Do porcine parvoviruses 1 through 7 (PPV1-PPV7) have an impact on porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) viremia in pigs?

Infection and Coinfection of Porcine-Selected Viruses (PPV1 to PPV8, PCV2 to PCV4, and PRRSV) in Gilts and Their Associations with Reproductive Performance

Seven novel porcine parvoviruses (nPPVs) (PPV2 through PPV8) have been described, although their pathogenicity and possible effects on porcine reproductive failure (PRF) are undefined. In this study, these nPPVs were assessed in gilts from Colombia; their coinfections with PPV1, PCV2, PCV3, PCV4, and PRRSV and an association between the nPPVs and the reproductive performance parameters (RPPs) in sows were determined. For this, 234 serum samples were collected from healthy gilts from 40 herds in five Colombian regions, and the viruses were detected via real-time PCR. The results confirmed the circulation of PPV2 through PPV7 in Colombia, with PPV3 (40%), PPV5 (20%), and PPV6 (17%) being the most frequent. Additionally, no PCV4 or PPV8 was detected. PPV2 to PPV7 were detected in concurrence with each other and with the primary PRF viruses, and these coinfections varied from double to sextuple coinfections. Additionally, the association between nPPVs and PRF primary viruses was statistically significant for the presence of PPV6 in PCV3-positive (p < 0.01) and PPV5 in PPRSV-positive (p < 0.05) gilts; conversely, there was a significant presence of PPV3 in both PCV2-negative (p < 0.01) and PRRSV-negative (p < 0.05) gilts. Regarding the RPPs, the crude association between virus detection (positive or negative) and a high or low RPP was only statistically significant for PCV3 and the farrowing rate (FR), indicating that the crude odds of a low FR were 94% lower in herds with PCV3-positive gilts. This finding means that the detection of PCV3 in gilts (PCV3-positive by PCR) is associated with a higher FR in the farm or that these farms (with positive gilts) have lower odds (OR 0.06, p-value 0.0043) of a low FR. Additionally, a low FR tended to be associated with the detection of PPV4 and PPV5 (p-value < 0.20). This study is important for establishing the possible participation of nPPVs in PRF.

Identification and in vitro characterization of a novel porcine parvovirus 6 in Russia

Porcine parvovirus 6 (PPV6) was first identified in aborted swine fetuses in China in 2014. Since its identification, an increased number of PPV6 cases have been reported in many countries with developed pig breeding. In this study, the first identification of porcine parvovirus 6 in Russia, its phylogenetic analysis, and its characterization in vitro are reported. During the investigation, 521 serum samples collected from pigs of different ages from seven regions of the Russian Federation were tested. In four regions, the DNA of the virus was detected. The overall prevalence of porcine parvovirus 6 in Russia was 9.4%. Fattening pigs were the group with the most frequent detection of the virus genome. Phylogenetic analysis of the Russian isolate detected in a domestic boar indicated high homology with strains from Spain. In vitro studies revealed that the most promising cell cultures for PPV6 isolation are SPEV and SK. Our results demonstrated that PPV6 induced typical apoptotic features in cells, including DNA fragmentation, chromatin margination, nuclear condensation, pyknosis of nuclei, symplast formation, and various pathological mitoses.

Molecular Survey on Porcine Parvoviruses (PPV1-7) and Their Association with Major Pathogens in Reproductive Failure Outbreaks in Northern Italy

Successful reproductive performance is key to farm competitiveness in the global marketplace. Porcine parvovirus 1 (PPV1) has been identified as a major cause of reproductive failure, and since 2001 new species of porcine parvoviruses, namely PPV2-7, have been identified, although their role is not yet fully understood yet. The present study aimed to investigate PPVs' presence in reproductive failure outbreaks occurring in 124 farms of northern Italy. Fetuses were collected from 338 sows between 2019 and 2021 and tested for PPVs by real-time PCR-based assays and for other viruses responsible for reproductive disease. At least one PPV species was detected in 59.7% (74/124) of the tested farms. In order, PPV1, PPV5, PPV6, PPV7 and PPV4 were the most frequently detected species, whereas fewer detections were registered for PPV2 and PPV3. Overall, the new PPV2-7 species were detected in 26.6% (90/338) of the cases, both alone or in co-infections: PCV-2 (7.1%, 24/338), PCV-3 (8.2%, 28/338), and PRRSV-1 (6.2%, 21/338) were frequently identified in association with PPVs. Single PPVs detections or co-infections with other agents commonly responsible for reproductive failure should encourage future studies investigating their biological, clinical, and epidemiological role, for a better preparedness for potential emerging challenges in intensive pig production.

