatogonial cells. This offers a new viewpoint of ZEA-induced reproductive toxicity in male animals and provides a new potential direction for the treatment and prevention of ZEA-induced cytotoxicity.

Zearalenone-Induced Interaction between PXR and Sp1 Increases Binding of Sp1 to a Promoter Site of the eNOS, Decreasing Its Transcription and NO Production in BAECs

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a non-steroidal mycotoxin that has various toxicological impacts on mammalian health. Here, we found that ZEN significantly affected the production of nitric oxide (NO) and the expression of endothelial NO synthase (eNOS) of bovine aortic endothelial cells (BAECs). A promoter analysis using 5′-serially deleted human eNOS promoter revealed that the proximal region (−135 to +22) was responsible for ZEN-mediated reduction of the human eNOS promoter activity. This effect was reversed by mutation of two specificity protein 1 (Sp1) binding elements in the human eNOS promoter. A chromatin immunoprecipitation assay revealed that ZEN increased Sp1 binding to the bovine eNOS promoter region (−113 to −12), which is homologous to −135 to +22 of the human eNOS promoter region. We also found that ZEN promoted the binding of the pregnane X receptor (PXR) to Sp1 of the bovine eNOS, consequently decreasing eNOS expression. This reduction of eNOS could have contributed to the decreased acetylcholine-induced vessel relaxation upon ZEN treatment in our ex vivo study using mouse aortas. In conclusion, our data demonstrate that ZEN decreases eNOS expression by enhancing the binding of PXR-Sp1 to the eNOS promoter, thereby decreasing NO production and potentially causing vessel dysfunction.

The effect of different types of exercise training on diet-induced obesity in rats, cross-talk between cell cycle proteins and apoptosis in testis

Obesity is associated with germ cell apoptosis, spermatogenesis arrest, and testicular endocrine suppression. The aim of the present study was to investigate the crosstalk between germ cell apoptosis and cell cycle machinery in sedentary and obese rats after moderate-intensity continuous (MICT), high-intensity continuous (HICT) and High-intensity interval (HIIT) exercise trainings. Male Wistar rats (n = 30) were randomly divided into 5 groups; the control, sedentary high-fat diet (HFD)-received (HFD-sole), MICT, HICT and HIIT-induced HFD-received groups. The serum levels of LDL-C, HDL-C, triglyceride, and testosterone, mRNA and protein levels of Cyclin D1, Cdk4, p21, apoptotic cell number/mm² of testicular tissue and testicular DNA fragmentation ratio were investigated. The obese animals in HFD-sole group represented a significant (p < 0.05) reduction in serum HDL-C and testosterone levels, Cyclin D1, Cdk4 expressions, and exhibited a remarkable (p < 0.05) increment in LDL-C, triglyceride, p21 expression, apoptotic cell number and DNA fragmentation ratio versus control animals. However, the animals in MICT, HICT, HIIT groups exhibited a significant (p < 0.05) increment in serum HDL-C and testosterone, Cyclin D1 and Cdk4 expressions and showed a significant (p < 0.05) reduction in serum LDL-C and triglyceride, p21 expression, apoptotic cell number and DNA fragmentation versus the HFD-sole group. In conclusion, a crosslink between cell cycle machinery and apoptosis of germ cells was revealed in the testicles of HFD-sole animals, and MICT, HICT and HIIT could ameliorate the obesity-induced impairments, respectively. This effect may be attributed to the effect of exercise training protocols on maintaining Cyclin D1 and Cdk4 and suppressing p21 expression levels in the testicles.

The Effect of Different Doses of Zearalenone in Feed on the Bioavailability of Zearalenone and Alpha-Zearalenol, and the Concentrations of Estradiol and Testosterone in the Peripheral Blood of Pre-Pubertal Gilts

