Current approaches in sample preparation for trace analysis of selected endocrine-disrupting compounds: Focus on polychlorinated biphenyls, alkylphenols, and parabens

Natural Eutectic Solvent-Based Temperature-Controlled Liquid-Liquid Microextraction and Nano-Liquid Chromatography for the Analysis of Herbal Aqueous Samples

In this work, two novel (-)-menthol-based hydrophobic natural eutectic solvents with vanillin and cinnamic acid were prepared and applied as extraction solvents. In this regard, 12 endocrine disruptors, including phenol, 2,4-dimethylphenol, 2,3,6-trimethylphenol, 4-tert-butylphenol, 4-sec-butylphenol, 4-tert-amylphenol, 4-n-hexylphenol, 4-tert-octylphenol, 4-n-heptylphenol, 4-n-octylphenol, and 4-n-nonylphenol and bisphenol A, were studied in a green tea drink. A temperature-controlled liquid-liquid microextraction was used as the extraction method, and nano-liquid chromatography-ultraviolet detection was used as the separation and determination system. Different parameters affecting the compatibility of the non-ionic eutectic solvents with water-polar organic solvent mixtures and chromatographic and detection systems were optimized, including injection/dilution solvent, injection mode, mobile phase composition, and step gradient. With the same purpose, two stationary phases were tested, including XBridge® C18 and a mixed-phase Cogent C30-XBridge® C18. Finally, the greenness and blueness of the methodology were assessed to evaluate the environmental profile and usability of the procedure.

Deep eutectic solvents for the determination of endocrine disrupting chemicals

The harmful effects of endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) to humans and other organisms in the environment have been well established over the years, and more studies are ongoing to classify other chemicals that have the potential to alter or disrupt the regular function of the endocrine system. In addition to toxicological studies, analytical detection systems are progressively being improved to facilitate accurate determination of EDCs in biological, environmental and food samples. Recent microextraction methods have focused on the use of green chemicals that are safe for analytical applications, and present very low or no toxicity upon disposal. Deep eutectic solvents (DESs) have emerged as one of the viable alternatives to the conventional hazardous solvents, and their unique properties make them very useful in different applications. Notably, the use of renewable sources to prepare DESs leads to highly biodegradable products that mitigate negative ecological impacts. This review presents an overview of both organic and inorganic EDCs and their ramifications on human health. It also presents the fundamental principles of liquid phase and solid phase microextraction methods, and gives a comprehensive account of the use of DESs for the determination of EDCs in various samples.

Parabens as environmental contaminants of aquatic systems affecting water quality and microbial dynamics

Among different pollutants of emerging concern, parabens have gained rising interest due to their widespread detection in water sources worldwide. This occurs because parabens are used in personal care products, pharmaceuticals, and food, in which residues are generated and released into aquatic environments. The regulation of the use of parabens varies across different geographic regions, resulting in diverse concentrations observed globally. Concentrations of parabens exceeding 100 μg/L have been found in wastewater treatment plants and surface waters while drinking water (DW) sources typically exhibit concentrations below 6 μg/L. Despite their low levels, the presence of parabens in DW is a potential exposure route for humans, raising concerns for both human health and environmental microbiota. Although a few studies have reported alterations in the functions and characteristics of microbial communities following exposure to emerging contaminants, the impact of the exposure to parabens by microbial communities, particularly biofilm colonizers, remains largely understudied. This review gathers the most recent information on the occurrence of parabens in water sources, as well as their effects on human health and aquatic organisms. The interactions of parabens with microbial communities are reviewed for the first time, filling the knowledge gaps on the effects of paraben exposure on microbial ecosystems and their impact on disinfection tolerance and antimicrobial resistance, with potential implications for public health.

Methods for the analysis of endocrine disrupting chemicals in selected environmental matrixes

Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are heterogenous in structure, chemical and physical properties, and their capacity to partition into various environmental matrixes. In many cases, these chemicals can disrupt the endocrine systems of vertebrate and invertebrate organisms when present at very low concentrations. Therefore, sensitive and varied analytical methods are required to detect these compounds in the environment. This review summarizes the analytical methods and instruments that are most used to monitor for EDCs in selected environmental matrixes. Only those matrixes for which there is a clear link between exposures and endocrine effects are included in this review. Also discussed are emerging methods for sample preparation and advanced analytical instruments that provide greater selectivity and sensitivity.