The Novel Porcine Parvoviruses: Current State of Knowledge and Their Possible Implications in Clinical Syndromes in Pigs

Parvoviruses (PVs) affect various animal species causing different diseases. To date, eight different porcine parvoviruses (PPV1 through PPV8) are recognized in the swine population, all of which are distributed among subfamilies and genera of the Parvoviridae family. PPV1 is the oldest and is recognized as the primary agent of SMEDI, while the rest of the PPVs (PPV2 through PPV8) are called novel PPVs (nPPVs). The pathogenesis of nPPVs is still undefined, and whether these viruses are putative disease agents is unknown. Structurally, the PPVs are very similar; the differences occur mainly at the level of their genomes (ssDNA), where there is variation in the number and location of the coding genes. Additionally, it is considered that the genome of PVs has mutation rates similar to those of ssRNA viruses, that is, in the order of 10-5-10-4 nucleotide/substitution/year. These mutations manifest mainly in the VP protein, constituting the viral capsid, affecting virulence, tropism, and viral antigenicity. For nPPVs, mutation rates have already been established that are similar to those already described; however, within this group of viruses, the highest mutation rate has been reported for PPV7. In addition to the mutations, recombinations are also reported, mainly in PPV2, PPV3, and PPV7; these have been found between strains of domestic pigs and wild boars and in a more significant proportion in VP sequences. Regarding affinity for cell types, nPPVs have been detected with variable prevalence in different types of organs and tissues; this has led to the suggestion that they have a broad tropism, although proportionally more have been found in lung and lymphoid tissue such as spleen, tonsils, and lymph nodes. Regarding their epidemiology, nPPVs are present on all continents (except PPV8, only in Asia), and within pig farms, the highest prevalences detecting viral genomes have been seen in the fattener and finishing groups. The relationship between nPPVs and clinical manifestations has been complicated to establish. However, there is already some evidence that establishes associations. One of them is PPV2 with porcine respiratory disease complex (PRDC), where causality tests (PCR, ISH, and histopathology) lead to proposing the PPV2 virus as a possible agent involved in this syndrome. With the other nPPVs, there is still no clear association with any pathology. These have been detected in different systems (respiratory, reproductive, gastrointestinal, urinary, and nervous), and there is still insufficient evidence to classify them as disease-causing agents. In this regard, nPPVs (except PPV8) have been found to cause porcine reproductive failure (PRF), with the most prevalent being PPV4, PPV6, and PPV7. In the case of PRDC, nPPVs have also been detected, with PPV2 having the highest viral loads in the lungs of affected pigs. Regarding coinfections, nPPVs have been detected in concurrence in healthy and sick pigs, with primary PRDC and PRF viruses such as PCV2, PCV3, and PRRSV. The effect of these coinfections is not apparent; it is unknown whether they favor the replication of the primary agents, the severity of the clinical manifestations, or have no effect. The most significant limitation in the study of nPPVs is that their isolation has been impossible; therefore, there are no studies on their pathogenesis both in vitro and in vivo. For all of the above, it is necessary to propose basic and applied research on nPPVs to establish if they are putative disease agents, establish their effect on coinfections, and measure their impact on swine production.