The objective of this study was to determine the effect of long-term (48 days), per os administration of specific zearalenone (ZEN) doses (20 and 40 μg ZEN/kg BW in experimental groups EI and EII, which were equivalent to 200% and 400% of the upper range limit of the no-observed-adverse-effect-level (NOAEL), respectively) on the bioavailability of ZEN and the rate of changes in estradiol and testosterone concentrations in the peripheral blood of pre-pubertal gilts. ZEN and α-ZEL levels were similar until day 28. After day 28, α-ZEL concentrations increased significantly in group EI, whereas a significant rise in ZEN levels was noted in group EII. The presence of estradiol in peripheral blood plasma was not observed until day 20 of the experiment. Spontaneous secretion of estradiol was minimal, and it was determined at very low levels of up to 10 pg/mL in EI and EII groups. Testosterone concentrations ranged from 4 to 9 ng/mL in all groups. A decrease in the concentrations of both analyzed hormones was reported in the last stage of the experiment. The results of the experiment indicate that: (i) The bioavailability of ZEN in peripheral blood has low diagnostic value, (ii) exposure to low doses of ZEN induces minor changes in the concentrations of the analyzed hormones, which could lead to situational supraphysiological hormone levels and changes in endogenous hormonal balance.

Correlations between exposure to deoxynivalenol and zearalenone and the immunohistochemical expression of estrogen receptors in the intestinal epithelium and the mRNA expression of selected colonic enzymes in pre-pubertal gilts

Plant-based materials used in the production of pig feed are very often contaminated with deoxynivalenol and zearalenone. Daily intake of small amounts of these mycotoxins with feed induces various subclinical states in gilts and influences different biological processes. The aim of this preclinical study was to determine the correlation between monotonic doses of zearalenone and deoxynivalenol (40 μg/kg body weight and 12 μg/kg body weight, respectively, administered over a period of 42 days) and the immunohistochemical expression of estrogen receptors in the intestinal tract and the mRNA expression of selected colonic enzymes. The immunohistochemical expression of estrogen receptor alpha was observed in the colon, but its intensity varied in different weeks of exposure. A minor increase in estrogen receptor beta expression was noted only in the colon, whereas the expression of cytochrome P450 1A1 enzyme mRNA and mRNA isoform of the glutathione S-transferase π gene decreased. The observed correlations suggest that the risk of loss of control over the biotransformation and biological activity of the parent compounds in distal intestinal mucosa is delayed.

Fractionated irradiation of right thorax induces abscopal damage on testes leading to decline in fertility

Radiation-induced abscopal effect (RIAE) may influence radiotherapy efficiency. However, it is unknown whether RIAE triggers abnormal genetic consequence. We present a novel evidence that, when mice were given fractionated irradiation on right thorax, the ultrastructure of blood-testis barrier was damaged in company with apoptosis induction in testes, and the sperm number and vitality were drastically decreased so that both the fertility and the survival of their offspring were reduced. Protein microarray assay and hormone detection showed that some cytokines especially TNF-α, TGF-β and estradiol in the serum of irradiated mice increased to higher levels in consistent with abscopal damage, and this conditioned serum had toxic effect on TM4 cells in vitro. When the mice were fed with cimetidine, the above abscopal responses were significantly attenuated. This study demonstrates in the first time that the thoracic irradiation (Th-IR) induces structural and functional damage in the distal testes and further cause fertility decline of irradiated male mice, which may have important implications in the strategy development of radiotherapy in avoiding abnormal genetic consequence.

Pubertal exposure to low doses of zearalenone disrupting spermatogenesis through ERα related genetic and epigenetic pathways

Endocrine disruptor zearalenone (ZEA) has been found to damage the reproductive system especially spermatogenesis. In our previous report, we have found that low dose (lower than No-Observed Effect Level, NOEL) ZEA exposure disturbed mouse spermatogenesis and diminished mouse semen quality. The purpose of current investigation was to explore the underlying mechanisms of pubertal low dose ZEA exposure upsetting spermatogenesis. And it was demonstrated that pubertal low dose ZEA exposure disrupted the meiosis process and the important genetic pathways to inhibit the spermatogenesis and even to diminish the semen quality with the decrease in spermatozoa motility and concentration. The DNA methylation markers 5mC and 5hmC were decreased, the histone methylation marker H3K27 was increased, at the same time estrogen receptor alpha was diminished in mouse testis after pubertal low dose ZEA exposure. The data indicate that the disruption in spermatogenesis by pubertal low dose ZEA exposure may be through the alterations in genetic and epigenetic pathways, and the interactions with estrogen receptor signaling pathway. Therefore, we should pay great attention on ZEA exposure to reduce its adverse impacts on male reproductive health.

