Histamine and Scombrotoxins

Recognition and detection of histamine in foods using aptamer modified fluorescence polymer dots sensors

Histamine has been known as a momentous cause of biogenic amine poisoning. Therefore, the content of histamine in foods is strictly required to be controlled within a certain range. Here, an aptamer fluorescent sensor was developed for detection of histamine. Poly [(9, 9-di-n-octylfluorenyl-2, 7-diyl)-alt-(benzo [2,1,3] thiadia-zol-4, 8-diyl)] (PF8BT) and the styrene maleic anhydride copolymer (PSMA) were used for the preparation of PF8BT-Polymer dots (PF8BT-Pdots). PF8BT-Pdots and the cyanine3-phosphoramidite (Cy3) were linked through aptamer to achieve the ratiometric detection for histamine. PF8BT-Pdots were partly quenched by Cy3 due to the fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET), when the histamine molecule was recognized by aptamer on the surface of PF8BT-Pdots. A linear range (3-21 μmol/L) was obtained for histamine detection with a low limit of detection (LOD = 0.38 μmol/L). PF8BT aptamer Pdots (PF8BT-A) were used to detect histamine in simply treated aquaculture water and tuna. The cell imaging of HeLa cells presented a good biosecurity and outstanding fluorescent imaging capability of PF8BT-A. The aptamer fluorescent sensors provided a new platform for rapid and accurate detection of histamine in aquatic products and had great potential for the application in food safety and quality control.

Topical Antiedematogenic Activity of the Essential Oil of Psidium brownianum Mart. (OEPB) in Murine Ear Edema Models

Psidium brownianum Mart is reported in the literature by antinociceptive and antioxidant activities, indicating that this species' secondary metabolites might be used to control inflammatory processes. The present study aimed to characterize the topical antiedematogenic activity of the essential oil of Psidium brownianum Mart. (OEPB) in ear edema models by different inflammatory agents. Female Swiss mice (25-35 g) and Wistar albino rats (200-300 g) were used throughout tests (n=6/group) on acute or chronic edema models induced by single and multiple topical applications. The OEPB is administered topically pure or at a concentration of 100 or 200 mg/mL. The antiedematogenic mechanism of OEPB was analyzed by administering capsaicin, arachidonic acid, histamine, and phenol at the best effective dose (200 mg/mL). The results showed a significant reduction of edema-induced single (28.87 %) and multiple (50.13 %) applications of croton oil compared to the negative control group. Regarding potential mechanisms of action, OEPB (200 mg/mL) inhibited the development of edema triggered by capsaicin (29.95 %), arachidonic acid (22.66 %), phenol (23.35 %), and histamine (75.46 %), suggesting an interference with the histaminergic pathway. These results indicate that OEPB presents a topical antiedematogenic effect in acute and chronic murine models, possibly interfering with inflammatory pathways triggered by mediators such as histamine.

New insights into the toxicological effects of dietary biogenic amines

Biogenic amines (BA) are molecules with biological functions, which can accumulate at toxic concentrations in foods. Several microorganisms have been identified as responsible for their accumulation at elevated concentrations. Histamine, tyramine and putrescine are the BA most commonly found at highest concentrations. The ingestion of food containing high BA concentrations leads to intoxication with symptoms depending on the BA and the amount consumed. Moreover, there is evidence of synergy between different BA, something of toxicological importance given that some foods accumulate different BA. This work reviews the BA toxic effects and examines recent discoveries regarding their synergy, cytotoxicity and genotoxicity. These advances in the toxicological consequences of ingesting BA contaminated foods support the need to regulate their presence in foods to preserve the consumer's health. However, more research efforts -focused on the establishment of risk assessments- are needed to reach a consensus in their limits in different food matrices.

High-Resolution Comparative and Quantitative Proteomics of Biogenic-Amine-Producing Bacteria and Virulence Factors Present in Seafood

The presence of biogenic amines (histamine, tyramine, putrescine, and cadaverine) in seafood is a significant concern for food safety. This review describes for the first time a shotgun quantitative proteomics strategy to evaluate and compare foodborne strains of bacteria that produce biogenic amines in seafoods. This approach recognized 35,621 peptide spectrum matches, belonging to 20,792 peptides, and 4621 proteins. It allowed the determination of functional pathways and the classification of the strains into hierarchical clusters. The study identified a protein-protein interaction network involving 1160 nodes/10,318 edges. Proteins were related to energy pathways, spermidine biosynthesis, and putrescine metabolism. Label-free quantitative proteomics allowed the identification of differentially regulated proteins in specific strains such as putrescine aminotransferase, arginine decarboxylase, and l-histidine-binding protein. Additionally, 123 peptides were characterized as virulence factors and 299 peptide biomarkers were selected to identify bacterial species in fish products. This study presents the most extensive proteomic repository and progress in the science of food biogenic bacteria and could be applied in the food industry for the detection of bacterial contamination that produces histamine and other biogenic amines during food processing/storage.