A Subunit Vaccine Based on the VP2 Protein of Porcine Parvovirus 1 Induces a Strong Protective Effect in Pregnant Gilts

Porcine parvovirus 1 (PPV1) is one of the most prevalent pathogens that can cause reproductive disorder in sows. The VP2 protein of PPV1 is the most important immunogenic protein that induces neutralizing antibodies and protective immunity. Thus, VP2 is considered an ideal target antigen for the development of a genetically engineered PPV1 vaccine. In this study, the baculovirus transfer vector carrying the HR5-P10-VP2 expression cassette was successfully constructed with the aim of increasing the expression levels of the VP2 protein. The VP2 protein was confirmed using SDS‒PAGE and Western blot analyses. Electronic microscope analysis showed that the recombinant VP2 proteins were capable of self-assembling into VLPs with a diameter of approximately 25 nm. The immunogenicity of the VP2 subunit vaccine was evaluated in pigs. The results showed that VP2 protein emulsified with ISA 201VG adjuvant induced higher levels of HI antibodies and neutralizing antibodies than VP2 protein emulsified with IMS 1313VG adjuvant. Furthermore, the gilts immunized with the ISA 201VG 20 μg subunit vaccine acquired complete protection against PPV1 HN2019 infection. In contrast, the commercial inactivated vaccine provided incomplete protection in gilts. Therefore, the VP2 subunit vaccine is a promising genetically engineered vaccine for the prevention and control of PPV1.

Detection and genetic evolution analysis of porcine parvovirus type 7 (PPV7) in Fujian Province

Porcine parvovirus (PPV) is an important pathogen causing reproductive disorders in sows, with clinical symptoms including stillbirth, mummified fetuses, embryonic dysplasia and death, and sow infertility. Porcine parvovirus 7 (PPV7) is a recently discovered type of PPV and its widespread distribution and rapid evolution has caused huge economic losses in the pig industry. To investigate the molecular epidemiology of PPV7 in Fujian Province, China, we collected 491 blood samples and 72 tissue samples from diseased pigs in large-scale pig farms across selected areas of Fujian Province from 2019 to 2022. PPV7 infection was determined using real-time quantitative PCR, and positive samples underwent whole-genome amplification, sequencing, and subsequent homology, phylogenetic, and recombination analyses. The PPV7 positive detection rate was 25.73% (145/563) in Fujian Province, among which the positive rate of blood and tissue samples was 26.47% (130/491) and 20.83% (15/72), respectively. The nucleotide sequence homology among the 29 PPV7 whole-genome sequences obtained in this study was 90.0%-97.2%, whereas that with 128 reference strains from China and other countries was 88.9%-98.1%. Six strains had partial nucleotide deletions or insertions. Phylogenetic analysis based on the whole-genome sequences classified the 29 PPV7 strains and 128 reference strains into eight subtypes (PPV7a-PPV7h), and PPV7h was the predominant subtype in Fujian Province. Recombination analysis revealed evidence of inferred recombination events in the genomes of four strains. This study provides significant insights into the molecular characteristics of PPV7 in Fujian Province and serves as a crucial foundation for further advancements in PPV7 prevention and control strategies.

Genetic and epidemic characteristics of porcine parvovirus 7 in the Fujian and Guangdong regions of southern China

Porcine parvovirus (PPV) is the primary cause of reproductive disorders in pigs. The porcine parvovirus 7 (PPV7) subtype was first identified in the United States in 2016. In this study, PPV7 was detected in different porcine samples, including serum, feces, saliva, and milk, from 69 pig farms in the Fujian and Guangdong regions of South China, and its coinfection with porcine circovirus 2 (PCV2), porcine circovirus 3 (PCV3), and porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) was determined. Whole-genome sequencing, phylogenetic analysis, and recombination analysis were performed on seven isolates, with each selected isolate originating from a different farm. There was a high rate of PPV7 positivity in blood, stool, and saliva but PPV7 DNA was absent from breast milk. The findings also showed that PPV7-positive samples had a high rate of coinfection with PCV2, PCV3, and PRRSV. Real-time PCR was used to determine the viral copy numbers of PCV2, PCV3, PRRSV, and PPV7 in serum samples and to assess whether PPV7 affected PCV2, PCV3, and PRRSV viral loads. Phylogenetic analysis showed that PPV7e and PPV7f were the most prevalent and widespread subtypes in the Fujian and Guangdong regions, respectively. While the PPV7a, PPV7b, PPV7c, and PPV7f subtypes were most prevalent in Fujian Province, PPV7a-e subtypes were prevalent in Guangdong, indicating that PPV7 has rich genetic diversity in these regions. A putative recombinant strain, 21FJ09, was identified using SimPlot and the Recombination Detection Program 4 software.

