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Saleem AF, Parkar S, Zehra SM, Kazi Z, Pethani A, Zhang Y, Mainou BA, Cavestany RL, Macklin G, Jeyaseelan V, Mach O. Two-Year Duration of Immunity of Inactivated Poliovirus Vaccine: A Follow-up Study in Pakistan in 2020. J Infect Dis 2024; 229:39-42. [PMID: 37368349 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiad237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2023] [Revised: 05/18/2023] [Accepted: 06/23/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023] Open
Abstract
This was a follow-up study conducted in 2020 assessing changes in levels of type 2 poliovirus-neutralizing antibodies 2 years postimmunization in children who received inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV) in Karachi, Pakistan. Unexpectedly, the findings revealed an increase in seroprevalence of type 2 antibodies from 73.1% to 81.6% 1 year and 2 years after IPV, respectively. The increase in type 2 immunity could result from the intensive transmission of circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus type 2 (cVDPV2) in Karachi during the second year of IPV administration. This study suggests that the cVDPV2 outbreak detected in Pakistan infected large proportions of children in Karachi. Clinical Trials Registration . NCT03286803.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Faisal Saleem
- Department of Paediatrics and Child Health, Aga Khan University Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Sadia Parkar
- Department of Paediatrics and Child Health, Aga Khan University Karachi, Pakistan
| | | | - Zaubina Kazi
- Department of Paediatrics and Child Health, Aga Khan University Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Asma Pethani
- Department of Paediatrics and Child Health, Aga Khan University Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Yiting Zhang
- Population Immunity Laboratory, Polio and Picornavirus Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia 30329, USA
| | - Bernardo A Mainou
- Population Immunity Laboratory, Polio and Picornavirus Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia 30329, USA
| | | | - Grace Macklin
- Polio Eradication, World Health Organization Geneva, Switzerland
| | | | - Ondrej Mach
- Polio Eradication, World Health Organization Geneva, Switzerland
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Chu K, Li Y, Yu D, Song Y, Liu S, Xue F, Shan Y, Meng W, Pan H. Immunogenicity and immune persistence in 4-year-old children completing four doses of Sabin strain or wild strain inactivated poliovirus vaccine: A phase IV, open-labeled, parallel-controlled observational study. Vaccine 2023; 41:3467-3471. [PMID: 37127526 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2023.03.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2022] [Revised: 02/24/2023] [Accepted: 03/05/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Sabin strain inactivated poliovirus vaccine (hereinafter as "sIPV") has been marketed globally in recent years, and more data on its immune persistence are needed. METHODS This is a phase IV, open-labeled, parallel-controlled observational study based on phase III clinical trial as required by the China National Medical Products Administration (NMPA). At least 450 subjects aged four years (48-54 months) who received four doses at 2, 3, 4 and 18 months of age of sIPV or wild strain poliovirus vaccine (wIPV) in phase III clinical trial enrolled at a 2:1 ratio and collected blood samples for neutralizing antibody testing. RESULTS A total of 500 subjects of four years old (334 in the sIPV group and 166 in wIPV group) were finally enrolled. The seropositivity rates (≥1:8) of neutralizing antibodies against serotype I-III were all 100.00% in all participants, and the geometric mean titers (GMT) were 1117.33 vs. 337.77 against serotype I, 632.72 vs. 267.34 against serotype Ⅱ, 1665.98 vs. 923.02 against serotype III in the sIPV group and wIPV group respectively at 4 years old. The seropositivity rates and GMTs of neutralizing antibodies in the test group were non-inferior to that of the control group against all three serotypes at different time points (P < 0.0001). The antibody GMT experienced a 10-fold, 8-fold, and 7-fold decline for serotypes I, Ⅱ, and III in the sIPV group, and a 13-fold, 7-fold, and 7-fold decline in the wIPV group from one month after booster vaccination to 4 years old. CONCLUSIONS The neutralizing antibody level is much higher than the seroprotection cutoff (≥1:8) among children of 4 years old who completed the four-dose vaccination of either sIPV or wIPV. Therefore, another booster vaccination is not recommended at 4 years old. Longer immune persistence observation is still ongoing. REGISTRATION ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT04989231.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Chu
- Institute of Clinical Evaluation of Vaccines, Jiangsu Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention. No. 172, Jiangsu Road, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province 210009, China.