Formation and Detection of Gizzerosine in Animal Feed Matrices: Progress and Perspectives

Gizzerosine is responsible for gizzard erosion and black vomit, owing to excessive gastric acid secretion in poultry. It is a biogenic amine that forms during feed processing. Gizzerosine, a derivative of histamine, is a serious threat to animal feed safety and poultry production because it is more potent after ingestion and more harmful to poultry than histamine. The difficulty of obtaining gizzerosine and the lack of simple, rapid, and sensitive in vitro detection techniques have hindered studies on the effects of gizzerosine on gizzard health and poultry production. In this review, we evaluated the natural formation and the chemical synthesis methods of gizzerosine and introduced seven detection methods and their principles for analyzing gizzerosine. This review summarizes the issues of gizzerosine research and suggests methods for the future development of gizzerosine detection methods.

Novel insights on the probable mechanism associated with histamine oral model-inducing neuropathological and behavioral toxicity in rats

Histamine (HIS) is an important chemical mediator that causes vasodilation and contributes to anaphylactic reactions. Recently, HIS is an understudied neurotransmitter in the central nervous system, and its potential role in neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration is a critical area of research. So, the study's goal is to investigate the consequences of repeated oral intake of HIS on the rat's brain and explore the mechanistic way of its neurotoxicity. Thirty male rats were divided into three groups (n = 10). The following treatments were administered orally to all rats every day for 14 days. Group (1) was given distilled water, whereas groups (2 & 3) were given HIS at dosage levels 250 and 500 mg/kg body weight (BWT), respectively. Brain tissue samples were collected at 7- and 14-days from the beginning of the experiment. Our results revealed that continuous oral administration of HIS at both doses for 14 days significantly reduced the BWT and induced severe neurobehavioral changes, including depression, dullness, lethargy, tremors, abnormal walking, and loss of spatial learning and memory in rats. In all HIS receiving groups, HPLC data showed a considerable raise in the HIS contents of the brain. Additionally, the daily consumption of HIS causes oxidative stress that is dose- and time-dependent which is characterized by elevation of malondialdehyde levels along with reduction of catalase activity and reduced glutathione levels. The neuropathological lesions were commonly observed in the cerebrum, striatum, and cerebellum and confirmed by the immunohistochemistry staining that demonstrating moderate to strong caspase-3 and inducible nitric oxide synthase expressions in all HIS receiving groups, mainly those receiving 500 mg/kg HIS. NF-κB, TNF-α, and IL-1β gene levels were also upregulated at 7- and 14-days in all HIS groups, particularly in those getting 500 mg/kg. We concluded that ROS-induced apoptosis and inflammation was the essential mechanism involved in HIS-mediated neurobehavioral toxicity and histopathology.

Characterization of Lactococcus lactis 11/19-B1 Isolated from Kiwi Fruit as a Potential Probiotic and Paraprobiotic

Probiotics are live bacteria used as food additives that are beneficial to human health. Lactococcus lactis 11/19-B1 strain isolated from kiwi fruit stimulates innate immunity in silkworms. Intake of yogurt containing the living 11/19-B1 strain significantly decreases the level of low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) in high-LDL volunteers and improves atopic dermatitis in humans. In this study, the probiotic properties of the 11/19-B1 strain, such as sensitivity to antimicrobial compounds, biogenic amine production, some virulence genes for human health, antimicrobial activity, tolerance to gastric acid and bile acids, and ability to adhere to the intestinal mucosa, were evaluated. The 11/19-B1 strain did not show resistance to the tested antimicrobial compounds except cefoxitin and fosfomycin. In addition, no production of amines that can harm humans, the antimicrobial activity required for probiotics, and the absence of adhesion to Caco-2 cells suggest that it is unlikely to attach to the intestinal epithelium. The 11/19-B1 strain grew in 0.3% but not in 1% bile salt. In the presence of 2% skim milk, the survival rate of the 11/19-B1 strain under simulated gastrointestinal tract conditions was 67% even after 4 h. These results indicate that the 11/19-B1 strain may function as a probiotic or paraprobiotic to be utilized in the food industry.