Detection and Molecular Characterization of Porcine Parvovirus 7 in Eastern Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, China

Porcine parvoviruses (PPV) and porcine circoviruses type 2 (PCV2) are widespread in the pig population. Recently, it was suggested that PPV7 may stimulate PCV2 and PCV3 replication. The present study aimed to make detection and molecular characterization of PPV7 for the first time in eastern Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, China. Twenty-seven of ninety-four samples (28.72%) and five in eight pig farms were PPV7 positive. Further detection showed that the co-infection rate of PPV7 and PCV2 was 20.21% (19/94), and 9.59% (9/94) for PPV7 and PCV3. In addition, the positive rate of PPV7 in PCV2 positive samples was higher than that in PCV2 negative samples, supporting that PCV2 could act as a co-factor for PPV7 infection. In total, four PPV7 strains were sequenced and designated as NM-14, NM-19, NM-4, and NM-40. The amplified genome sequence of NM-14 and NM-40 were 3,999nt in length, while NM-19 and NM-4 were 3,996nt with a three nucleotides deletion at 3,097–3,099, resulting in an amino acid deletion in the Cap protein. Phylogenetic analysis based on the capsid amino acid (aa) sequences showed that 52 PPV7 strains were divided into two clades, and the four PPV7 strains in this study were all clustered in clade 1. The genome and capsid amino acid sequence of the four PPV7 strains identified in this study shared 80.0–96.9% and 85.9–100% similarity with that of 48 PPV7 reference strains selected in NCBI. Simplot analysis revealed that NM-19 and NM-4 strains were probably produced by recombination of two PPV7 strains from China. The amino acid sequence alignment analysis of capsid revealed that the four PPV7 strains detected in Inner Mongolia had multiple amino acid mutations in the 6 B cell linear epitopes compared with the reference strains, suggesting that the four PPV7 strains may have different characteristics in receptor binding and immunogenicity. In summary, this paper reported the PPV7 infection and molecular characterization in the eastern of Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region for the first time, which is helpful to understand the molecular epidemic characteristics of PPV7.

Canine Circovirus Suppresses the Type I Interferon Response and Protein Expression but Promotes CPV-2 Replication

Canine circovirus (CanineCV) is an emerging virus in canines. Since the first strain of CanineCV was reported in 2012, CanineCV infection has shown a trend toward becoming a global epidemic. CanineCV infection often occurs with coinfection with other pathogens that may aggravate the symptoms of disease in affected dogs. Currently, CanineCV has not been successfully isolated by laboratories, resulting in a lack of clarity regarding its physicochemical properties, replication process, and pathogenic characteristics. To address this knowledge gap, the following results were obtained in this study. First, a CanineCV strain was rescued in F81 cells using infectious clone plasmids. Second, the Rep protein produced by the viral packaging rescue process was found to be associated with cytopathic effects. Additionally, the Rep protein and CanineCV inhibited the activation of the type I interferon (IFN-I) promoter, blocking subsequent expression of interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs). Furthermore, Rep was found to broadly inhibit host protein expression. We speculate that in CanineCV and canine parvovirus type 2 (CPV-2) coinfection cases, CanineCV promotes CPV-2 replication by inducing immunosuppression, which may increase the severity of clinical symptoms.

Prevalence of porcine parvovirus 1 through 7 (PPV1-PPV7) and co-factor association with PCV2 and PRRSV in Korea

Background

Classical porcine parvovirus (PPV1) and novel porcine parvoviruses designated porcine parvovirus 2 through 7 (PPV2-PPV7) are widespread in pig populations. The objective of this study was to investigate the prevalence rates of PPV1-PPV7 in Korea by detecting PPVs in serum, lung and fecal samples and to elucidate the association of PPVs with porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) and porcine reproductive and respiratory virus (PRRSV), major pathogens involved in porcine respiratory disease complex (PRDC). A total of 286 serum, 481 lung, and 281 fecal samples collected from 2018 to 2020 were analyzed.