Treatment with, Resveratrol, a SIRT1 Activator, Prevents Zearalenone-Induced Lactic Acid Metabolism Disorder in Rat Sertoli Cells

Zearalenone (ZEA) interferes with the function of the male reproductive system, but its molecular mechanism has yet to be completely elucidated. Sertoli cells (SCs) are important in the male reproductive system. Silencing information regulator 1 (SIRT1) is a cell metabolism sensor and resveratrol (RSV) is an activator of SIRT1. In this study we investigated whether SIRT1 is involved in the regulation of ZEA-induced lactate metabolism disorder in SCs. The results showed that the cytotoxicity of ZEA toward SCs increased with increasing ZEA concentration. Moreover, ZEA induced a decrease in the production of lactic acid and pyruvate of SCs and inhibited the expression of glycolytic genes and lactic acid production-related proteins. ZEA also led to a decreased expression of SIRT1 in energy receptors and decreased ATP levels in SCs. However, the ZEA-induced cytotoxicity and decline in lactic acid production in SCs were alleviated by the use of RSV, which is an activator of SIRT1. In summary, ZEA decreased lactic acid production in SCs, while the treatment with an SIRT1 activator, RSV, restored the inhibition of lactic acid production in SCs and reduced cytotoxicity of ZEA toward SCs.

Preliminary Findings of Platelet-Rich Plasma-Induced Ameliorative Effect on Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome

Objective

Polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) is characterized by hormonal imbalance, oxidative stress and chronic anovulation. The present study was designed to assess ameliorative effect of auto-locating platelet-rich plasma (PRP), as a novel method, for inhibiting PCOS-induced pathogenesis in experimentally-induced hyperandrogenic PCOS.

Materials and Methods

In this experimental study, 30 immature (21 days old) female rats were assigned into five groups, including control (sampled after 30 days with no treatment), 15 and 30 days PCOS-sole-induced as well as 15 and 30 days PRP auto-located PCOS-induced groups. Serum levels of estrogen, progesterone, androstenedione, testosterone, follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), ovarian total antioxidant capacity (TAC), malondialdehyde (MDA), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-px) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) were evaluated. Expression of estrogen receptor α (Erα), β (Erβ) and c-Myc were assessed. Finally, the numbers of intact follicles per ovary and mRNA damage ratio were analyzed.

Results

PRP groups significantly (P<0.05) decreased serum levels of FSH, LH, testosterone and androstenedione and remarkably (P<0.05) increased estrogen and progesterone syntheses versus PCOS-sole groups. The PRP auto-located animals exhibited increased TAC, GSH-px and SOD levels, while they showed diminished MDA content (P<0.05) versus PCOS-sole groups. The PRP auto-located groups exhibited an elevated expression of Erα and Erβ versus PCOS-sole groups. Moreover, PRP groups significantly (P<0.05) decreased c-Myc expression and mRNA damage compared to PCOS-sole groups, and remarkably improved follicular growth.

Conclusion

PRP is able to regulate hormonal interaction, improve the ovarian antioxidant potential as well as folliculogenesis and its auto-location could be considered as a novel method to prevent/ameliorate PCOS-induced pathogenesis.

Gestational exposure to low-dose zearalenone disrupting offspring spermatogenesis might be through epigenetic modifications

Zearalenone (ZEA), a F-2 mycotoxin produced by Fusarium, has been found to be an endocrine disruptor through oestrogen receptor signalling pathway to impair spermatogenesis. The disruption on reproductive systems by ZEA exposure might be transgenerational. In our previous report, we have found that low dose (lower than no-observed effect level, NOEL) of ZEA impaired mouse spermatogenesis and decreased mouse semen quality. The purpose of the current investigation was to explore the impacts of low-dose ZEA on spermatogenesis in the offspring after prenatal exposure and the underlying mechanisms. And it demonstrated that prenatal low-dose ZEA exposure disrupted the meiosis process to inhibit the spermatogenesis in offspring and even to diminish the semen quality by the decrease in spermatozoa motility and concentration. The DNA methylation marker 5hmC was decreased, the histone methylation markers H3K9 and H3K27 were elevated, and oestrogen receptor alpha was reduced in the offspring testis after prenatal low-dose ZEA exposure. The data suggest that the disruption in spermatogenesis by prenatal low-dose ZEA exposure may be through the modifications on epigenetic pathways (DNA methylation and histone methylation) and the interactions with oestrogen receptor signalling pathway. Moreover, in the current study, the male offspring were indirectly exposed to low-dose ZEA through placenta and the spermatogenesis in offspring was disrupted which suggested that the toxicity of ZEA on reproductive systems was very severe. Therefore, we strongly recommend that greater attention should be paid to this mycotoxin to minimize its adverse impact on human spermatogenesis.