| | - Yurong Li
- Clinical Research Department Center, Sinovac Life Science Co., Ltd. No. 21, Tianfu Street, Daxing Biomedicine Industrial Base, Zhongguancun Science Park, Daxing District, Beijing 102629, China.
| | - Dan Yu
- Quality Assurance Department, Sinovac Biotech Co., Ltd, No. 39, Shangdi West Road, Haidian District, Beijing 100085, China.
| | - Yufei Song
- Clinical Research Department Center, Sinovac Biotech Co., Ltd, No. 39, Shangdi West Road, Haidian District, Beijing 100085, China.
| | - Sheng Liu
- Project Office, Pizhou City Center for Disease Control and Prevention, No. 72, Fuzhou Road, Pizhou City, Xuzhou 221000, China.
| | - Feng Xue
- Novel Coronavirus Vaccine Department, Sinovac Life Science Co., Ltd. No. 21, Tianfu Street, Daxing Biomedicine Industrial Base, Zhongguancun Science Park, Daxing District, Beijing 102629, China.
| | - Yongmei Shan
- Medicine Outpatient Department, Guanyun County Center for Disease Control and Prevention Preventive, No.1, Xihuan North Road, Guanyun County, Lianyungang City, 222200, China.
| | - Weining Meng
- International Registration Department, Sinovac Life Science Co., Ltd. No. 21, Tianfu Street, Daxing Biomedicine Industrial Base, Zhongguancun Science Park, Daxing District, Beijing, 102629, China.
| | - Hongxing Pan
- Institute of Clinical Evaluation of Vaccines, Jiangsu Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention. No. 172, Jiangsu Road, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, 210009, China.
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Kalkowska DA, Wassilak SGF, Wiesen E, F Estivariz C, Burns CC, Badizadegan K, Thompson KM. Complexity of options related to restarting oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV) in national immunization programs after OPV cessation. Gates Open Res 2023; 7:55. [PMID: 37547300 PMCID: PMC10403636 DOI: 10.12688/gatesopenres.14511.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/09/2023] [Indexed: 08/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: The polio eradication endgame continues to increase in complexity. With polio cases caused by wild poliovirus type 1 and circulating vaccine-derived polioviruses of all three types (1, 2 and 3) reported in 2022, the number, formulation, and use of poliovirus vaccines poses challenges for national immunization programs and vaccine suppliers. Prior poliovirus transmission modeling of globally-coordinated type-specific cessation of oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV) assumed creation of Sabin monovalent OPV (mOPV) stockpiles for emergencies and explored the potential need to restart OPV if the world reached a specified cumulative threshold number of cases after OPV cessation. Methods: We document the actual experience of type 2 OPV (OPV2) cessation and reconsider prior modeling assumptions related to OPV restart. We develop updated decision trees of national immunization options for poliovirus vaccines considering different possibilities for OPV restart. Results: While OPV restart represented a hypothetical situation for risk management and contingency planning to support the 2013-2018 Global Polio Eradication Initiative (GPEI) Strategic Plan, the actual epidemiological experience since OPV2 cessation raises questions about what, if any, trigger(s) could lead to restarting the use of OPV2 in routine immunization and/or plans for potential future restart of type 1 and 3 OPV after their respective cessation. The emergency use listing of a genetically stabilized novel type 2 OPV (nOPV2) and continued evaluation of nOPV for types 1 and/or 3 add further complexity by increasing the combinations of possible OPV formulations for OPV restart. Conclusions: Expanding on a 2019 discussion of the logistical challenges and implications of restarting OPV, we find a complex structure of the many options and many issues related to OPV restart decisions and policies as of early 2023. We anticipate many challenges for forecasting prospective vaccine supply needs during the polio endgame due to increasing potential combinations of poliovirus vaccine choices.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Steven GF Wassilak
- Global Immunization Division, Center for Global Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Eric Wiesen
- Global Immunization Division, Center for Global Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Concepcion F Estivariz
- Global Immunization Division, Center for Global Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Cara C Burns
- Global Immunization Division, Center for Global Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