A simple, rapid and sensitive method for the simultaneous determination of eighteen environmental phenols in human urine

Environmental phenols are a typical group of endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) and have caused growing concerns upon the potential adverse effects on humans. Urinary concentrations of phenols can be used as valid biomarkers for the assessment of human exposure. A method was developed for the simultaneous determination of eighteen environmental phenols (six parabens, seven bisphenols, four benzophenones and triclosan) in human urine using liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) coupled to high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). The optimized LLE was time saving and required low volumes of organic solvents. A volume of only 0.2 mL urine sample was extracted and analyzed. The method yielded good linearity (0.9925-0.9994) and satisfactory limit of detection (LOD) (≤0.08 ng mL^-1). The relative recoveries ranged between 76.7% and 116% at three spiked levels, with intra- and inter-day precision less than 8.04% and 13.5%, respectively. Our method has been proved to be simple, rapid and sensitive by a comprehensive comparison between methods. This proposed method provides a large-scale biomonitoring tool for exposure assessment of human population to environmental phenols.

Parabens as chemicals of emerging concern in the environment and humans: A review

Parabens are one of the most widely used preservatives in food, pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PCPs) because of their advantageous properties and low toxicity based on the early assessments. However, recent research indicates that parabens may act as endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) and thus, are considered as chemicals of emerging concern that have adverse human health effects. To provide the basis for future human health studies, we reviewed relevant literature, published between 2005 and 2020, regarding the levels of parabens in the consumer products (pharmaceuticals, PCPs and food), environmental matrices and humans, including susceptible populations, such as pregnant women and children. The analysis showed that paraben detection rates in consumer products, environmental compartments and human populations are high, while the levels vary greatly by country and paraben type. The concentrations of parabens reported in pregnant women (~20-120 μg/L) were an order of magnitude higher than in the general population. Paraben concentrations in food and pharmaceuticals were at the ng/g level, while the levels in PCPs reached mg/g levels. Environmental concentrations ranged from ng/L-μg/L in surface waters to tens of μg/g in wastewater and indoor dust. The levels of human exposure to parabens appear to be higher in the U.S. and EU countries than in China and India, which may change with the increasing production of parabens in the latter countries. The review provides context for future studies to connect paraben exposure levels with human health effects.

Experimental design approaches to optimize ultrasound-assisted simultaneous-silylation dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction for the rapid determination of parabens in water samples

This work describes a rapid solvent-minimized process to effectively determine four common paraben preservatives (methyl-, ethyl-, propyl- and butyl-paraben) in surface water samples. The method involved the use of a combination of a novel ultrasound-assisted simultaneous-silylation within dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction (UASS-DLLME) with detection by gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS). To overcome the challenges related to the different experimental conditions, multivariate experimental design approaches conducted by means of a multilevel categorical design and a Box–Behnken design were utilized to screen and optimize parameters that have significant influences on the efficiency of silylation and extraction. The method was then validated and shown to provide low limits of quantitation (LOQs; 1–5 ng L⁻¹), high precision (3–11%), and satisfactory mean spiked recoveries (accuracy; 79–101%). Upon analyzing samples of surface water obtained from the field, we found that, in total, there was a relatively high concentration of the target parabens ranging from 200 to 1389 ng L⁻¹. The sources of the elevated levels of these parabens may be from the release of untreated municipal wastewater in this region, and also due to the widespread application of parabens in personal care and food products.

This work describes a rapid solvent-minimized process to effectively determine four common paraben preservatives (methyl-, ethyl-, propyl- and butyl-paraben) in surface water samples.