T

Zearalenone (ZEA) is a non-steroidal estrogen mycotoxin produced by several Gibberella and Fusarium species. Accumulating evidence has indicated that ZEA strongly stimulates cell proliferation. However the detailed molecular and cellular mechanisms of ZEA-mediated induction of cell proliferation have not yet been completely explained. The aim of this study was to detect the role of miRNAs in ZEA-mediated induction of cell proliferation. The effects of ZEA on cell proliferation were assessed using a cell counting kit assay and xCELLigence system. Micro-RNA sequencing was performed after treatment of TM3 cells with ZEA (0.01 μmol/L) for different time periods (0, 2, 6 and 18 h). Cell function and pathway analysis of the miRNA target genes were performed by Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA). We found that ZEA promotes TM3 cell proliferation at low concentrations. miRNA sequenceing revealed 66 differentially expressed miRNAs in ZEA-treated cells in comparison to the untreated control ( p < 0.05). The miRNA sequencing indicated that compared to control group, there were 66 miRNAs significant change (p < 0.05) in ZEA-treated groups. IPA analysis showed that the predicated miRNAs target gene involved in cell Bio-functions including cell cycle, growth and proliferation, and in signaling pathways including MAPK and RAS-RAF-MEK-ERK pathways. Results from flow cytometry and Western Blot analysis validated the predictions that ZEA can affect cell cycle, and the MAPK signaling pathway. Taking these together, the cell proliferation induced ZEA is regulated by miRNAs. The results shed light on the molecular and cellular mechanisms for the mediation of ZEA to induce proliferation.

Effects of zearalenone and its derivatives on the synthesis and secretion of mammalian sex steroid hormones: A review

Zearalenone (ZEA), a non-steroidal estrogen mycotoxin produced by several species of Fusarium fungi, can be metabolized into many other derivatives by microorganisms, plants, animals and humans. It can affect mammalian reproductive capability by impacting the synthesis and secretion of sex hormones, including testosterone, estradiol and progesterone. This review summarizes the mechanisms in which ZEA and its derivatives disturb the synthesis and secretion of sex steroid hormones. Because of its structural analogy to estrogen, ZEA and its derivatives can exert a variety of estrogen-like effects and engage in estrogen negative feedback regulation, which can result in mediating the production of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) in the pituitary gland. ZEA and its derivatives can ultimately reduce the number of Leydig cells and granulosa cells by inducing oxidative stress, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, cell cycle arrest, cell apoptosis, and cell regeneration delay. Additionally, they can disrupt the mitochondrial structure and influence mitochondrial functions through overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and aberrant autophagy signaling ways. Finally, ZEA and its derivatives can disturb the expressions and activities of the related steroidogenic enzymes through cross talking between membrane and nuclear estrogen receptors.

Bacillus licheniformis CK1 alleviates the toxic effects of zearalenone in feed on weaned female Tibetan piglets

Zearalenone (ZEA) is widely present in feedstuffs and raw materials, causing reproductive disorders in animals. In this study, Bacillus licheniformis CK1 was used to detoxify ZEA in feed for alleviating its effect in Tibetan piglets. A total of 18 weaned female Tibetan piglets were randomly divided into 3 groups: control group (Control, ZEA-free basal diet); treatment group 1 (T1, ZEA-contaminated diet); and treatment group 2 (T2, ZEA-contaminated but pre-fermented by CK1 diet). There were no significant differences of average daily feed intake (ADFI), average daily gain (ADG), and feed efficiency (FE) among the 3 groups (P > 0.05). The T1 treatment significantly increased the vulva size and relative weight of the reproductive organ (P < 0.05), compared with the Control. However, the T2 treatment caused a significant reduction (P < 0.05) in vulva size and relative weight of the reproductive organ compared with the T1 group. The levels of luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), progesterone (P), and estradiol (E2) in the T1 group were significantly lower (P < 0.05) than those in the Control, while the levels of LH, P, and E2 in the T2 group were significantly greater (P < 0.05) than those in the T1 group. Zearalenone significantly increased (P < 0.05) the expression of estrogen receptor α in uterus and ovary and estrogen receptor β in vagina, while these indicators were not significant different (P > 0.05) between the T2 group and the Control group. In comparison with the Control group, ZEA significantly increased (P < 0.05) expression of several ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters: ABCB1 and ABCb4 in the vagina, ABCA1 and ABCb4 in the uterus, and ABCB1, ABCb4, ABCD3, and ABCG2 in the ovary, while these transporters in the T2 group were significantly decreased (P < 0.05) compared with the T1 group. In conclusion, the present study demonstrates that B. licheniformis CK1 could alleviate the harmful effect of ZEA in Tibetan piglets.