Placebo-Controlled Histamine Challenge Disproves Suspicion of Histamine Intolerance

BACKGROUND

Histamine intolerance (HIT) is frequently diagnosed in patients with polysymptomatic otherwise unexplained symptoms.

OBJECTIVES

To exclude HIT by a single-blind placebo-controlled histamine challenge (SBPCHC), to study clinical features of patients with positive challenge, and to examine the predictability of HIT by biomarkers.

METHODS

SBPCHC was performed in 59 patients with suspected HIT. History and clinical data, including serum diamine oxidase (DAO) and histamine skin test wheal size of patients with positive versus negative SBPCHC, were compared.

RESULTS

Patients were predominantly middle-aged women (84.7%). Three-quarters reported improvement but never resolution of symptoms during a histamine-low diet. Histamine provocation was safe; only 1 patient was treated with antihistamines. Thirty-seven patients (62.7%) displayed symptoms to placebo. HIT was excluded in 50 patients (84.7%). Objective symptoms occurred in 4 of 59 cases (6.8%) after histamine but not after placebo challenge. These were diagnosed with "plausible HIT" because reactions occurring by chance could not be excluded. Another 5 patients (8.5%) were diagnosed with "possible HIT" after case-dependent detailed analysis. Patients with plausible/possible HIT had reported more gastrointestinal symptoms (P = .01), but comparable diet response and equal histamine skin prick test wheal sizes to those without HIT. Serum DAO activity tended to be lower in patients with HIT (P = .08), but was highly variable in those without, limiting its value as a biomarker.

CONCLUSIONS

SBPCHC disproves HIT in the majority of patients. Placebo-controlled challenges are needed as placebo reactions were frequent. Gastrointestinal symptoms after food intake and reduced DAO levels are markers for HIT; however, specificity is not sufficient enough for making the diagnosis.

Pseudo-Allergies in the Emergency Department: A Common Misdiagnosis of Hypersensitivity Type 1 Allergic Reaction

Type-1 hypersensitivity reaction represents an acute IgE-mediated reaction that can cause life-threatening conditions, such as anaphylactic shock, angioedema, and airway obstruction. Other reactions that can mimic type-1 hypersensitivity reactions include IgE-independent mast cell degranulation, bradykinin-mediated reactions, leukotrienes-mediated reactions, and pseudo-allergies. We use the term pseudo-allergy in this article for histamine-mediated reactions that are mast cell-independent. We did not discuss pseudo-allergic reactions that are not acute or life-threatening, such as celiac disease, Heiner's syndrome, eosinophilic esophagitis, and food protein-induced enterocolitis in our article because the emergency department is not the primary location to diagnose or treat these reactions. Herein, we present some allergic-like reactions that can be life-threatening, such as scombroid food poisoning (SFP), bradykinin-induced angioedema, IgE-independent angioedema, opioid-induced angioedema, and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID)-induced hypersensitivity and angioedema. These reactions may have different treatments based on their mechanism of reaction. Histamine-mediated reactions, such as SFP, histamine-mediated angioedema, and mast cell degranulation induced by NSAIDs, and opioids can be treated with antihistamines, epinephrine, and corticosteroids. Bradykinin-induced angioedema, including hereditary angioedema and acquired angioedema, can be treated with fresh frozen plasma. Hereditary angioedema can be treated with many FDA-approved targeted medications, such as plasma-derived C1-INH, plasma kallikrein inhibitor (Ecallantide), and selective bradykinin-2 receptor antagonist (Icatibant). However, these targeted agents are not well-studied enough to be used for acquired angioedema. It is crucial for emergency medicine physicians to be familiar with and predict these reactions to prevent misdiagnosis, be prepared to treat these life-threatening conditions appropriately without delay and eliminate patients' exposure to any unnecessary investigations or treatments.

Shotgun Proteomics Analysis, Functional Networks, and Peptide Biomarkers for Seafood-Originating Biogenic-Amine-Producing Bacteria

Biogenic amine-producing bacteria are responsible for the production of basic nitrogenous compounds (histamine, cadaverine, tyramine, and putrescine) following the spoilage of food due to microorganisms. In this study, we adopted a shotgun proteomics strategy to characterize 15 foodborne strains of biogenic-amine-producing bacteria. A total of 10,673 peptide spectrum matches belonging to 4081 peptides and corresponding to 1811 proteins were identified. Relevant functional pathways were determined, and strains were differentiated into hierarchical clusters. An expected protein-protein interaction network was created (260 nodes/1973 interactions). Most of the determined proteins were associated with networks/pathways of energy, putrescine metabolism, and host-virus interaction. Additionally, 556 peptides were identified as virulence factors. Moreover, 77 species-specific peptide biomarkers corresponding to 64 different proteins were proposed to identify 10 bacterial species. This represents a major proteomic dataset of biogenic-amine-producing strains. These results may also be suitable for new treatments for food intoxication and for tracking microbial sources in foodstuffs.

