Confirmation of occurrence of Babesia canis vogeli in domestic dogs in South Africa

First report of dog ticks and tick-borne pathogens they are carrying in Malawi

Ticks are vectors for transmitting tick-borne pathogens (TBPs) in animals and humans. Therefore, tick identification is necessary to understand the distribution of tick species and the pathogens they carry. Unfortunately, data on dog ticks and the TBPs they harbor in Malawi are incomplete. This study aimed to identify dog ticks and the TBPs they transmit in Malawi. One hundred thirty-two ticks were collected from 87 apparently healthy but infested domestic dogs in four districts of Malawi, which were pooled into 128 tick samples. The ticks were morphologically identified under a stereomicroscope using identification keys, and species identification was authenticated by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) through the amplification and sequencing of 12S rRNA and cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (CO1) genes. The tick species identified were Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu lato (58.3%), Haemaphysalis elliptica (32.6%), and Hyalomma truncatum (9.1%). Screening for TBPs using species-specific PCR assays revealed that 48.4% of the ticks were infected with at least one TBP. The TBP detection rates were 13.3% for Anaplasma platys, 10.2% for Babesia rossi, 8.6% for B. vogeli, 6.3% for Ehrlichia canis, 3.9% for A. phagocytophilum, 3.1% for B. gibsoni, 2.3% for B. canis and 0.8% for Hepatozoon canis. Co-infections of up to three pathogens were observed in 48.4% of the positive samples. This is the first study to identify dog ticks and the TBPs they harbor in Malawi. These findings provide the basis for understanding dog tick distribution and pathogens they carry in Malawi. This study necessitates the examination of ticks from more study locations to have a better picture of tick challenge, and the development of ticks and tick-borne disease control methods in Malawi.

First Molecular Evidence of Babesia vogeli, Babesia vulpes, and Theileria ovis in Dogs from Kyrgyzstan

Tick-borne parasitic diseases cause mild to severe infections among vertebrate hosts, including dogs. Species in the genus Babesia are important tick-borne pathogens and have worldwide distributions. Although there are data on the prevalence and distribution of Babesia species among dogs around the world, there is no information available in Kyrgyzstan, according to a literature review. In this study, 337 dogs were screened by nested PCR for the presence of the 18S small subunit ribosomal RNA (18S SSU rRNA) gene of piroplasm species. Overall prevalence was 6.23% (21/337) for Babesia/Theileria spp. DNA sequencing of positively tested samples revealed that eighteen samples were infected with Babesia vogeli (B. vogeli) (5.34%), two samples with B. vulpes (0.59%), and one sample with Theileria ovis (T. ovis) (0.29%). The phylogenetic analyses and nucleotide sequences in contrast with those present in GenBank revealed that two nucleotide substitutions (594th and 627th) were found between B. vogeli isolates, including ours, indicating that the mutation is relatively rare. The sequences of other pathogens obtained in this study confirmed 100% nucleotide identity with B. vulpes and T. ovis sequences in GenBank. To the best of our knowledge, B. vogeli, B. vulpes, and T. ovis were detected for the first time in dogs from Kyrgyzstan, and it is thought that results will contribute to the understanding of the epidemiology of canine tick-borne pathogens in the country.

Canine Babesiosis Caused by Large Babesia Species: Global Prevalence and Risk Factors-A Review

Canine babesiosis is a disease caused by protozoan pathogens belonging to the genus Babesia. Four species of large Babesia cause canine babesiosis (B. canis, B. rossi, B. vogeli, and the informally named B. coco). Although canine babesiosis has a worldwide distribution, different species occur in specific regions: B. rossi in sub-Saharan Africa, B. canis in Europe and Asia, and B. coco in the Eastern Atlantic United States, while B. vogeli occurs in Africa, southern parts of Europe and Asia, northern Australia, southern regions of North America, and in South America. B. vogeli is the most prevalent large Babesia species globally. This results from its wide range of monotropic vector species, the mild or subclinical nature of infections, and likely the longest evolutionary association with dogs. The most important risk factors for infection by large Babesia spp. include living in rural areas, kennels or animal shelters, or regions endemic for the infection, the season of the year (which is associated with increased tick activity), infestation with ticks, and lack of treatment with acaricides.

