Strong HCV NS3- and NS4A-specific cellular immune responses induced in mice and Rhesus macaques by a novel HCV genotype 1a/1b consensus DNA vaccine

Comparison of the inhibitory and stimulatory effects of Core and NS3 candidate HCV vaccines on the cellular immune response

Currently, hepatitis C virus (HCV) infects nearly 3% of the global population, the majority of whom are chronically infected; however, hepatitis C vaccines are still in the developmental stage. Numerous studies suggest that the spontaneous resolution of HCV infection and the design of its vaccine are reliant on vital contributions from CTL cell responses and T regulatory cells. Multiple researchers have identified both Core and nonstructural protein 3 (NS3) proteins as crucial immune genes and potential candidates for HCV DNA vaccine design. In this study, Core and NS3 were subcloned and inserted into pcDNA3.1 to construct HCV DNA vaccines administered in mouse models. Furthermore, the effects of Core and NS3 on the induction of CTL and NK were compared in spleen mouse models using the LDH method. Additionally, flow cytometry was employed to investigate the percentage of T regulatory cells (Treg cells) and cells expressing PD-1 in the spleens of the mouse models. Our data indicated that pcDNA3.1+NS3 and pcDNA3.1+Core could enhance CTL and NK activity in mouse models. Importantly, the Treg and PD-1 analysis in mouse models revealed a substantial reduction in the proportions of CD4+/CD25+/Foxp3+ T cells and PD-1+ cells in experimental subjects treated with HCV NS3 along with 5 mg/kg of lenalidomide, utilized as a novel adjuvant, compared to those administered an equivalent dosage of lenalidomide in conjunction with HCV Core. In conclusion, our observations indicated that the NS3-HCV gene had a limited impact on the activation of inhibitory factors. Therefore, NS3 is considered a more suitable candidate for DNA vaccine design compared to Core HCV.

Hepatitis C virus DNA vaccines: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

Vaccination against HCV is an effective measure in reduction of virus-related public health burden and mortality. However, no prophylactic vaccine is available as of yet. DNA-based immunization is a promising modality to generate cellular and humoral immune responses. The objective of this study is to provide a systematic review of HCV DNA vaccines and investigate and discuss the strategies employed to optimize their efficacies.

METHODS

MEDLINE (PubMed), Web of Science, Scopus, ScienceDirect, and databases in persian language including the Regional Information Centre for Science & Technology (RICeST), the Scientific Information Database and the Iranian Research Institute for Information Science and Technology (IranDoc) were examined to identify studies pertaining to HCV nucleic acid vaccine development from 2000 to 2020.

RESULTS

Twenty-seven articles were included. Studies related to HCV RNA vaccines were yet to be published. A variety of strategies were identified with the potential to optimize HCV DNA vaccines such as incorporating multiple viral proteins and molecular tags such as HBsAg and Immunoglobulin Fc, multi-epitope expression, co-expression plasmid utilization, recombinant subunit immunogens, heterologous prime-boosting, incorporating NS3 mutants in DNA vaccines, utilization of adjuvants, employment of less explored methods such as Gene Electro Transfer, construction of multi- CTL epitopes, utilizing co/post translational modifications and polycistronic genes, among others. The effectiveness of the aforementioned strategies in boosting immune response and improving vaccine potency was assessed.

CONCLUSIONS

The recent progress on HCV vaccine development was examined in this systematic review to identify candidates with most promising prophylactic and therapeutic potential.

A multiepitope peptide vaccine against HCV stimulates neutralizing humoral and persistent cellular responses in mice

BACKGROUND

Although DAAs hold promise to significantly reduce rates of chronic HCV infections, its eradication still requires development of an effective vaccine. Prolonged T cell responses and cross neutralizing antibodies are ideal for vaccination against the infection. We aimed to design and synthesize a 6 multi epitope peptide vaccine candidate and provide evidence for production of extended cellular and neutralizing Abs in mice.

METHODS

Six peptides derived from conserved epitopes in E1, E2 (n = 2),NS4B, NS5A and NS5B were designed, synthesized in a multiple antigenic peptide (MAP) form and administered w/o adjuvant to BALB/c mice as HCVp6-MAP at doses ranging from 800 ng to 16 μg. Humoral responses to structural epitopes were assayed by ELISA at different times after injection. ELISpot assay was used to evaluate IFN ɣ producing CD4+/ CD8+ T- lymphocytes at extended durations i.e. > 20 weeks. Viral neutralization by mice sera was tested for genotypes 2a (JFH1) and a chimeric 2a/4a virus (ED43/JFH1) in HCVcc culture.

RESULTS

HCVp6-MAP confers potent viral neutralization and specific cellular responses at > 1600 ng/ animal for at least 20 weeks.

CONCLUSION

We report on a promising anti HCV vaccine for future studies on permissive hosts and in clinical trials.

G2 Dendrimer as a Carrier Can Enhance Immune Responses Against HCV-NS3 Protein in BALB/c Mice

BACKGROUND

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is a major issue of public health. It seems of paramount importance to find an effective vaccine against HCV infection. The best vaccine candidate should induce robust cellular responses. The aim of the current study was to evaluate immunogenicity effects of novel conjugated dendrimer G2 with the recombinant NS3 antigen as a vaccine candidate for eliciting Th1-oriented cellular responses.

METHODS

Female BALB/c mice were immunized with different regimes especially with NS3 conjugated with G2 dendrimer. The humoral responses (Total IgG and IgG iso-typing) and cellular responses (Ex vivo IFN-γ and IL-4 ELISpot assays, in vitro CTL assay and proliferation) were evaluated and compared in immunized mice.