Determination of Intact Parabens in the Human Plasma of Cancer and Non-Cancer Patients Using a Validated Fabric Phase Sorptive Extraction Reversed-Phase Liquid Chromatography Method with UV Detection

Parabens have been widely employed as preservatives since the 1920s for extending the shelf life of foodstuffs, medicines, and daily care products. Given the fact that there are some legitimate concerns related to their potential multiple endocrine-disrupting properties, the development of novel bioanalytical methods for their biomonitoring is crucial. In this study, a fabric phase sorptive extraction reversed-phase liquid chromatography method coupled with UV detection (FPSE-HPLC-UV) was developed and validated for the quantitation of seven parabens in human plasma samples. Chromatographic separation of the seven parabens and p-hydroxybenzoic acid was achieved on a semi-micro Spherisorb ODS1 analytical column under isocratic elution using a mobile phase containing 0.1% (v/v) formic acid and 66% 49 mM ammonium formate aqueous solution in acetonitrile at flow rate 0.25 mL min⁻¹ with a 24-min run time for each sample. The method was linear at a concentration range of 20 to 500 ng mL⁻¹ for the seven parabens under study in human plasma samples. The efficiency of the method was proven with the analysis of 20 human plasma samples collected from women subjected to breast cancer surgery and to reconstructive and aesthetic breast surgery. The highest quantitation rates in human plasma samples from cancerous cases were found for methylparaben and isobutylparaben with average plasma concentrations at 77 and 112.5 ng mL⁻¹. The high concentration levels detected agree with previous findings for some of the parabens and emphasize the need for further epidemiological research on the possible health effects of the use of these compounds.

A multi-residue method for determining twenty-four endocrine disrupting chemicals in vegetables and fruits using ultrasound-assisted solid-liquid extraction and continuous solid-phase extraction

In this work, we developed an analytical approach using an ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) followed by continuous solid-phase extraction (SPE) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) detection in order to determine simultaneously 24 endocrine disrupting chemicals such as alkylphenols, organophosphorus pesticides, parabens, phenylphenols, triclosan and bisphenol A in vegetable and fruit samples. Different variables influencing UAE and SPE performance were optimized in order to maximize removal of the sample matrix and preconcentration of the analytes. The optimized extraction and GC-MS quantitation conditions provided acceptable sensitivity, selectivity, accuracy and precision. Limits of detection spanned the range 0.6-25 ng kg^-1, recoveries were near-quantitative and relative standard deviations ranged from 4.5 to 7.6%. The proposed method was used to analyse 11 vegetable samples and 7 fruit samples purchased at various Spanish and Moroccan supermarkets. Most samples contained more than three of the analytes, at levels between 5.8 and 580 ng kg^-1.

Combination of Counter Current Salting-Out Homogenous Liquid-Liquid Extraction with Dispersive Liquid-Liquid Microextraction for the High-Performance Liquid Chromatographic Determination of Environmental Estrogens in Water Samples

In this paper, counter current salting-out homogenous liquid-liquid extraction was combined with dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction for the determination of environmental estrogens in water samples by high-performance liquid chromatography. In this method, initially, sodium chloride was filled into a syringe and a mixture of water sample and acetonitrile was driven to pass through the syringe. Due to salting-out effect, fine droplets of acetonitrile went up through the remaining mixture and aggregated as a separated layer on the top. Then, the collected organic phase (acetonitrile) was removed with a syringe and mixed with carbon tetrachloride (extraction solvent). In the second step, the mixed organic phase was rapidly injected into 5 mL of distilled water to further enrich the analytes. Good linearity was obtained in the concentration range of 2.0~200 ng/mL for diethylstilbestrol (DES) and 8.0~200 ng/mL for octylphenol (OP), respectively. Limits of detection were 0.09 ng/mL for DES and 0.20 ng/mL for OP, respectively. Relative standard deviations for intra- and inter-day precisions were less than 2.1 and 3.1%, respectively. Finally, the established method was successfully applied to determine DES and OP in river water, well water, bottled water and campus drinking water samples with recoveries in the range from 81.0 to 105.9%.

Occurrence of endocrine disrupting compounds in mariculture sediment of Pulau Kukup, Johor, Malaysia

Endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs) such as hormones, pesticides, phenolic compounds, and pharmaceuticals compounds can cause adverse effects on humans, animals, and other living organisms. One of the largest mariculture areas situated in Pulau Kukup, Johor, Malaysia, is actively involved in exporting marine fish to other countries worldwide. This paper aims to provide baseline data on the level of EDC pollutants found in mariculture sediments in Malaysia since no reports have investigated this issue. Calculated samples recovered are between 50.39 and 129.10% at 100 ng/g spiking level. The highest concentration in the sediment samples was bisphenol A (0.072-0.389 ng/g dry weight) followed by diethylstilbestrol (<0.208-0.331 ng/g dry weight) and propranolol (<0.250-0.275 ng/g dry weight). Even though the concentrations of the targeted compounds obtained were low, their effects could become more evident longer term, which raises not only environmental health concerns but the potential risk to humans.