- National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, USA, Atlanta, GA, USA
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Immunogenicity of Catch-Up Immunization with Conventional Inactivated Polio Vaccine among Japanese Adults. Vaccines (Basel) 2022; 10:vaccines10122160. [PMID: 36560570 PMCID: PMC9785821 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines10122160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2022] [Revised: 12/13/2022] [Accepted: 12/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Most Japanese adults are vaccinated twice with the Sabin trivalent oral polio vaccine. Booster vaccination is recommended for Japanese travelers to polio-endemic/high-risk countries. We assessed the catch-up immunization of healthy Japanese adults aged ≥20 years with two doses of standalone conventional inactivated polio vaccine (cIPV). Immunogenicity was evaluated by serum neutralization titers (pre-booster vaccination, 4-6 weeks after each vaccination) against type 1, 2, and 3 poliovirus strains. The participants were 61 healthy Japanese adults (26 men/35 women; mean age ± standard deviation age 35.8 ± 8.0 years). Seropositivity rates (percentage of participants with anti-poliovirus antibody titers ≥1:8) pre-vaccination were 88.5%, 95.1%, and 52.5% for Sabin strains (type 1, 2, and 3); 72.1%, 93.4%, and 31.1% for virulent poliovirus strains (type 1: Mahoney; type 2: MEF-1; and type 3: Saukett); and 93.4%, 93.4%, 93.4%, and 88.5% for type 2 vaccine-derived poliovirus strains (SV3128, SV3130, 11,196, and 11,198). After one cIPV dose, all seropositivity rates increased to 98.4-100.0%. After two cIPV doses, the seropositivity rates reached 100% for all strains. cIPV was well tolerated, with no safety concerns. Catch-up immunization with standalone cIPV induced robust immune responses in Japanese adults, indicating that one booster dose boosted serum-neutralizing antibodies to many strains.
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Capeding MR, Gomez-Go GD, Oberdorfer P, Borja-Tabora C, Bravo L, Carlos J, Tangsathapornpong A, Uppala R, Laoprasopwattana K, Yang Y, Han S, Wittawatmongkol O. Safety and Immunogenicity of a New Inactivated Polio Vaccine Made From Sabin Strains: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Active-Controlled, Phase 2/3 Seamless Study. J Infect Dis 2022; 226:308-318. [PMID: 33351072 PMCID: PMC9400411 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiaa770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2020] [Accepted: 12/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND A new inactivated polio vaccine made from Sabin strains (sIPV) was developed as part of the global polio eradication initiative. METHODS This randomized, double-blind, active-controlled, phase 2/3 seamless study was conducted in 2 stages. Healthy infants aged 6 weeks were randomly assigned to receive 3 doses of 1 of 4 study vaccines at 6, 10, and 14 weeks of age (336 received low-, middle-, or high-dose sIPV, or conventional IPV [cIPV] in stage I, and 1086 received lot A, B, or C of the selected sIPV dose, or cIPV in stage II). The primary outcome was the seroconversion rate 4 weeks after the third vaccination. RESULTS In stage I, low-dose sIPV was selected as the optimal dose. In stage II, consistency among the 3 manufacturing lots of sIPV was demonstrated. The seroconversion rates for Sabin and wild strains of the 3 serotypes after the 3-dose primary series were 95.8% to 99.2% in the lot-combined sIPV group and 94.8% to 100% in the cIPV group, proving the noninferiority of sIPV compared to cIPV. No notable safety risks associated with sIPV were observed. CONCLUSIONS Low-dose sIPV administered as a 3-dose vaccination was safe and immunogenic compared to cIPV. CLINICAL TRIALS REGISTRATION NCT03169725.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Rosario Capeding
- Department of Microbiology, Research Institute for Tropical Medicine, Muntinlupa City, Philippines
| | | | - Peninnah Oberdorfer
- Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Charissa Borja-Tabora
- Clinical Research Division, Research Institute for Tropical Medicine, Muntinlupa City, Philippines
| | - Lulu Bravo
- Department of Pediatrics, University of the Philippines Manila, Manila, Philippines
| | - Josefina Carlos
- Department of Pediatrics, College of Medicine, University of the East-Ramon Magsaysay Memorial Medical Center, Quezon City, Philippines
| | | | - Rattapon Uppala
- Department of Pediatrics, Srinagarind Hospital, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