RESULTS

The results indicated that induced specific total IgG in all mice groups immunized with rNS3 formulated with different adjuvants and IgG2a subclass was the predominant isotype in rNS3-G2 (p≤0.05). For preliminary evaluation of cellular response, ex vivo ELISpot assay has shown that the higher frequency of IFN-γ producing cells was in groups immunized with rNS3+M720 and rNS3-G2 (p= 0.0012) than control groups. Finally, the rNS3-specific CTLs activity showed the highest percentage of specific lysis (LDH release) of the target cells in rNS3-G2 and rNS3+M720 groups.

CONCLUSION

In the present study, as our knowledge, this is first time that the immunogenicity of nanodendrimer G2 as a biocompatible adjuvant with the HCV-NS3 antigen was evaluated. The results showed high capability of the regimen to induce strong Th1-orinted cellular response in mice model, indicating the dendrimer G2 as a novel adjuvant candidate for HCV vaccine studies.

The Distinct Role of Small Heat Shock Protein 20 on HCV NS3 Expression in HEK-293T Cell Line

BACKGROUND

Hepatitis C (HCV) is known as a serious blood-borne disease that infects millions of people globally. NS3 is a conserved non-structural sequence of hepatitis C virus which has a major role in activating specific CTL responses. As known, there is no effective vaccine against HCV infection, thus it is required to design a specific regimen of vaccination. Recently, the strong immunological properties of Heat shock proteins (Hsps) led to their use as immunomodulators and an antigen carrier for subunit vaccine candidates. In the current study, the role of Hsp20 was evaluated as a HCV NS3 gene carrier in mammalian cell line.

METHODS

At first, the recombinant plasmids of pEGFP-Hsp20, pEGFP-NS3, and pEGFP-Hsp20-NS3 were constructed and their accuracy was confirmed by digestion and sequencing. Then, all recombinant plasmids were transfected into HEK293T cells by Lipofectamine and TurboFect gene delivery systems. Finally, the expression of proteins was assessed by fluorescent microscopy, western blotting, and flow cytometry.

RESULTS

In western blotting, the 47, 59, and 79 kDa bands were detected for pEGFP-Hsp20, pEGFP-NS3, and pEGFP-Hsp20-NS3, respectively. The percentage of NS3-Hsp20-GFP protein expression was ∼67% by TurboFect and ∼50% by Lipofectamine indicating high potency of TurboFect delivery system. Furthermore, the expression of Hsp20 (∼83%) was higher than NS3 (∼58%) in the cells transfected by TurboFect using flow cytometry analysis. This result was confirmed in the expression of Hsp20-NS3 fusion (∼67%) in which Hsp20 increased the delivery of HCV NS3 in vitro. The same data were obtained by Lipofectamine transfection reagent.

CONCLUSION

Briefly, our data confirmed the role of Hsp20 as a suitable antigen carrier for DNA vaccine design.

Hepatitis C Virus Infection and Vaccine Development

In the twenty-seven years since the discovery of hepatitis C virus (HCV) the majority of individuals exposed to HCV establish a persistent infection, which is a leading cause of chronic liver disease, cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. In developed nations, the cure rates of HCV infection could be over 90% with direct-acting antiviral (DAA) regimens, which has made the great progress in global eradication. However, the cost of these treatments is so expensive that the patients in developing nations, where the disease burden is the most severe, could not afford it, which highly restricted its access. Additionally, the largely asymptomatic nature of infection facilitates continued transmission in risk groups due to limited surveillance. Consequently a protective vaccine and likely emergence of drug-resistant viral variants call for further studies of HCV biology. In the current review, the development and the progress of preventive and therapeutic vaccines against the HCV have been reviewed in the context of peptide vaccines, recombinant protein vaccines, HCV-like particle, DNA vaccines and viral vectors expressing HCV genes.

Construction and Immunogenicity Analysis of Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) Truncated Non-Structural Protein 3 (NS3) Plasmid Vaccine

Background

To develop hepatitis C virus (HCV) vaccine, induction of potent humoral and T cell response against immunogenic targets with conserved region should be achieved. T cell response against NS3 is often associated with complete clearance of the virus.

Objectives

Herein, we expressed the truncated form of NS3 in a mammalian cell line and evaluated immune responses of NS3 DNA vaccine in BALB/c.

Materials and Methods

The partial length of NS3 gene, which encodes immunogenic epitopes (1095 - 1379 aa), was amplified by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) on RNA obtained from a patient with HCV, inserted into pcDNA3.1 plasmid using XhoI/HindIII sites, and finally evaluated by restriction analysis and sequencing. After transfection of the recombinant plasmid into HEK293T cells, the NS3 protein expression was confirmed by western blotting. Mice were immunized intra-dermally close to the base of the mice tail with four doses in two-weeks intervals and the immune responses were assessed using total and subtypes of IgG antibody assay, cell proliferation and cytokine assay.

Results

The pcDNA3.1 plasmid harboring the coding sequence of NS3 (pc-NS3) was constructed and confirmed with the expected size. Proper expression of the recombinant protein in transfected HEK 293T cells was confirmed using western blotting. The immunization results indicated that pc-NS3 induced significant levels of total antibody, IgG2a subclass antibody, Interferon (IFN)-γ, Interleukin (IL)-4 and proliferation assay compared to the control group (P < 0.05).