Simultaneous determination of drug active compound, hormones, pesticides, and endocrine disruptor compounds in wastewater samples by GC-MS with direct calibration and matrix matching strategies after preconcentration with dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction

DLLME was coupled with GC-MS for the simultaneous determination of a drug active compound, hormones, pesticides, and endocrine disruptor compounds with high accuracy and reproducibility in this study. Extraction parameters that affect extraction output including types and volumes of dispersive and extraction solvents, and effect of salt addition were optimized to lower the detection limits for 12 compounds. Under the optimum conditions, LOD and LOQ values were found between 1.99-5.05 and 6.63-16.87 ng/mL, respectively. Spiked recovery tests were also applied to wastewater samples to check the applicability of the method. Matrix matching strategy was used to improve the overall recovery results of the analytes obtained for municipal wastewater. Two different municipal wastewater samples were used in the matrix matching studies. Percent recovery values calculated with the matrix matching experiments were between 85-114%. The results obtained indicated that the developed method could be applied for the determination of the analytes of interest with high accuracy and sensitivity.

Fabric phase sorptive extraction/GC-MS method for rapid determination of broad polarity spectrum multi-class emerging pollutants in various aqueous samples

A rapid extraction and cleanup method using selective fabric phase sorptive extraction combined with gas chromatography and mass spectrometry has been developed and validated for the determination of broad polarity spectrum emerging pollutants, ethyl paraben, butyl paraben, diethyl phthalate, dibutyl phthalate, lidocaine, prilocaine, triclosan, and bisphenol A in various aqueous samples. Some important parameters of fabric phase sorptive extraction such as extraction time, matrix pH, stirring speed, type and volume of desorption solvent were investigated and optimized. Calibration curves were obtained in the concentration range 0.05-500 ng/mL. Under the optimum conditions, the limits of detection were in the range 0.009 -0.021 ng/mL. This method was validated by analyzing the compounds in spiked aqueous samples at different levels with recoveries of 93 to 99% and relative standard deviations of <6%. The developed method was applied for the determination of the emerging contaminants in tap water, municipal water, ground water, sewage water, and sludge water samples. The results demonstrate that fabric phase sorptive extraction has great potential in the preconcentration of trace analytes in complex matrix.

Fundamental Properties of Packing Materials for Liquid Chromatography

The high performance of chemically-modified silica gel packing materials is based on the utilization of pure silica gels. Earlier silica gels used to be made from inorganic silica; however, nowadays, silica gels are made from organic silanes. The surface smoothness and lack of trace metals of new silica gels permits easy surface modifications (chemical reactions) and improves the reproducibility and stability. Sharpening peak symmetry is based on developing better surface modification methods (silylation). Typical examples can be found in the chromatography of amitriptyline for silanol testing and that of quinizarin for trace metal testing. These test compounds were selected and demonstrated sensitive results in the measurement of trace amounts of either silanol or trace metals. Here, we demonstrate the three-dimensional model chemical structures of bonded-phase silica gels with surface electron density for easy understanding of the molecular interaction sites with analytes. Furthermore, a quantitative explanation of hydrophilic and hydrophobic liquid chromatographies was provided. The synthesis methods of superficially porous silica gels and their modified products were introduced.