Silymarin amplifies apoptosis in ectopic endometrial tissue in rats with endometriosis; implication on growth factor GDNF, ERK1/2 and Bcl-6b expression

The present prospective study was done to evaluate the effect of silymarin (SMN) on endometriotic-like legions establishment and growth in experimentally-induced endometriosis. For this purpose, the experimental endometriosis was induced in 12 rats and then the animals subdivided into endometriosis-sole and SMN (50 mg kg^-1, orally)+endometriosis groups. Following 28 days, the legions establishment, size, Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), gfrα1, B Cell Lymphoma 6 (Bcl-6b), Bcl-2, extracellular regulator kinase (ERK1/2) expression ratios, angiogenesis, the apoptosis and fibrosis indices were investigated. The SMN significantly (P < 0.05) decreased the enometriotic-like legions establishment and size, decreased mRNA levels of GDNF, gfrα1, Bcl-6b and Bcl-2 and remarkably diminished GDNF, gfrα1, Bcl-6b and Bcl-2-positive cells distribution/mm² of tissue versus endometriosis-sole group. The SMN + endometriosis group exhibited a significant (P < 0.05) enhancement in ERK1/2 expression and represented diminished vascularized area and increased apoptosis and fibrosis indices, as well. In conclusion, the SMN by down-regulating GDNF and its receptor gfrα1 expression inhibits GDNF-gfrα1 complex generation and consequently suppresses Bcl-6b expression. Moreover, the SMN by enhancing the ERK1/2 expression and by suppressing the Bcl-2 expression promotes the apoptosis pathway. Finally, the SMN by down-regulating the angiogenesis ratio accelerates apoptosis and consequently induces severe fibrosis in endometriotic-like legions.

Aflatoxin B1 impairs spermatogenesis: An experimental study for crosslink between oxidative stress and mitochondria-dependent apoptosis

The present experimental study was carried out to investigate the crosslink between aflatoxin B1 (AFB1)-induced oxidative stress and mitochondria-dependent apoptosis in testicles. For this purpose, 24 mature male Swiss albino mice were randomly divided into control and test groups. The AFB1 was dissolved in corn oil and ethanol (95:5, v/v) vehicle. The animals in test group subdivided into three groups, which received the AFB1 at a daily dose of 20 μg/kg body weight, through intraperitoneal (i.p.) route, for 7, 14, and 21 days. The mice in the control group received the vehicle alone for 21 days. The expression of Bcl-2, Bax, p53, and caspase-3 at both mRNA and protein levels were analyzed by using reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR) and immunohistochemistry, respectively. Moreover, the mitochondrial content of germinal epithelium, tubular differentiation (TDI), and spermiogenesis (SPI) indices was analyzed. Finally, the apoptosis was assessed by using TUNEL staining. Observations revealed that the AFB1 remarkably (P < .05) reduced Bcl-2 expression at both mRNA and protein levels. Up-regulated Bax, caspase-3, and p53 expression were revealed in AFB1-received animals, which developed time-dependently. Histological examinations exhibited a significant reduction in TDI and SPI indices. Finally, the AFB1-induced apoptosis index increased time-dependently. In conclusion, the AFB1 adversely affects the spermatogenesis via inducing oxidative stress, diminishing cellular mitochondrial content and enhancing pro-apoptotic Bax, caspase-3, and p53 expression. All these impairments result in mitochondria-dependent apoptosis.