Conclusions

The pc-NS3 possesses the capacity to express NS3 in the mammalian cell line and demonstrated strong immunogenicity in a murine model. Our primary results demonstrated that the immunogenic truncated region of NS3 could be used as a potential vaccine candidate against hepatitis C.

Immunization with a Recombinant Expression Vector Encoding NS3/NS4A of Hepatitis C Virus Genotype 3a Elicits Cell-Mediated Immune Responses in C57BL/6 Mice

Today, hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is considered as one of the most significant international health concerns. Although novel therapeutic regimens against the infection have shown satisfactory results, no approved vaccine exists yet. This study aimed to evaluate the immunogenicity of a DNA vaccine candidate for HCV-3a, based on nonstructural proteins NS3/NS4A, in C57BL/6 mice. Immunogenicity effect of pDisplay-NS3/NS4A was analyzed through immunization with 100 and 200 μg concentrations of the construct with complete Freund's adjuvant, monophosphoryl lipid A (MPL), or without adjuvant. The frequencies of different splenic mononuclear cells were measured using the Mouse Th1/Th2/Th17 Phenotyping Kit. Moreover, the number of T-CD8(+) cells was determined using conjugated anti-CD8a and anti-CD3e antibodies by flow cytometry. As observed, the frequencies of Th1, T-CD8(+), and Th2 cells increased in all the experimental groups, compared with the controls. The highest levels of the respective cells were seen in the group immunized with 200 μg of the construct with MPL. Also, there were positive correlations between the frequency of Th1 cells and those of Th2 and T-CD8(+) cells in all the immunized groups, but were significant in those receiving adjuvants. The frequency of Th17 cells did not statistically change among the groups. Taken together, our findings revealed that the constructed DNA vaccine encoding HCV-3a NS3/NS4A gene induces the cell-mediated immune responses significantly. However, its coadministration with adjuvants exhibits more efficient results than the recombinant plasmid alone. Further study is currently underway to evaluate the specific immune responses and recognize the responsible antigenic epitopes.

Expression of NS3/NS4A Proteins of Hepatitis C Virus in Huh7 Cells Following Engineering Its Eukaryotic Expression Vector

BACKGROUND

Although the development of novel therapeutic regimens to combat hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection have been speeded up with successful results, no efficient vaccines exist yet.

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to construct a eukaryotic expression vector encoding nonstructural proteins, NS3/NS4A, of HCV genotype 3a, and evaluate its expression on Huh7 cell surface.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The NS3/NS4A sequence was isolated from a patient with HCV-3a chronic infection, cloned into intermediate vector pTZ57R/T, and then used for engineering a mammalian expression vector, pDisplay, to direct the respective protein to the secretory pathway and anchor it to the plasma membrane. The expression of the protein in Huh7 cell, which was transiently transfected with the vector using Lipofectamine, was determined by immunocytochemical staining assay with fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-conjugated antibodies to the HA/myc tags located besides the fusion fragment.

RESULTS

The results showed that the fragment was successfully amplified and cloned into a eukaryotic expression vector. Sequencing and enzyme digestion analysis confirmed the cloned gene completion and its correct position in the pDisply-NS3/NS4A plasmid. Immunocytochemical staining revealed that the target protein was expressed as a membrane-anchored protein in the Huh7 cells.

CONCLUSIONS

This study can serve as a fundamental experiment for the construction of a NS3/NS4A eukaryotic expression vector and its expression in mammalian cells. Further research is underway to evaluate the fragment immunogenicity in lab animal models.

A Novel Adeno-Associated Virus-Based Genetic Vaccine Encoding the Hepatitis C Virus NS3/4 Protein Exhibits Immunogenic Properties in Mice Superior to Those of an NS3-Protein-Based Vaccine

More than 170 million individuals worldwide are infected with hepatitis C virus (HCV), and up to an estimated 30% of chronically infected individuals will go on to develop progressive liver disease. Despite the recent advances in antiviral treatment of HCV infection, it remains a major public health problem. Thus, development of an effective vaccine is urgently required. In this study, we constructed novel adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors expressing the full-length NS3 or NS3/4 protein of HCV genotype 1b. The expression of the NS3 or NS3/4 protein in HepG2 cells was confirmed by western blotting. C57BL/6 mice were intramuscularly immunised with a single injection of AAV vectors, and the resultant immune response was investigated. The AAV2/rh32.33.NS3/4 vaccine induced stronger humoral and cellular responses than did the AAV2/rh32.33.NS3 vaccine. Our results demonstrate that AAV-based vaccines exhibit considerable potential for the development of an effective anti-HCV vaccine.

Strong HCV NS3/4a, NS4b, NS5a, NS5b-specific cellular immune responses induced in Rhesus macaques by a novel HCV genotype 1a/1b consensus DNA vaccine