Humanoid shaped optical fiber plasmon biosensor functionalized with graphene oxide/multi-walled carbon nanotubes for histamine detection

Histamine is a biologically active molecule that serves as a reliable predictor of the quality of fish. In this work, authors have developed a novel humanoid-shaped tapered optical fiber (HTOF) biosensor based on the localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) phenomenon to detect varying histamine concentrations. In this experiment, a novel and distinctive tapering structure has been developed using a combiner manufacturing system and contemporary processing technologies. Graphene oxide (GO)/multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) are immobilized on the HTOF probe surface to increase the biocompatibility of biosensor. In this instance, GO/MWCNTs are deployed first, then gold nanoparticles (AuNPs). Consequently, the GO/MWCNTs help to give abundant space for the immobilization of nanoparticles (AuNPs in this case) as well as increase surface area for the attachment of biomolecules to the fiber surface. By immobilizing AuNPs on the surface of the probe, the evanescent field can stimulate the AuNPs and excite the LSPR phenomena for sensing the histamine. The surface of the sensing probe is functionalized with diamine oxidase enzyme in order to enhance the histamine sensor's particular selectivity. The proposed sensor is demonstrated experimentally to have a sensitivity of 5.5 nm/mM and a detection limit of 59.45 µM in the linear detection range of 0-1000 µM. In addition, the probe's reusability, reproducibility, stability, and selectivity are tested; the results of these indices show that the probe has a high application potential for detecting histamine levels in marine products.

Investigation of Histamine Removal by Electrodialysis from the Fermented Fish Sauce and Its Effects on the Flavor

Histamine is one of the most concerned safety indicators in fish sauce. Considering its charge property, electrodialysis (ED) was used to control the histamine in fish sauce, and studies were focused on three operating parameters: input current, pH, and flow velocity. A Box–Behnken design and response surface methodology was adopted to derive a statistical model, which indicated that 5.1 A input current, pH 3.8, and 40 L∙h−1 flow velocity were optimal operation conditions. Under this condition, the histamine removal rate reached 53.41% and the histamine content met the allowable histamine limit of below 400 mg·kg−1 in fish sauce, while the amino nitrogen (ANN) loss rate was only 15.46%. In addition, amino acids and volatile compounds changed differently during ED. As a result, with decreased histamine, the fish sauce after ED was also less salty and less fishy. The study first explored utilizing ED to remove histamine from fish sauce, which has positive implications for promoting the safety of aquatic products.

Effects of selected Bacillus strains on the biogenic amines, bioactive ingredients and antioxidant capacity of shuidouchi

The control of biogenic amines (BAs) is crucial to guarantee the safety of fermented soybean products. In this study, the BAs composition of eleven shuidouchi samples was analyzed, and the BAs degradation strains were selected from shuidouchi samples with a low BAs content. Then the influences of screened BAs degradation strains on BAs, total phenolics (TP), total flavonoids (TF), isoflavones and the antioxidant ability of fermented shuidouchi were evaluated. Results showed that the total BAs content of all shuidouchi samples was within the safe range, while the GZXQ, GZQY and GZMX samples had higher levels of tyramine. Meanwhile, 109 strains were isolated from the YNLJ, GZLG, GZMZ, GZDY, and YNHY sample. Bacillus tropicus A11, Bacillus siamensis D11, Bacillus subtilis T2, and B. subtilis U2 with higher BAs degradation capacity and lower BAs production ability were selected to ferment shuidouchi. These four Bacillus strains could effectively control the BAs concentration of fermented shuidouchi, especially B. tropicus A11 and B. siamensis D11. Furthermore, compared to naturally fermented shuidouchi, higher levels of antioxidant ability, TP, TF, daidzein, glyciein, and genistein were found in the shuidouchi fermented with selected strains. These findings demonstrated that these screened strains could be applied as potential candidates for the production of high quality shuidouchi.