Results

The results showed that PPVs are widespread in Korea; the highest detection rates were found in lung samples and ranged from 7.9% (PPV1) to 32.6% (PPV2). Regarding age groups, fattening pigs had the highest detection rates of PPVs, ranging from 6.4% (PPV1) to 36.5% (PPV6); this finding suggests the chronic nature of PPV infections and the continual circulation of these viruses. When compared with PCV2- and PRRSV-negative lung samples, PCV2-positive samples with or without PRRSV positivity had significantly higher detection levels of PPV1 and PPV6. In contrast, the prevalence of PPV2 and PPV7 was significantly higher in PRRSV-infected lung samples regardless of PCV2 detection. PPV5 was detected significantly more frequently in samples  with both PCV2 and PRRSV positivity.

Conclusions

This study could offer a better understanding of the role of PPVs in PCV2 and/or PRRSV infection though further studies are needed to experimentally assess the impact of PPVs in coinfections.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12917-022-03236-1.

A Systematic Investigation Unveils High Coinfection Status of Porcine Parvovirus Types 1 through 7 in China from 2016 to 2020

Porcine parvovirus genotype 1 (PPV1) causes reproductive disorder in swine and is prevalent in China. Recently, six new genotypes of PPVs (PPV2 through PPV7) have also been detected in Chinese swine herds. However, the coinfection status of all these seven genotypes of PPVs (PPV1-7) in China was not clarified yet. In this study, we developed a panel of PPV1–7 PCR assays with satisfied specificity, sensitivity and reproducibility and then applied to the detection of PPV1–7 in 435 clinical samples collected from eight provinces of China in 2016–2020. A total of 55.40% samples (241 out of 435) were PPV positive, while PPV2 and PPV3 (both 22.53%) belonging to the genus of Tetraparvovirus were the most prevalent genotypes. Noticeably, PPV1–7 strains were more prevalent in nursery and finishing pigs than in suckling pigs. In addition, coinfection could be detected in all eight provinces and 27.36% (119/435) samples were coinfected with two to five genotypes of PPVs. Meanwhile, the coinfection of PPVs with PCV2 was 22.30% (97/435). Twenty complete genomes of representative PPV1–7 were determined, and phylogenetic analysis confirmed the genotyping results by sequence comparisons and PCR assays. Remarkably, the PPV7 HBTZ20180519-152 strain from domestic pig was recombined from parental JX15-like and JX38-like isolates from wild boars. Selective pressure analysis based on VP2 sequences of PPV1–7 showed that they were predominantly under negative selection, while few positive selection sites could be detected in VP2 of PPV7. Overall, this systematic investigation unveils high prevalence and coinfection of PPV1–7 in China from 2016 to 2020.

IMPORTANCE Porcine parvoviruses (PPVs) are prevalent in China associating with reproductive failure in swine. The coinfection of seven genotypes of PPVs (PPV1-7) might have synergistic effects on PPV1 associated SMEDI syndrome. However, the coinfection status of PPV1–7 in China is not clear yet. This study showed that PPV1–7 strains are highly prevalent (55.40%) in China and mainly in nursery and finishing pigs in recent years. In addition, the coinfections of different genotypes of PPVs (27.36%) and PPVs with PCV2 (22.30%) are common. Geographic analysis indicated that different genotypes of PPVs are widely cocirculating in China. Intriguingly, a PPV7 strain from the domestic pig was detected as a recombinant from two wild boar isolates. Selective pressure analyses showed that PPV1–7 are mainly under purifying selection. Our findings provide the first systematic investigation on the prevalence, coinfection, and evolution of PPV1 through PPV7 in Chinese swineherds from 2016 to 2020.