Chronic HCV is a surreptitious disease currently affecting approximately 3% of the world's population that can lead to liver failure and cancer decades following initial infection. However, there are currently no vaccines available for the prevention of chronic HCV. From patients who acutely resolve HCV infection, it is apparent that a strong and broad cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) response is important in HCV clearance. DNA vaccines are naked plasmid DNA molecules that encode pathogen antigens to induce a pathogen-specific immune response. They are inexpensive to produce and have an excellent safety profile in animals and humans. Additionally, DNA vaccines are able to induce strong CTL responses, making them well-suited for an HCV vaccine. We aimed to maximize vaccine recipients' opportunity to induce a broad T cell response with a novel antigenic sequence, multi-antigen vaccine strategy. We have generated DNA plasmids encoding consensus sequences of HCV genotypes 1a and 1b non-structural proteins NS3/4a, NS4b, NS5a, and NS5b. Rhesus macaques were used to study the immunogenicity of these constructs. Four animals were immunized 3 times, 6 weeks apart, at a dose of 1.0mg per antigen construct, as an intramuscular injection followed by in vivo electroporation, which greatly increases DNA uptake by local cells. Immune responses were measured 2 weeks post-immunization regimen (PIR) in immunized rhesus macaques and showed a broad response to multiple HCV nonstructural antigens, with up to 4680 spot-forming units per million peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) as measured by Interferon-γ ELISpot. In addition, multiparametric flow cytometry detected HCV-specific CD4+ and CD8+ T cell responses by intracellular cytokine staining and detected HCV-specific CD107a+/GrzB+ CD8+ T cells indicating an antigen specific cytolytic response 2 weeks PIR compared with baseline measurements. At the final study time point, 6 weeks PIR, HCV-specific CD45RA- memory-like T cells remained detectable in peripheral blood. Data presented in this manuscript support the notion that vaccine immunogenicity studies using a macaque model can be used to depict key anti-HCV nonstructural antigenic cellular immune responses and support the development of DNA-based prophylactic HCV vaccines.

Tapping the Potential of DNA Delivery with Electroporation for Cancer Immunotherapy

Cancer is a worldwide leading cause of death, and current conventional therapies are limited. The search for alternative preventive or therapeutic solutions is critical if we are going to improve outcomes for patients. The potential for DNA vaccines in the treatment and prevention of cancer has gained great momentum since initial findings almost 2 decades ago that revealed that genetically engineered DNA can elicit an immune response. The combination of adjuvants and an effective delivery method such as electroporation is overcoming past setbacks for naked plasmid DNA (pDNA) as a potential preventive or therapeutic approach to cancer in large animals and humans. In this chapter, we aim to focus on the novel advances in recent years for DNA cancer vaccines, current preclinical data, and the importance of adjuvants and electroporation with emphasis on prostate, melanoma, and cervical cancer.

Oral administration of genetically modified Bifidobacterium displaying HCV-NS3 multi-epitope fusion protein could induce an HCV-NS3-specific systemic immune response in mice

More than 170 million people worldwide are chronic HCV (Hepatitis C virus) carriers, and about 30% of them will develop progressive liver disease, such as cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. A combination of pegylated interferon-α with ribavirin, the standard treatment for HCV infection, has been effective in fewer than 50% of patients infected with HCV genotype 1. A strong T cell response against the nonstructural protein 3 (NS3) is important for recovery from acute HCV infection, and an early multi-specific CD4+ helper and CD8+ cytotoxic T cell response is critical for HCV clearance. In the present study, we successfully constructed a genetically modified Bifidobacterium longum (B. longum) displaying recombinant HCV-NS3 peptides containing some CD4 and CD8 epitopes located in the HCV-NS3 region as an oral vaccine against chronic HCV infection. The oral administration of this vaccine could induce NS3-specific immune responses in mice through intestinal mucosal immunity. Our findings suggest that this novel oral vaccine has great potential as a novel oral vaccine against chronic HCV infection.

Hepatitis C virus and vaccine development

The prevalence of Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is approximately 3% around the world. This virus causes chronic hepatitis, liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. The effectiveness of interferon-α and ribavirin therapy is about 50% and is associated with significant toxicity and cost. Hence, generating new vaccines or drugs is an obligation. However, there is no vaccine available for clinical use. DNA vaccines have some advantages such as producing feasibility and generating intensive cellular and humoral immune responses. Activation and improvement of natural immune defense mechanisms is a necessity for the development of an effective HCV vaccine. This article discusses the current status of therapies for hepatitis C, the promising new therapies and the experimental strategies to develop an HCV vaccine.

DNA vaccine expressing the non-structural proteins of hepatitis C virus diminishes the expression of HCV proteins in a mouse model

Most of the people infected with hepatitis C virus (HCV) develop chronic hepatitis, which in some cases progresses to cirrhosis and ultimately to hepatocellular carcinoma. Although various immunotherapies against the progressive disease status of HCV infection have been studied, a preventive or therapeutic vaccine against this pathogen is still not available. In this study, we constructed a DNA vaccine expressing an HCV structural protein (CN2), non-structural protein (N25) or the empty plasmid DNA as a control and evaluated their efficacy as a candidate HCV vaccine in C57BL/6 and novel genetically modified HCV infection model (HCV-Tg) mice. Strong cellular immune responses to several HCV structural and non-structural proteins, characterized by cytotoxicity and interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) production, were observed in CN2 or N25 DNA vaccine-immunized C57BL/6 mice but not in empty plasmid DNA-administered mice. The therapeutic effects of these DNA vaccines were also examined in HCV-Tg mice that conditionally express HCV proteins in their liver. Though a reduction in cellular immune responses was observed in HCV-Tg mice, there was a significant decrease in the expression of HCV protein in mice administered the N25 DNA vaccine but not in mice administered the empty plasmid DNA. Moreover, both CD8(+) and CD4(+) T cells were required for the decrease of HCV protein in the liver. We found that the N25 DNA vaccine improved pathological changes in the liver compared to the empty plasmid DNA. Thus, these DNA vaccines, especially that expressing the non-structural protein gene, may be an alternative approach for treatment of individuals chronically infected with HCV.