Diamine Oxidase as a Therapeutic Enzyme: Study of Germination from Vegetal Sources and Investigation of the Presence of β-N-Oxalyl-L-α,β-diaminopropionic Acid (β-ODAP) Using LC-MS/MS

Vegetal diamine oxidase (vDAO), an enzyme proposed to relieve symptoms of histaminosis, shows better reactivity with histamine and aliphatic diamines, as well as higher enzymatic activity than DAO of animal origin. The objective of this study was to evaluate the enzyme activity of vDAO from germinating grains from Lathyrus sativus (grass pea) and Pisum sativum (pea), and to verify the presence of a neurotoxin, β-N-Oxalyl-L-α,β-diaminopropionic acid (β-ODAP), in the crude extract obtained from their seedlings. A targeted liquid chromatography-multiple-reaction monitoring mass spectrometry method was developed and used to quantify β-ODAP in the analysed extracts. An optimized sample preparation procedure, involving protein precipitation with acetonitrile followed by mixed-anion exchange solid-phase extraction, allowed for high sensitivity and good peak shape for β-ODAP detection. The Lathyrus sativus extract exhibited the highest vDAO enzyme activity of the extracts, followed by the extract from pea cultivar Amarillo from the Crop Development Centre (CDC). The results have also shown that even though β-ODAP was present in the crude extract from L. sativus, its content was far below the toxicity threshold (300 mg of β-ODAP/kg body/day). CDC Amarillo showed 5000-fold less β-ODAP than the undialysed L. sativus extract. It was concluded that both species can be considered as convenient sources of vDAO for potential therapeutic use.

Survival, growth, and biogenic amine production of Enterococcus faecium FC12 in response to extracts and essential oils of Rubus fruticosus and Juniperus oxycedrus

Introduction

Enterococci are lactic acid bacteria (LAB) usually found as food contaminants in fermented products such as cheeses and fermented sausages. Due to their antibiotic resistance, the presence of virulence factors, and the ability to produce biogenic amines (BAs), the determination of these bacteria is crucial to assure food quality and safety. BAs production and consequent accumulation in foods can cause toxicological effects on human health. Plant phenolic compounds are promising alternatives to chemical preservatives and reflect consumers' demand for "green" solutions. In this study, the antimicrobial effect of blackberry (Rubus fruticosus) leaves and prickly juniper (Juniperus oxycedrus) needles, both as phenolic extracts (PE) and essential oils (EO), were evaluated against Enterococcus faecium FC12, a known tyramine-producing strain.

Methods

The growth kinetics in the presence of sub-lethal concentrations of such plant derivatives were modeled (Gompertz equation) and BA production was monitored over time by HPLC. Moreover, flow cytometry (FCM) was used to study the effects of EOs and PEs on cell viability.

Results

The EOs showed a higher antimicrobial effect (especially R. fruticosus added at 0.75 mg/ml), determining an initial decrease of culturable cells followed by a recovery, even if with lower growth rates and final cell loads. Different rates of BA formation were observed, with tyramine concentrations ranging from 120 to 160 mg/l after 96 h of incubation, and 2-phenylethylamine was produced in lower amounts, usually after reaching the peak of tyramine. FCM confirmed the higher efficacy of R. fruticosus EO that induced cell membrane injury in 93% of the total population. However, complete recovery occurred in the following incubation, demonstrating transient damage.

Discussion

Although further research is required to better investigate this recovery and to assess the suitability of this approach in a real food system, the present study showed the potential antimicrobial activity of plant derivatives, especially R. fruticosus EO, against the tyramine-producing E. faecium FC12.

Molecular Mechanisms of Scombroid Food Poisoning

Scombroid food poisoning (SFP) is a foodborne disease that develops after consumption of fresh fish and, rarely, seafood that has fine organoleptic characteristics but contains a large amount of exogenous histamine. SFP, like other food pseudo-allergic reactions (FPA), is a disorder that is clinically identical to allergic reactions type I, but there are many differences in their pathogenesis. To date, SFP has been widespread throughout the world and is an urgent problem, although exact epidemiological data on incidence varies greatly. The need to distinguish SFP from true IgE-associated allergy to fish and seafood is one of the most difficult examples of the differential diagnosis of allergic conditions. The most important difference is the absence of an IgE response in SFP. The pathogenesis of SFP includes a complex system of interactions between the body and chemical triggers such as exogenous histamine, other biogenic amines, cis-urocanic acid, salicylates, and other histamine liberators. Because of the wide range of molecular pathways involved in this process, it is critical to understand their differences. This may help predict and prevent poor outcomes in patients and contribute to the development of adequate hygienic rules and regulations for seafood product safety. Despite the vast and lengthy history of research on SFP mechanisms, there are still many blank spots in our understanding of this condition. The goals of this review are to differentiate various molecular mechanisms of SFP and describe methods of hygienic regulation of some biogenic amines that influence the concentration of histamine in the human body and play an important role in the mechanism of SFP.