| | | | - Yunjeong Yang
- Life Sciences, LG Chem, Ltd, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Song Han
- Life Sciences, LG Chem, Ltd, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Orasri Wittawatmongkol
- Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
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Immunogenicity and safety of sabin-strain based inactivated poliovirus vaccine replacing salk-strain based inactivated poliovirus vaccine: An innovative application of different strain-IPVs replacement. Vaccine 2021; 39:2467-2474. [PMID: 33810904 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2021.02.073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2020] [Revised: 02/24/2021] [Accepted: 02/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND A domestic Sabin strain-based inactivated poliovirus vaccine (Sabin IPV) was approved by China Food and Drug Administration in 2017 as a replacement for the Salk strain-based inactivated poliovirus vaccine (Salk IPV) that has been in use in China for over 10 years. The present post-marketing trial was implemented in China to assess the immunogenicity and safety of replacing the Salk IPV with the Sabin IPV in the last two immunizations of the standard three-dose schedule. METHODS We conducted a randomized, controlled clinical trial with two groups that received three doses of IPVs at the age of 2, 3, and 4 months: the Salk-Sabin-Sabin group and the Salk-Salk-Salk group. Blood samples were collected before vaccination and 30-40 days after the third dose of vaccination. The seroconversion rates and antibody geometric mean titers (GMTs) were calculated and analyzed to evaluate immunogenicity. The safety of both immunization schedules was also monitored and analyzed. RESULTS Of 360 recruited healthy infants, all three IPV doses were administered and blood collection was completed in 330 infants. All participants (100%) in both groups were seropositive for all three poliovirus types after the last vaccination. There were significant differences between the two groups (P < 0.001) in the GMTs for antibodies against poliovirus types 1 and 2, but no significant difference was observed for antibodies against type 3 (P = 0.009). A non-inferiority t-test showed that the post-immunization GMTs for all three types in the Salk-Sabin-Sabin group were not inferior to those in the Salk-Salk-Salk group (P < 0.001). Safety assessment indicated that there was no significant difference in the incidence of all adverse events between the two groups (P = 0.806). CONCLUSIONS The Salk-Sabin-Sabin IPV immunization schedule is not inferior to the Salk-Salk-Salk IPV schedule in terms of both immunogenicity and safety. Clinical trial number: NCT04051736.
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Arita M, Iwai-Itamochi M. Evaluation of antigenic differences between wild and Sabin vaccine strains of poliovirus using the pseudovirus neutralization test. Sci Rep 2019; 9:11970. [PMID: 31427704 PMCID: PMC6700111 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-48534-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2019] [Accepted: 08/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In the endgame of global polio eradication, serosurveillance is essential to monitor each country's vulnerability to poliomyelitis outbreaks. Previously, we developed pseudovirus poliovirus (PV) neutralization test (pPNT) with type 1, 2, and 3 PV pseudovirus (PVpv), which possess a luciferase-encoding PV replicon in the capsids of wild-type strains (PVpv[WT]), showing that pPNT with type 2 and 3 PVpv(WT) but not type 1 shows high correlation with the conventional PV neutralization test (cPNT) performed with vaccine strains. Here, we analyse the antigenicity of PVpv(WT) and PVpv with capsid proteins of Sabin vaccine strains (PVpv[Sabin]) in human serum. Type 2 and 3 PVpv(WT) and PVpv(Sabin) show similar antigenicity in the analysed set of human sera in contrast to type 1 PVpv. The levels of PVpv(Sabin) infection (%), including about 70% of PVpv infection (%) measured in the presence of human serum diluted to the cPNT titre, serve as the optimal threshold values for pPNT (5% for type 1 and 2, 10% for type 3) to show high correlation with cPNT results. Our results suggest that pPNT with PVpv(Sabin) could serve as an alternative to cPNT and provide a rationale for pPNT threshold values.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minetaro Arita
- Department of Virology II, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, 4-7-1 Gakuen, Musashimurayama-shi, Tokyo, 208-0011, Japan.