Therapeutic DNA vaccination using in vivo electroporation followed by standard of care therapy in patients with genotype 1 chronic hepatitis C

Clearance of infections caused by the hepatitis C virus (HCV) correlates with HCV-specific T cell function. We therefore evaluated therapeutic vaccination in 12 patients with chronic HCV infection. Eight patients also underwent a subsequent standard-of-care (SOC) therapy with pegylated interferon (IFN) and ribavirin. The phase I/IIa clinical trial was performed in treatment naive HCV genotype 1 patients, receiving four monthly vaccinations in the deltoid muscles with 167, 500, or 1,500 μg codon-optimized HCV nonstructural (NS) 3/4A-expressing DNA vaccine delivered by in vivo electroporation (EP). Enrollment was done with 2 weeks interval between patients for safety reasons. Treatment was safe and well tolerated. The vaccinations significantly improved IFN-γ-producing responses to HCV NS3 during the first 6 weeks of therapy. Five patients experienced 2-10 weeks 0.6-2.4 log10 reduction in serum HCV RNA. Six out of eight patients starting SOC therapy within 1-30 months after the last vaccine dose were cured. This first-in-man therapeutic HCV DNA vaccine study with the vaccine delivered by in vivo EP shows transient effects in patients with chronic HCV genotype 1 infection. The interesting result noted after SOC therapy suggests that therapeutic vaccination can be explored in a combination with SOC treatment.

Nonstructural protein 2 (nsP2) of Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) enhances protective immunity mediated by a CHIKV envelope protein expressing DNA Vaccine

Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) is an important emerging mosquito-borne alphavirus, indigenous to tropical Africa and Asia. It can cause epidemic fever and acute illness characterized by fever and arthralgias. The epidemic cycle of this infection is similar to dengue and urban yellow fever viral infections. The generation of an efficient vaccine against CHIKV is necessary to prevent and/or control the disease manifestations of the infection. In this report, we studied immune response against a CHIKV-envelope DNA vaccine (pEnv) and the role of the CHIKV nonstructural gene 2 (nsP2) as an adjuvant for the induction of protective immune responses in a relevant mouse challenge model. When injected with the CHIKV pEnv alone, 70% of the immunized mice survived CHIKV challenge, whereas when co-injected with pEnv+pnsP2, 90% of the mice survived viral challenge. Mice also exhibited a delayed onset signs of illness, and a marked decrease in morbidity, suggesting a nsP2 mediated adjuvant effect. Co-injection of the pnsP2 adjuvant with pEnv also qualitatively and quantitatively increased antigen specific neutralizing antibody responses compared to vaccination with pEnv alone. In sum, these novel data imply that the addition of nsP2 to the pEnv vaccine enhances anti-CHIKV-Env immune responses and maybe useful to include in future CHIKV clinical vaccination strategies.

Interleukin-12 as a genetic adjuvant enhances hepatitis C virus NS3 DNA vaccine immunogenicity

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) chronic infection is a worldwide health problem, and numerous efforts have been invested to develop novel vaccines. An efficient vaccine requires broad immune response induction against viral proteins. To achieve this goal, we constructed a DNA vaccine expressing nonstructural 3 (NS3) gene (pcDNA3.1-HCV-NS3) and assessed the immune response in C57BL/6 mice. In this study, the NS3 gene was amplified with a nested-reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) method using sera of HCV-infected patients with genotype 1a. The resulting NS3 gene was subcloned into a pcDNA3.1 eukaryotic expression vector, and gene expression was detected by western blot. The resultant DNA vaccine was co-administered with interleukin-12 (IL-12) as an adjuvant to female C57BL/6 mice. After the final immunizations, lymphocyte proliferation, cytotoxicity, and cytokine levels were assessed to measure immune responses. Our data suggest that co-administration of HCV NS3 DNA vaccine with IL-12 induces production of significant levels of both IL-4 and interferon (IFN)-γ (p<0.05). Cytotoxicity and lymphocyte proliferation responses of vaccinated mice were significantly increased compared to control (p<0.05). Collectively, our results demonstrated that co-administration of HCV NS3 and IL-12 displayed strong immunogenicity in a murine model.

Sequence-based in silico analysis of well studied hepatitis C virus epitopes and their variants in other genotypes (particularly genotype 5a) against South African human leukocyte antigen backgrounds

Background

Host genetics influence the outcome of HCV disease. HCV is also highly mutable and escapes host immunity. HCV genotypes are geographically distributed and HCV subtypes have been shown to have distinct repertoires of HLA-restricted viral epitopes which explains the lack of cross protection across genotypes observed in some studies. Despite this, immune databases and putative epitope vaccines concentrate almost exclusively on HCV genotype 1 class I-epitopes restricted by the HLA-A*02 allele. While both genotype and allele predominate in developed countries, we hypothesise that HCV variation and population genetics will affect the efficacy of proposed epitope vaccines in South Africa. This in silico study investigates HCV viral variability within well-studied epitopes identified in genotype 1 and uses algorithms to predict the immunogenicity of their variants from other less studied genotypes and thus rate the most promising vaccine candidates for the South African population. Six class I- and seven class II- restricted epitope sequences within the core, NS3, NS4B and NS5B regions were compared across the six HCV genotypes using local genotype 5a sequence data together with global data. Common HLA alleles in the South African population are A30:01, A02:01, B58:02, B07:02; DRB1*13:01 and DRB1*03:01. Epitope binding to 13 class I- and 8 class –II alleles were described using web-based prediction servers, Immune Epitope Database, (IEDB) and Propred. Online population coverage tools were used to assess vaccine efficacy.