Recent advances in gold nanoparticle-based colorimetric aptasensors for chemical and biological analyses

Aptasensors are amazing among many currently formed procedures due to their excellent particularity, selectivity and responsiveness. These biosensors get more popular in combination with gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) to detect chemical and biological molecules. The response of AuNPs by changing color provides a simple explanation of outcomes. The authors review the recent developments in AuNP-based colorimetric aptasensors designed to sense different chemical and biological molecules. They summarize the procedure of AuNP-based detection and the ordinary instances of currently formed AuNP-based colorimetric procedures. Furthermore, their uses for detecting different analytes based on analyte types are given and the present challenges, overview, and positive views for forming new aptasensors are also regarded.

An allergist's approach to food poisoning

Foodborne illnesses represent a significant global health concern. These preventable diseases lead to substantial mortality and morbidity worldwide. Substantial overlap with food allergy exists with similar clinical presentations and symptom onset. Knowledge of the typically implicated microorganisms and toxins can help properly identify these diseases. A thorough history is essential to differentiate between these 2 disorders. The types of food implicated may be similar including milk, egg, fish, and shellfish. The timing of symptom onset may overlap and lead to misdiagnosis of disorders such as food protein-induced enterocolitis syndrome. Classically, histamine-related food poisoning is also typically confused with true food allergy and may be seen as related to fish and cheese. Knowledge of epidemiology, patterns, and etiology of allergic conditions and foodborne illness may help the allergist differentiate among these common diseases.

Tracking spoilage bacteria in the tuna microbiome

Like other seafood products, tuna is highly perishable and sensitive to microbial spoilage. Its consumption, whether fresh or canned, can lead to severe food poisoning due to the activity of specific microorganisms, including histamine-producing bacteria. Yet, many grey areas persist regarding their ecology, conditions of emergence, and proliferation in fish. In this study, we used 16S rRNA barcoding to investigate postmortem changes in the bacteriome of fresh and brine-frozen yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares), until late stages of decomposition (i.e. 120 h). The results revealed that despite standard refrigeration storage conditions (i.e. 4°C), a diverse and complex spoilage bacteriome developed in the gut and liver. The relative abundance of spoilage bacterial taxa increased rapidly in both organs, representing 82% of the bacterial communities in fresh yellowfin tuna, and less than 30% in brine-frozen tuna. Photobacterium was identified as one of the dominant bacterial genera, and its temporal dynamics were positively correlated with histamine concentration in both gut and liver samples, which ultimately exceeded the recommended sanitary threshold of 50 ppm in edible parts of tuna. The results from this study show that the sanitary risks associated with the consumption of this widely eaten fish are strongly influenced by postcapture storage conditions.

Analysis of Biogenic Amines Using Immunoassays, HPLC, and a Newly Developed IC-MS/MS Technique in Fish Products-A Comparative Study

In this study, comparative analyses were carried out with ion chromatography mass-spectrometry (IC-MS/MS) which has no derivatization step, high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) technique, as well as two quantitative and two semi-quantitative immunoassays. The results demonstrated that HPLC and quantitative immunoassay methods were well-correlated with IC-MS/MS in determining histamine in various types of fish products. The best correlation was observed with the HistaSure ELISA Fast Track kit (R² = 0.9903). More than half of the values (68%) obtained by two methods were also statistically similar. The results of semi-quantitative test kits also supported histamine values estimated by quantitative methods, with some exceptions. The best results were found for HistaSure Lateral Flow in supporting the quantitative techniques. Therefore, these methods are found suitable for monitoring histamine in fish products in terms of food safety. Good correlations were also observed HPLC and IC-MS/MS in determining cadaverine, putrescine, and tyramine with the highest value observed for tyramine as R² = 0.9785. However, no correlation was observed for other biogenic amines, and the majority of the results were significantly different from each other for these amines (p < 0.05). The differences may be caused by the drawbacks reported previously for HPLC. However, further studies are required to confirm the possible effects. This study provides a comparative evaluation of several methods in terms of their suitability in determining biogenic amines in fish products for both monitoring and regulatory purposes.