The first report of porcine parvovirus 7 (PPV7) in Colombia demonstrates the presence of variants associated with modifications at the level of the VP2-capsid protein

There are a wide variety of porcine parvoviruses (PPVs) referred to as PPV1 to PPV7. The latter was discovered in 2016 and later reported in some countries in America, Asia, and Europe. PPV7 as a pathogenic agent or coinfection with other pathogens causing disease has not yet been determined. In the present study, we report the identification of PPV7 for the first time in Colombia, where it was found retrospectively since 2015 in 40% of the provinces that make up the country (13/32), and the virus was ratified for 2018 in 4/5 provinces evaluated. Additionally, partial sequencing (nucleotides 380 to 4000) was performed of four Colombian strains completely covering the VP2 and NS1 viral genes. A sequence identity greater than 99% was found when comparing them with reference strains from the USA and China. In three of the four Colombian strains, an insertion of 15 nucleotides (five amino acids) was found in the PPV7-VP2 capsid protein (540–5554 nt; 180–184 aa). Based on this insertion, the VP2 phylogenetic analysis exhibited two well-differentiated evolutionarily related groups. To evaluate the impact of this insertion on the structure of the PPV7-VP2 capsid protein, the secondary structure of two different Colombian strains was predicted, and it was determined that the insertion is located in the coil region and not involved in significant changes in the structure of the protein. The 3D structure of the PPV7-VP2 capsid protein was determined by threading and homology modeling, and it was shown that the insertion did not imply a change in the shape of the protein. Additionally, it was determined that the insertion is not involved in suppressing a potential B cell epitope, although the increase in length of the epitope could affect the interaction with molecules that allow a specific immune response.

High Co-infection Status of Novel Porcine Parvovirus 7 With Porcine Circovirus 3 in Sows That Experienced Reproductive Failure

Porcine parvoviruses (PPVs) and porcine circoviruses (PCVs) infect pigs worldwide, with PPV1–7 and PCV2 infections common in pigs. Although PPV7 was only identified in 2016, co-infection of PPV7 and PCV2 is already common, and PPV7 may stimulate PCV2 replication. PCV3, a novel type of circovirus, is prevalent in pig populations worldwide and considered to cause reproductive disorders and dermatitis nephrotic syndrome. In recent studies, pigs were commonly infected with both PCV3 and PPV7. Our objective was to investigate the co-infections between PPV7 and PCV3 in samples from swine on farms in Hunan, China, and assess the potential impacts of PPV7 on PCV3 viremia. A total of 209 samples, known to be positive (105) or negative (104) for PCV3, were randomly selected from serum samples that were collected from commercial swine herds in seven regions from 2016 to 2018 in our previous studies; these samples were subjected to real-time PCR to detect PPV7. Of these samples, 23% (48/209) were positive for PPV7. Furthermore, the PPV7 positive rate was significantly higher in PCV3 positive serum (31.4%, 33/105) than in PCV3 negative serum (14.4%, 15/104). Another 62 PCV3 positive sow serum samples and 20 PCV3 positive aborted fetuses were selected from 2015 to 2016 in our other previous study. These samples were designated as being from farms with or without long-standing histories of reproductive failure (RF or non-RF), respectively, and they were also subjected to real-time PCR to detect PPV7 and to determine whether PPV7 affected PCV3 viremia. Among the 62 serum samples (39 PCV3 positive RF-serum and 23 PCV3 positive non-RF-serum), 45.1% (28/62) were positive for PPV7 and PCV3, and the PPV7 positive rate was significantly higher in PCV3 positive RF-serum (51.2%, 20/39) than in PCV3 positive non-RF-serum (34.8%, 8/23). In addition, there was a higher positive rate of PPV7 (55%, 11/20) in PCV3 positive aborted fetus samples. In addition, the copy number of PCV3 in PPV7 positive samples was significantly higher than that in PPV7 negative serum samples. Based on these findings, we concluded that PPV7 may stimulate PCV3 replication.

A Comparison of Virulence of Three Porcine Circovirus Type 2 (PCV2) Genotypes (a, b, and d) in Pigs Singularly Inoculated with PCV2 and Dually Inoculated with PCV2 and Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome Virus