Results

Despite the homogeneity of genotype 1 and genotype 5 over the epitopes, there was limited promiscuity to local HLA-alleles.Host differences will make a putative vaccine less effective in South Africa. Of the 6 well-characterized class I- epitopes, only 2 class I- epitopes were promiscuous and 3 of the 7 class-II epitopes were better conserved and promiscuous. By fine tuning the putative vaccine using an optimal cocktail of genotype 1 and 5a epitopes and local HLA data, the coverage was raised from 65.85% to 91.87% in South African Blacks.

Conclusion

While in vivo and in vitro studies are needed to confirm immunogenic epitopes, in silico HCV epitope vaccine design which takes into account HCV variation and host allele frequency will maximize population coverage in different ethnic groups.

Dendritic cell-based immunity and vaccination against hepatitis C virus infection

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) has chronically infected an estimated 170 million people worldwide. There are many impediments to the development of an effective vaccine for HCV infection. Dendritic cells (DC) remain the most important antigen-presenting cells for host immune responses, and are capable of either inducing productive immunity or maintaining the state of tolerance to self and non-self antigens. Researchers have recently explored the mechanisms by which DC function is regulated during HCV infection, leading to impaired antiviral T-cell responses and so to persistent viral infection. Recently, DC-based vaccines against HCV have been developed. This review summarizes the current understanding of DC function during HCV infection and explores the prospects of DC-based HCV vaccine. In particular, it describes the biology of DC, the phenotype of DC in HCV-infected patients, the effect of HCV on DC development and function, the studies on new DC-based vaccines against HCV infection, and strategies to improve the efficacy of DC-based vaccines.

Evaluation of the immunogenicity of liposome encapsulated HVR1 and NS3 regions of genotype 3 HCV, either singly or in combination

Background

Hepatitis C virus displays a high rate of mutation and exists as a quasispecies in infected patients. In the absence of an effective universal vaccine, genotype-specific vaccine development represents an alternative. We have attempted to develop a genotype 3 based, liposome encapsulated HCV vaccine with hypervariable region-1 (HVR1) and non-structural region-3 (NS3) components.

Results

HCV RNA extracted from serum samples of 49 chronically infected patients was PCR amplified to obtain HVR1 region. These amplified products were cloned to obtain 20 clones per sample in order to identify the quasispecies pattern. The HVR1 consensus sequence, along with three variants was reverse transcribed to obtain peptides. The peptides were checked for immunoreactivity individually, as a pool or as a single peptide tetramer interspersed with four glycine residues. Anti-HCV positivity varied from 42.6% (tetramer) to 92.2% (variant-4) when 115 anti-HCV positive sera representing genotypes 1, 3, 4 and 6 were screened. All the 95 anti-HCV negatives were scored negative by all antigens. Mice were immunized with different liposome encapsulated or Al(OH)₃ adjuvanted formulations of HVR1 variants and recombinant NS3 protein, and monitored for anti-HVR1 and anti-NS3 antibody titres, IgG isotypes and antigen specific cytokine levels. A balanced Th1/Th2 isotyping response with high antibody titres was observed in most of the liposome encapsulated antigen groups. The effect of liposomes and aluminium hydroxide on the expression of immune response genes was studied using Taqman Low Density Array. Both Th1 (IFN-gamma, Il18) and Th2 (Il4) genes were up regulated in the liposome encapsulated HVR1 variant pool-NS3 combination group. In-vitro binding of the virus to anti-HVR1 antibodies was demonstrated.

Conclusion

The optimum immunogen was identified to be combination of peptides of HVR1 consensus sequence and its variants along with pNS3 encapsulated in liposomes, which could generate both cellular and humoral immune responses in mice deserving further evaluation in a suitable cell culture system/non-human primate model.

Recent Advances in Development of DNA Vaccines Against Hepatitis C virus

Hepatitis C is one of the foremost challenging diseases all over the world. No vaccine has been developed, yet against Hepatitis C virus (HCV). This is partly due to the high mutation rate in the HCV genome, which generates new genotypes and sub genotypes. A mass of efforts have been devoted for the development of an efficient vaccine against HCV. DNA Vaccines, an emerging field of Vaccinology, grasp strong potential to be the most reliable and efficient mode of vaccination in the future. This technology is under investigation currently. Incredibly diverse approaches have been applied as an endeavor to develop a potent DNA vaccine against HCV. The HCV structural genes and the virus like particles have been attempted and so far the results are quite promising in the Lab animals. As there is no proper animal model for HCV infection except chimpanzees, it is very difficult to articulate whether these vaccines will also be pertinent in humans or not. This review will focus on different approaches being used for the development of DNA vaccines, the major tribulations in designing a DNA vaccine against HCV as well as the future prospects for the improvement of under trials DNA vaccines developed against HCV.