In vitro genotoxic and cytotoxic effects of some paraben esters on human peripheral lymphocytes

Parabens (PBs) are p-hydroxybenzoic acid ester compounds commonly employed as antimicrobial preservatives, mainly in food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical products. The aim of the present study was to investigate the genotoxic and cytotoxic effects of some paraben esters (butyl paraben, propyl paraben, isobutyl paraben, and isopropyl paraben) on human peripheral lymphocytes, using in vitro sister chromatid exchange (SCE), chromosome aberration (CA), and cytokinesis-block micronucleus (CBMN) tests. Lymphocyte cultures were treated with four concentrations of PBs (100, 50, 25 and 10 µg/mL) for 24 and 48 h. Paraben esters significantly induced MN formations as compared to solvent control. Furthermore, butyl paraben and propyl paraben increased MN formations a concentration-dependent manner at 24 and 48 h. PBs increased the CA at 24 and 48 h. However, this increase was not meaningful for butyl paraben and isopropyl paraben at 48 h when compared with solvent control. Butyl, isobutyl, and isopropyl paraben significantly increased the SCE at 24 and 48 h. However, propyl paraben did not induce SCE meaningfully in both treatment periods. A significant decrease in the cytokinesis-block proliferation index and mitotic index was observed in cells exposed to all concentrations of PBs at 24 and 48 h. However, proliferation index was not affected at all concentrations of PBs after 24 h treatment, although it was decreased at the highest concentration of PBs at 48 h. It is concluded that all of the paraben esters used in this study have highly genotoxic and cytotoxic effects on human lymphocytes cells in vitro.

Bisphenol A and alkylphenols concentrations in selected mariculture fish species from Pulau Kukup, Johor, Malaysia

Endocrine disrupting compound (EDC) contamination in food is a global concern. Concerning potential environmental and human health exposed to EDCs via food intake, an experiment was conducted on the selected EDCs concentration in the mariculture fish, Trachinotus blochii (golden pomfret), Lutjanus campechanus (snapper), and Lates calcarifer (sea bass) at Pulau Kukup, Johor. Mariculture activity at Pulau Kukup involves active export of fishes to Singapore and Indonesia. The recovery of BPA (bisphenol A), 4OP (4-octylphenol), and 4NP (4-nonylphenol) were 61.54%-93.00%, 16.79%-17.13%, and 61.24%-71.49%, respectively. Relatively high concentration of BPA was recorded in T. blochii (0.322ng/g), followed by L. calcarifer (0.124ng/g) and L. campechanus (0.023ng/g). Furthermore, 4OP and 4NP were detected only in T. blochii at concentrations of 0.084ng/g and 0.078ng/g, respectively. The results of the present study provide insights on monitoring and managing mariculture activity in relation to environmental protection and food safety.

Multi-class of endocrine disrupting compounds in aquaculture ecosystems and health impacts in exposed biota

Fishes are a major protein food source for humans, with a high economic value in the aquaculture industry. Because endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) have been introduced into aquatic ecosystems, the exposure of humans and animals that depend on aquatic foods, especially fishes, should be seriously considered. EDCs are emerging pollutants causing global concern because they can disrupt the endocrine system in aquatic organisms, mammals, and humans. These pollutants have been released into the environment through many sources, e.g., wastewater treatment plants, terrestrial run-off (industrial activities, pharmaceuticals, and household waste), and precipitation. The use of pharmaceuticals, pesticides, and fertilizers for maintaining and increasing fish health and growth also contributes to EDC pollution in the water body. Human and animal exposure to EDCs occurs via ingestion of contaminated matrices, especially aquatic foodstuffs. This paper aims to review human EDC exposure via fish consumption. In respect to the trace concentration of EDCs in fish, types of instrument and clean-up method are of great concerns.

Rapid and sensitive determination of multiple endocrine-disrupting chemicals by ultrasound-assisted in situ derivatization dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction coupled with ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry

RATIONALE

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) in environment samples and food stuffs are an increasing serious public health issue due to their potency to interfere and deregulate several aspects of the endocrine system. Because of their extremely low abundance, it remains a challenging task to develop a sensitive detection method.

METHODS

4'-Carbonyl chloride rosamine (CCR) was used as a derivatization reagent for EDCs for the first time. A new ultrasound-assisted in situ derivatization/dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (UA-DLLME with in situ derivatization) method for multiple EDCs including five estrogens, two alkylphenols, eight bisphenols, seven parabens and triclosan coupled with ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC/MS/MS) has been developed and validated.

RESULTS

The ionization efficiency of EDCs was greatly enhanced through the introduction of a permanent charged moiety of CCR into the derivatives during electrospray ionization (ESI)-MS analysis. The main variables potentially affecting the UA-DLLME with in situ derivatization process are optimized. The recoveries and matrix effects of 23 EDCs for the spiking samples were in the range of 83.0-116.0% and 85.8-114.6%, respectively. Good method reproducibility was achieved.