The aim of this study was to compare the virulence of porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) genotypes in dually inoculated pigs with both three genotypes (a, b, and d) of PCV2 and porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus-2 (PRRSV-2) versus pigs singularly inoculated with the same three PCV2 genotypes (a, b, and d). Differences in this comparison were found in PCV2 viremia levels, lung and lymphoid lesion severity, and the amount of PCV2 antigen within the lymphoid lesions. Regardless of PCV2 genotypes, pigs that were dually inoculated with PCV2/PRRSV had significantly higher clinical scores, less average daily weight gain, higher levels of PCV2 viremia, and more severe lug and lymphoid lesions compared to pigs singularly inoculated with PCV2. Among the dually infected pig groups, pigs infected with PCV2d/PRRSV-2 had significantly higher levels of PCV2 viremia, more severe lung and lymphoid lesions, and more PCV2-positive cells within lymphoid lesions compared to pigs dually inoculated with PCV2a/PRRSV-2 and PCV2b/PRRSV-2. The results of this study demonstrated significant differences in the virulence among dual inoculation of PCV2a/PRRSV-2, PCV2b/PRRSV-2, and PCV2d/PRRSV-2. A significant difference in the virulence among PCV2a, PCV2b, and PCV2d single-inoculated pig groups was not found with respect to the levels of PCV2 viremia and production of PCV2-associated lymphoid lesions.

Co-infection status of novel parvovirus's (PPV2 to 4) with porcine circovirus 2 in porcine respiratory disease complex and porcine circovirus-associated disease from 1997 to 2012

As global pig health diseases, porcine respiratory disease complex (PRDC) and porcine circovirus-associated disease (PCVAD) generate substantial economic losses despite pigs been vaccinated against the primary causative virus, highlighting the importance of understanding virome interactions and specifically co-factor infections. Established primary endemic pathogens for PRDC include porcine circovirus 2 (PCV2), porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSv) and swine influenza virus (SIV), and PCV2 aetiology in interaction with other co-infecting viruses can result in PCVAD. Porcine parvovirus (PPV) 1 is a well-characterized virus with an available vaccine preventing reproductive failure in sows. However, whilst novel PPV 2 to 7 viruses have been identified since 2001, their viral pathogenic potential in clinical and subclinical disease remains to be determined. Therefore, this study has sought to develop a better understanding of their potential role as associated co-infections in PRDC and PCVAD by examining archival samples for the presence of PCV2 and the novel parvoviruses PPV2-4 from clinically diseased pigs across production age stages. Epidemiologically, the novel PPV2 was found to be the most prevalent within the fattener age group with PPV2-4 statistically associated with pig respiratory disease and enteric ulcers. Additionally, statistical modelling by latent class analysis (LCA) on veterinary pathology scored pigs found a clustering co-factor association between PPV2 and PCV2, suggesting the novel PPV may be involved in PRDC and PCVAD. Phylogenetic analysis of novel PPVs revealed the PPV2 capsid evolution to be diverged from the original strains with a low nucleotide homology of 88%-96% between two distinct clades. These findings determine that novel PPV 2-4 viruses are statistically associated as co-infectors in a diseased pig population, and significantly detected PPV2 clustering co-infection frequency with PCV2 in PRDC and PCVAD diseased pigs through LCA analysis.

Porcine Parvovirus 7: Evolutionary Dynamics and Identification of Epitopes toward Vaccine Design

Porcine parvovirus 7 (PPV7) belonging to the genus Chapparvovirus in the family Parvoviridae, has been identified in the USA, Sweden, Poland, China, South Korea and Brazil. Our objective was to determine the phylogeny, estimate the time of origin and evolutionary dynamics of PPV7, and use computer-based immune-informatics to assess potential epitopes of its Cap, the main antigenic viral protein, for vaccines or serology. Regarding evolutionary dynamics, PPV7 had 2 major clades, both of which possibly had a common ancestor in 2004. Furthermore, PPV7 strains from China were the most likely ancestral strains. The nucleotide substitution rates of NS1 and Cap genes were 8.01 × 10⁻⁴ and 2.19 × 10⁻³ per site per year, respectively, which were higher than those reported for PPV1-4. The antigenic profiles of PPV7 Cap were revealed and there were indications that PPV7 used antigenic shift to escape from the host’s immune surveillance. Linear B cell epitopes and CD8 T cell epitopes of Cap with good antigenic potential were identified in silico; these conserved B cell epitopes may be candidates for the PPV7 vaccine or for the development of serological diagnostic methods.