Peripheral immunization induces functional intrahepatic hepatitis C specific immunity following selective retention of vaccine-specific CD8 T cells by the liver

It is believed that an effective HCV vaccine must induce strong HCV-specific cytotoxic IFN-γ⁺ CD8⁺ T cells able to migrate into and become fully activated within the liver, an organ known to suppress T cell responses and induce tolerance. Given the importance of intrahepatic HCV-specific T cells in the clearance of acute infection, the goal of this present study was to determine if peripheral immunization was able to induce functional intrahepatic HCV-specific T cell based immunity both in the presence and absence of HCV antigen expression within the liver. Using a novel HCV NS3/NS4A DNA vaccine, we show that peripheral immunization of C57BL/6 mice results in the formation of a large pool of fully functional HCV-specific cytotoxic IFN-γ⁺ CD8⁺ T cells within the liver and that these cells were highly enriched within the liver as compared to the spleen. Following hepatic expression of cognate HCV antigen using a previously described liver transfection method, we show that this pool of vaccine-induced HCV-specific CD8⁺ T cells retained its ability to become highly activated as shown by the upregulation of IFN-γ and CCR5 expression, as well as by the clearance of HCV NS3 expressing hepatocytes. Taken together, these findings suggest that T cell effector function is preserved within the liver and that selective recruitment of antigen-specific T cells to the liver may play a previously unappreciated role in the process of immune surveillance, which may be exploited for future T cell based HCV vaccines.

A prime-boost strategy using virus-like particles pseudotyped for HCV proteins triggers broadly neutralizing antibodies in macaques

Chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection, with its cohort of life-threatening complications, affects more than 200 million persons worldwide and has a prevalence of more than 10% in certain countries. Preventive and therapeutic vaccines against HCV are thus much needed. Neutralizing antibodies (NAbs) are the foundation for successful disease prevention for most established vaccines. However, for viruses that cause chronic infection such as HIV or HCV, induction of broad NAbs from recombinant vaccines has remained elusive. We developed a vaccine platform specifically aimed at inducing NAbs based on pseudotyped virus-like particles (VLPs) made with retroviral Gag. We report that VLPs pseudotyped with E2 and/or E1 HCV envelope glycoproteins induced high-titer anti-E2 and/or anti-E1 antibodies, as well as NAbs, in both mouse and macaque. The NAbs, which were raised against HCV 1a, cross-neutralized the five other genotypes tested (1b, 2a, 2b, 4, and 5). Thus, the described VLP platform, which can be pseudotyped with a vast array of virus envelope glycoproteins, represents a new approach to viral vaccine development.

Gene therapy of liver diseases: a 2011 perspective

Liver diseases including inherited metabolic disorders, chronic viral hepatitis, liver cirrhosis and primary and metastatic liver cancer constitute a formidable health problem because of their high prevalence and the important limitations of current therapies. Gene therapy, a procedure based on the transfer of therapeutic genes to tissues, has been used since the 1990s as a new approach to treating a number of incurable conditions. After a period of lights and shades recent success in treating several devastating diseases like inherited immune deficiency disorders, beta-thalassemia, or inherited blindness appear to herald a new era where gene therapy can be listed among standard therapy options for a wide variety of human conditions. In this review, we provide information illustrating the potentiality of gene therapy in the management of liver diseases lacking other effective therapies.

Hepatitis C virus NS3/NS4A DNA vaccine induces multiepitope T cell responses in rhesus macaques mimicking human immune responses [corrected]

Numerous studies have suggested that an effective hepatitis C virus (HCV) vaccine must induce a strong T helper 1 (Th1) T cell response. While several therapeutic vaccine candidates have shown promise in clinical trials, response rates have been low suggesting that further optimization is important. However, such optimization has been hindered by a lack of a benchmark animal model in which to test vaccine-induced immune responses before clinical evaluation. The goal of this study was to analyze the utility of the rhesus macaque vaccination model in assessing HCV vaccine-induced T cell responses. To test this, we employed the use of a novel HCV genotype 1a/1b consensus DNA vaccine encoding both HCV nonstructural protein 3 (NS3) and nonstructural protein 4A (NS4A) proteins. Following immunization, rhesus macaques mounted HCV-specific responses strikingly similar to those reported in resolving patients, including strong NS3-specific interferon-γ (IFN-γ) responses, robust CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cell proliferation, and induction of polyfunctional T cells. Additionally, fine epitope mapping revealed one animal that mounted a T cell response against a known HCV NS3 human leukocyte antigen A2 (HLA-A2) epitope previously identified in humans. Taken together our findings suggest that the rhesus macaque vaccination model is a useful tool in the evaluation of immune responses induced by HCV immunogens.

Electroporation delivery of DNA vaccines: prospects for success

A number of noteworthy technology advances in DNA vaccines research and development over the past few years have led to the resurgence of this field as a viable vaccine modality. Notably, these include--optimization of DNA constructs; development of new DNA manufacturing processes and formulations; augmentation of immune responses with novel encoded molecular adjuvants; and the improvement in new in vivo delivery strategies including electroporation (EP). Of these, EP mediated delivery has generated considerable enthusiasm and appears to have had a great impact in vaccine immunogenicity and efficacy by increasing antigen delivery upto a 1000 fold over naked DNA delivery alone. This increased delivery has resulted in an improved in vivo immune response magnitude as well as response rates relative to DNA delivery by direct injection alone. Indeed the immune responses and protection from pathogen challenge observed following DNA administration via EP in many cases are comparable or superior to other well studied vaccine platforms including viral vectors and live/attenuated/inactivated virus vaccines. Significantly, the early promise of EP delivery shown in numerous pre-clinical animal models of many different infectious diseases and cancer are now translating into equally enhanced immune responses in human clinical trials making the prospects for this vaccine approach to impact diverse disease targets tangible.