| | - Masae Iwai-Itamochi
- Department of Virology, Toyama Institute of Health, 17-1 Nakataikoyama, Imizu-shi, Toyama, 939-0363, Japan
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Duintjer Tebbens RJ, Kalkowsa DA, Thompson KM. Poliovirus containment risks and their management. Future Virol 2018; 13:617-628. [PMID: 33598044 PMCID: PMC7885305 DOI: 10.2217/fvl-2018-0079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2018] [Accepted: 06/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
AIM Assess risks related to breaches of poliovirus containment. METHOD Using a dynamic transmission model, we explore the variability among different populations in the vulnerability to poliovirus containment breaches as population immunity to transmission declines after oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV) cessation. RESULTS Although using OPV instead of wild poliovirus (WPV) seed strains for inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV) production offers some expected risk reintroduction of live polioviruses from IPV manufacturing facilities, OPV seed strain releases may become a significant threat within 5-10 years of OPV cessation in areas most conducive to fecal-oral poliovirus transmission, regardless of IPV use. CONCLUSIONS Efforts to quantify the risks demonstrate the challenges associated with understanding and managing relatively low-probability and high-consequence containment failure events.
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Yao X, Mao Q, Li Y, Hao C, Bian L, Chen P, Gao F, Wu X, Lu W, Gao Q, Li X, Liang Z. Poorly neutralizing polyclonal antibody in vitro against coxsackievirus A16 circulating strains can prevent a lethal challenge in vivo. Hum Vaccin Immunother 2018; 14:1275-1282. [PMID: 29337652 DOI: 10.1080/21645515.2018.1426420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Neutralizing antibodies (NTAbs) is a major criterion for evaluation the immunogenicity of many vaccines, for example, poliovirus and EV71 vaccine. Here, we firstly discovered that polyclonal antibodies induced by inactivated CVA16 vaccine and lived CVA16 virus have poor ability to neutralize circulating CVA16 strains in vitro. However, the passive transfer of poorly neutralizing polyclonal antibodies can protect suckling mice from lethally challenged with circulating strains in vivo. In addition, the obvious dose response was found between the titer of antibodies and the survival rate. Interestingly, poorly neutralizing polyclonal antibodies against circulating CVA16 strains, have good ability to neutralize prototype strain G10 in vitro. Between G10 and circulating CVA16 strains, there are total 47 variant sites in capsid, which are near the interface of VP1, VP2, and VP3, and close to 2-fold axis. Based on the structure of CVA16, the obvious structural changes were observed in residue 213 of VP1 GH loop, residue 139 of VP2 EF loop, and residues 59, 182 and 183 of VP3 GH loop. What we found may provide a new sight for the development of CVA16 vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Yao
- a Division Hepatitis Virus Vaccines, National Institute for Food and Drug Control , Beijing , PR China
| | - QunYing Mao
- a Division Hepatitis Virus Vaccines, National Institute for Food and Drug Control , Beijing , PR China
| | - Yajing Li
- b Division Research and Development, Sinovac Biotech Co. Ltd , Beijing , PR China
| | - Chunsheng Hao
- c Division 2, Beijing Vigoo Biological , Beijing , PR China
| | - LianLian Bian
- a Division Hepatitis Virus Vaccines, National Institute for Food and Drug Control , Beijing , PR China
| | - Pan Chen
- a Division Hepatitis Virus Vaccines, National Institute for Food and Drug Control , Beijing , PR China
| | - Fan Gao
- a Division Hepatitis Virus Vaccines, National Institute for Food and Drug Control , Beijing , PR China
| | - Xing Wu
- a Division Hepatitis Virus Vaccines, National Institute for Food and Drug Control , Beijing , PR China
| | - WeiWei Lu
- c Division 2, Beijing Vigoo Biological , Beijing , PR China
| | - Qiang Gao
- b Division Research and Development, Sinovac Biotech Co. Ltd , Beijing , PR China
| | - XiuLing Li
- c Division 2, Beijing Vigoo Biological , Beijing , PR China
| | - Zhenglun Liang
- a Division Hepatitis Virus Vaccines, National Institute for Food and Drug Control , Beijing , PR China
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Duintjer Tebbens RJ, Thompson KM. Poliovirus vaccination during the endgame: insights from integrated modeling. Expert Rev Vaccines 2017; 16:577-586. [DOI: 10.1080/14760584.2017.1322514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Kimberly M. Thompson
- Kid Risk, Inc., Orlando, FL, USA
- College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
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Okayasu H, Sein C, Hamidi A, Bakker WA, Sutter RW. Development of inactivated poliovirus vaccine from Sabin strains: A progress report. Biologicals 2016; 44:581-587. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biologicals.2016.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2016] [Revised: 08/29/2016] [Accepted: 08/30/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
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