CONCLUSIONS

The limits of detection (LODs) for 23 EDCs were 0.05-0.40 ng/L and 0.03-0.25 ng/g (dry weight, d.w.) for environment samples and food stuffs, respectively. The proposed method has been demonstrated to be suitable for simultaneous determination of multiple EDCs in real samples with high sensitivity, speediness, and good sample clean-up ability. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Procedures of determining organic trace compounds in municipal sewage sludge-a review

Sewage sludge is the largest by-product generated during the wastewater treatment process. Since large amounts of sludge are being produced, different ways of disposal have been introduced. One tempting option is to use it as fertilizer in agricultural fields due to its high contents of inorganic nutrients. This, however, can be limited by the amount of trace contaminants in the sewage sludge, containing a variety of microbiological pollutants and pathogens but also inorganic and organic contaminants. The bioavailability and the effects of trace contaminants on the microorganisms of soil are still largely unknown as well as their mixture effects. Therefore, there is a need to analyze the sludge to test its suitability before further use. In this article, a variety of sampling, pretreatment, extraction, and analysis methods have been reviewed. Additionally, different organic trace compounds often found in the sewage sludge and their methods of analysis have been compiled. In addition to traditional Soxhlet extraction, the most common extraction methods of organic contaminants in sludge include ultrasonic extraction (USE), supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), microwave-assisted extraction (MAE), and pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) followed by instrumental analysis based on gas or liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry.

Array-based detection of isomeric and analogous analytes employing synthetically modified fluorophore attached β-cyclodextrin derivatives

Improved selectivity and sensitivity using covalent fluorophore–cyclodextrin analogues resulted in 100% successful classification for five classes of analytes.

Simultaneous determination of estrogenic odorant alkylphenols, chlorophenols, and their derivatives in water using online headspace solid phase microextraction coupled with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry

A simple online headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) coupled with the gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) method was developed for simultaneous determination of trace amounts of nine estrogenic odorant alkylphenols and chlorophenols and their derivatives in water samples. The extraction conditions of HS-SPME were optimized including fiber selection, extraction temperature, extraction time, and salt concentration. Results showed that divinylbenzene/Carboxen/polydimethylsiloxane (DVB/CAR/PDMS) fiber was the most appropriate one among the three selected commercial fibers, and the optimal extraction temperature, time, and salt concentration were 70 °C, 30 min, and 0.25 g/mL, respectively. The developed method was validated and showed good linearity (R (2) > 0.989), low limit of detection (LOD, 0.002-0.5 μg/L), and excellent recoveries (76-126 %) with low relative standard deviation (RSD, 0.7-12.9 %). The developed method was finally applied to two surface water samples and some of these target compounds were detected. All these detected compounds were below their odor thresholds, except for 2,4,6-TCAS and 2,4,6-TBAS wherein their concentrations were near their odor thresholds. However, in the two surface water samples, these detected compounds contributed to a certain amount of estrogenicity, which seemed to suggest that more attention should be paid to the issue of estrogenicity rather than to the odor problem.

Analytical methods for the endocrine disruptor compounds determination in environmental water samples

The potential risk of exposure to different xenobiotics, which can modulate the endocrine system and represent a treat for the wellness of an increasing number of people, has recently drawn the attention of international environmental and health agencies. Several agents, characterized by structural diversity, may interfer with the normal endocrine functions that regulate cell growth, homeostasis and development. Substances such as pesticides, herbicides, plasticizers, metals, etc. having endocrine activity (EDCs) are used in agriculture and industry and are also used as drugs for humans and animals. A difficulty in the analytical determination of these substances is the complexity of the matrix in which they are present. In fact, the samples most frequently analyzed consist of groundwater and surface water, including influent and effluent of wastewater treatment plants and drinking water. In this review, several sample pretreatment protocols, assays and different instrumental techniques recently used in the EDCs determination have been considered. This review concludes with a paragraph in which the most recent hyphenated-instrument techniques are treated, highlighting their sensitivity and selectivity for the analyses of environmental water samples.