DNA vaccines for targeting bacterial infections

DNA vaccination has been of great interest since its discovery in the 1990s due to its ability to elicit both humoral and cellular immune responses. DNA vaccines consist of a DNA plasmid containing a transgene that encodes the sequence of a target protein from a pathogen under the control of a eukaryotic promoter. This revolutionary technology has proven to be effective in animal models and four DNA vaccine products have recently been approved for veterinary use. Although few DNA vaccines against bacterial infections have been tested, the results are encouraging. Because of their versatility, safety and simplicity a wider range of organisms can be targeted by these vaccines, which shows their potential advantages to public health. This article describes the mechanism of action of DNA vaccines and their potential use for targeting bacterial infections. In addition, it provides an updated summary of the methods used to enhance immunogenicity from codon optimization and adjuvants to delivery techniques including electroporation and use of nanoparticles.

Immunization with a DNA vaccine candidate in chronic hepatitis C patients is safe, well tolerated and does not impair immune response induction after anti-hepatitis B vaccination

BACKGROUND

In the present study, we evaluated the safety of CIGB-230, a novel vaccine candidate based on the mixture of a plasmid for DNA immunization, expressing hepatitis C virus (HCV) structural antigens, with a recombinant HCV Core protein.

METHODS

Fifteen HCV chronically-infected volunteers with detectable levels of HCV RNA genotype 1b, who were nonresponders to previous treatment with interferon plus ribavirin, were intramuscularly injected with CIGB-230 on weeks 0, 4, 8, 12, 16 and 20. Individuals were also immunized at weeks 28, 32 and 36 with a recombinant vaccine against hepatitis B. Adverse events were recorded and analyzed. Blood samples were taken every 4 weeks up to month 12 for hematological, biochemical, virological and immunological analysis.

RESULTS

All patients completed the treatment with CIGB-230. Adverse events were only slight (83.6%) or moderate (16.4%). No significant differences in hematological and biochemical parameters, including serum aminotransferases, were detected between the baseline and post-treatment state. Induction of a CD4+ T lymphocyte response against a particular region in HCV E1, spanning amino acids 230-312 in HCV polyprotein, was detected in 42.8% of patients during treatment with CIGB-230. The ability of T cells to proliferate in response to mitogenic stimulation was not weakened. Most individuals (78.6%) were seroprotected after anti-hepatitis B vaccination and 42.8% were hyper-responders (antibody titers > 100 UI/ml). No anti-mitochondrial, anti-nuclear and anti-extractable nuclear antigen antibodies were generated during immunization with CIGB-230.

CONCLUSIONS

Vaccination with CIGB-230 in HCV chronically-infected individuals was safe, well tolerated and did not impair the ability to respond to non-HCV antigens.

Electroporation for the delivery of DNA-based vaccines and immunotherapeutics: current clinical developments

Electroporation (EP) has been used in basic research for the past 25 years to aid in the transfer of DNA into cells in vitro. EP in vivo enhances transfer of DNA vaccines and therapeutic plasmids to the skin, muscle, tumors, and other tissues resulting in high levels of expression, often with serological and clinical benefits. The recent interest in nonviral gene transfer as treatment options for a vast array of conditions has resulted in the refinement and optimization of EP technology. Current research has revealed that EP can be successfully used in many species, including humans. Clinical trials are currently under way. Herein, the transition of EP from basic science to clinical trials will be discussed.

Co-immunization with an optimized plasmid-encoded immune stimulatory interleukin, high-mobility group box 1 protein, results in enhanced interferon-gamma secretion by antigen-specific CD8 T cells

DNA vaccination is a novel immunization strategy that has great potential for the development of vaccines and immune therapeutics. This strategy has been highly effective in mice, but is less immunogenic in non-human primates and in humans. Enhancing DNA vaccine potency remains a challenge. It is likely that antigen-presenting cells (APCs), and especially dendritic cells (DCs), play a significant role in the presentation of the vaccine antigen to the immune system. A new study reports the synergistic recruitment, expansion and activation of DCs in vivo by high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) protein. Such combinational strategies for delivering vaccine in a single, simple platform will hypothetically bolster the cellular immunity in vivo. Here, we combined plasmid encoding human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1) Gag and Env with an HMGB1 plasmid as a DNA adjuvant in BALB/c mice (by intramuscular immunization via electroporation), and humoral and cellular responses were measured. Co-administration of this potent immunostimulatory adjuvant strongly enhanced the cellular interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) and humoral immune response compared with that obtained in mice immunized with vaccine only. Our results show that co-immunization with HMGB1 can have a strong adjuvant activity, driving strong cellular and humoral immunity that may be an effective immunological adjuvant in DNA vaccination against HIV-1.

DNA vaccines: developing new strategies to enhance immune responses

We have focused our research on understanding the basic biology of and developing novel therapeutic and prophylactic DNA vaccines. We have among others three distinct primary areas of interest which include: 1. Enhancing in vivo delivery and transfection of DNA vaccine vectors 2. Improving DNA vaccine construct immunogenicity 3. Using molecular adjuvants to modulate and skew immune responses. Key to the immunogenicity of DNA vaccines is the presentation of expressed antigen to antigen-presenting cells. To improve expression and presentation of antigen, we have investigated various immunization methods with current focus on a combination of intramuscular injection and electroporation. To improve our vaccine constructs, we also employed methods such as RNA/codon optimization and antigen consensus to enhance expression and cellular/humoral cross-reactivity, respectively. Our lab also researches the potential of various molecular adjuvants to skew Th1/Th2 responses, enhance cellular/humoral responses, and improve protection in various animal models. Through improving our understanding of basic immunology as it is related to DNA vaccine technology, our goal is to develop the technology to the point of utility for human and animal health.