HERP depletion inhibits zearalenone-induced apoptosis through autophagy activation in mouse ovarian granulosa cells

HERP is an endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane protein and is strongly induced by stress conditions. A recent study has indicated that HERP cooperates in apoptosis during zearalenone (ZEA) treatment. However, regulatory mechanisms and the role of HERP in ZEA-induced apoptosis remain elusive in ovarian granulosa cells. In this study, MTT and flow cytometry assays demonstrated that ZEA gradually decreased cell viability and increased apoptosis in granulosa cells in a dose-dependent manner. Western blot analysis showed that ZEA significantly activated autophagy by upregulating LC3-II. Chloroquine (CQ) significantly increased LC3-II and induced granulosa cell apoptosis. Moreover, Western blot analysis showed that ZEA inhibited the mTOR and ERK1/2 signaling pathways. Furthermore, we found that ZEA activated ER stress by upregulating the ER stress-related proteins GRP78, HERP and CHOP. 4-PBA significantly decreased GRP78, HERP, CHOP and LC3-II. In addition, knockdown of HERP (shHERP) significantly protected ovarian granulosa cells from apoptosis induced by ZEA. We found that HERP depletion activated autophagy and ERK1/2 signaling pathways, while it inhibited the mTOR and caspase-dependent mitochondrial signaling pathways. In summary, autophagy and ER stress cooperated in apoptosis induced by ZEA; HERP depletion inhibits ZEA-induced apoptosis of ovarian granulosa cells through autophagy activation and apoptotic pathway inhibition.

Fennel induces cytotoxic effects against testicular germ cells in mice; evidences for suppressed pre-implantation embryo development

Foeniculum vulgare (FVE; fennel) is an aromatic plant belonging to Umbelliferae family, which is widely used in traditional societies because of its different pharmaceutical properties. To uncover the fennel-derived essential oil (FVEO)-induced effects on male reproductive potential, 24 mature male albino mice were divided into, control, 0.37, 0.75, and 1.5 mg kg-1 FVEO-received groups. Following 35 days, the animals were euthanized and the testicular tissue and sperm samples were collected. The histological alterations, tubular differentiation (TDI), spermiogenesis (SPI) indices, apoptosis ratio, and RNA damage of germinal cells were analyzed. Moreover, the sperm count, motility, viability, chromatin condensation, and DNA fragmentation were assessed. Finally, the pre-implantation embryo development including; the percentage of zygote, 2-cell embryos and blastocysts were assessed. Observations showed that the FVEO, dose dependently, increased histological damages, resulted in germ cells dissociation, depletion, nuclear shrinkage and significantly (P < .05) decreased tubular differentiation and spermiogenesis ratios. Moreover, the FVEO-received animals (more significantly in 1.5 mg kg-1 -received group) exhibited decreased sperm count, viability, and motility and represented enhanced percentage of sperms with decondensed chromatin and DNA fragmentation. Finally, the animals in FVEO-received group showed diminished zygote formation and represented decreased pre-implantation embryo development compared to control animals. In conclusion, our data showed that, FVEO albeit at higher doses, is able to adversely affect cellular DNA and RNA contents, which in turn is able to negatively affect the sperm count and morphology. All these impairments are able to negatively affect the fertilization potential as well as pre-implantation embryo development.

Testicular torsion and reperfusion: evidences for biochemical and molecular alterations

This study was done in order to determine the molecular and biochemical alterations following testicular torsion (TT) and torsion-reperfusion (TR). For this purpose, 54 male Wistar rats were divided into five groups as control group (n = 6) and experimental group subjected to 1, 2, 4, and 8 h unilateral left torsion induction (n = 12 in each group). After induction of TT, testicular samples were collected from each group (n = 6), and the other six rats of each group underwent the same period of reperfusion after TT and then were sampled. Histological changes, the mRNA and protein expression of heat shock protein-70 (Hsp70), and caspase-3 were examined using reverse transcriptase-PCR (RT-PCR) and immunohistochemistry, respectively. Testicular total antioxidant capacity (TAC), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-px), and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels were evaluated. The mRNA damage and DNA fragmentation were assessed. The TT and TR significantly reduced differentiation and spermiogenesis indices (p < 0.05). The TT- and TR-induced groups exhibited a severe reduction in Hsp70 expression as well as remarkable enhancement in caspase-3 expression. The TAC and GSH-px levels were decreased and the MDA content was increased in TT- and TR-induced groups. Finally, the TT and TR enhanced mRNA damage and DNA fragmentation. The TT- and TR-induced damaging oxidative stress, diminished Hsp70 expression, and enhanced caspase-3 mRNA and protein levels result in apoptosis following 1, 2, and 4 h. Whereas, following 8 h, TT and TR initiate the necrosis by inducing energy depletion as well as severe mRNA damage.

Roles of p21, p53, cyclin D1, CDK-4, estrogen receptor α in aflatoxin B1-induced cytotoxicity in testicular tissue of mice

This study was done in order to investigate time-dependent effect of AFB1 on expression of genes involving in cell cycle check point machinery at G, S, and M phases. For this purpose, 24 mature male Swiss albino mice were randomly divided into control and test groups. The animals in test group subdivided into three groups, which received the AFB1 at a daily dose of 20 µg/kg body weight, through intraperitoneal (i.p.) route, for 7, 14, and 21 days. The p21, p53, cyclin D1, CDK4, and ERα expressions at both mRNA and protein level were analyzed by using reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR) and immunohistochemistry, respectively. Moreover, the tubular differentiation (TDI) and spermiogenesis (SPI) indices were analyzed. Finally, the testicular DNA fragmentation was assessed by using DNA Ladder test. Observations revealed that the AFB1 remarkably (P < .05) reduced cyclin D1, Cdk4, and ERα expression at both mRNA and protein levels. Up-regulated p21 and p53 expression was revealed in AFB1-received animals, which developed time dependently. Histological examinations exhibited a significant reduction in TDI and SPI indices. Finally, the AFB1 resulted in severe DNA fragmentation. Our data showed that the AFB1 by down-regulating the cyclin D1, Cdk4, and ERα expression adversely affects cyclin D1/Cdk4 and cyclin D1/ERα interactions. Moreover, the AFB1-induced overexpression of p21 (as a kinase inhibitor), in turn results in cell cycle arrest via inhibiting the Cdk4 interaction with cyclin D1. Finally, the AFB1-induced DNA damage triggers the p53-dependent apoptosis pathway independent to p21 overexpression.

Effect of (R)-(+) Pulegone on Ovarian Tissue; Correlation with Expression of Aromatase Cyp19 and Ovarian Selected Genes in Mice

Objective

Pulegone (PGN) is a monoterpene ketone, whose metabolites exert several cytotoxic effects in various tissues. The present study was conducted in order to evaluate the (R)-(+) PGN-induced alterations in ovarian aromatization, proto-oncogenes and estrogen receptorα (ERα) and ERβ receptors expressions.

Materials and Methods

In this experimental study, mature albino mice were divided into experimental (received 25 mg/kg, 50 mg/kg and 100 mg/kg PGN, orally for 35 days) and control (received 2% solution of Tween 80 as a PGN solvent, orally) groups. The mRNA levels of Erα, Erβ, p53, Bcl-2, and cytochrome p450 (Cyp19) as well as ovarian angiogenesis were analyzed through reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction and immunohistochemical techniques, respectively. Moreover, apoptosis of follicular cells, serum estrogen and progesterone levels and mRNA damage were investigated via using terminal transferase and biotin-16-dUTP staining, electrochemilunescence and fluorescent microscopy methods, respectively.

Results

The PGN reduced Erα, Erβ and Cyp19 expression at 50 mg/kg and 100 mg/kg doses, while significantly elevating p53 and reducing Bcl-2 expression. Finally, PGN impaired ovarian angiogenesis, increased apoptosis, elevated follicular atresia and reduced serum levels of estrogen and progesterone.

Conclusion

Chronic exposure to PGN (50 mg/kg and 100 mg/kg), severely affects ovarian aromatization, proto- oncogenes mRNA levels and expression of ERs.

Of Oestrogens and Sperm: A Review of the Roles of Oestrogens and Oestrogen Receptors in Male Reproduction

The crucial role that oestrogens play in male reproduction has been generally accepted; however, the exact mechanism of their action is not entirely clear and there is still much more to be clarified. The oestrogen response is mediated through oestrogen receptors, as well as classical oestrogen receptors’ variants, and their specific co-expression plays a critical role. The importance of oestrogen signalling in male fertility is indicated by the adverse effects of selected oestrogen-like compounds, and their interaction with oestrogen receptors was proven to cause pathologies. The aims of this review are to summarise the current knowledge on oestrogen signalling during spermatogenesis and sperm maturation and discuss the available information on oestrogen receptors and their splice variants. An overview is given of species-specific differences including in humans, along with a detailed summary of the methodology outcome, including all the genetically manipulated models available to date. This review provides coherent information on the recently discovered mechanisms of oestrogens’ and oestrogen receptors’ effects and action in both testicular somatic and germ cells, as well as in mature sperm, available for mammals, including humans.