The Scenario of Ticks and Tick-Borne Pathogens of Sheep on a Mediterranean Island

Ticks and transmitted pathogens constitute a major concern for livestock health/welfare and productivity for the Mediterranean region, often posing an important zoonotic threat. The aim of this study was to investigate the presence, infection intensity, and seasonality of ticks and tick-borne pathogens on the island of Lesvos in Greece, which was selected as a potential hotspot for their circulation. To this end, 101 sheep farms were visited over a tick activity season, and ticks, blood samples, and questionnaire data were collected. Ticks were identified by species, and DNA from both ticks and blood samples was further investigated using the polymerase chain reaction–reverse line blot (PCR–RLB) technique. In 72.3% of the farms, sheep were found to be infected by 9 ixodid species, with Rhipicephalus turanicus being the most common during the spring/early summer period. As regards tick-borne pathogens (TBPs), 84.9% of the animals were found to be infected with at least one pathogen, the most common being genera of Anaplasma and Theileria, alone or in co-infections. To further characterize the Anaplasma species found, selected samples were sequenced, revealing isolates of A. ovis, A. capra, A. marginale, and A. phagocytophilum. Of the 169 female R. turanicus ticks analyzed by PCR–RLB, 89.9% were harboring at least one TBP belonging to the genera Anaplasma, Ehrlichia, Babesia, Theileria, or Rickettsia. Overall, the data presented in this study revealed a high burden of ticks and TBPs in sheep, including zoonotic species, stressing the need for applying effective monitoring and control programs using a more holistic One Health approach.

Detection of Ticks and Tick-Borne Pathogens of Urban Stray Dogs in South Africa

This study aimed to identify ticks infesting dogs admitted to the Potchefstroom Animal Welfare Society (PAWS) and to detect tick-borne pathogens they are harbouring. A total of 592 ticks were collected from 61 stray dogs admitted to PAWS originating from several suburbs in and near Potchefstroom, South Africa. The dog ticks were identified as Haemaphysalis elliptica (39%) and Rhipicephalus sanguineus (61%) by both morphological and DNA analyses. Of these ticks, H. elliptica consisted of 67.5% (156/231) and 32.5% (75/231) female and male ticks, respectively, whilst R. sanguineus consisted of 48.5% (175/361) and 51.5% (186/361) female and male ticks, respectively. Microscopic examination of blood smears from engorged female ticks indicated overall occurrences of 0.5% (1/204) for Babesia spp. from R. sanguineus, 1% (2/204) of Anaplasma spp. from H. elliptica, and 22% (45/204) of Rickettsia spp. from both H. elliptica and R. sanguineus. Using pooled samples molecular detection of tick-borne pathogens indicated overall occurrences of 1% (1/104) for A. phagocytophilum in H. elliptica, 9.6% (10/104) of Rickettsia spp. in H. elliptica and R. sanguineus, 5.8% (6/104) of Ehrlichia canis in H. elliptica and R. sanguineus, and 13.5% (14/104) of Coxiella spp. in both H. elliptica and R. sanguineus. Additionally, PCR detected 6.5% (2/31) of Coxiella spp. DNA from H. elliptica eggs. Our data indicate that urban stray dogs admitted at PAWS are infested by H. elliptica and R. sanguineus ticks which are harbouring several pathogenic organisms known to cause tick-borne diseases.

Diversity and distribution of ectoparasite taxa associated with Micaelamys namaquensis (Rodentia: Muridae), an opportunistic commensal rodent species in South Africa

South Africa boasts a rich diversity of small mammals of which several are commensal and harbour parasites of zoonotic importance. However, limited information is available on the parasite diversity and distribution associated with rodents in South Africa. This is particularly relevant for Micaelamys namaquensis (Namaqua rock mouse), a regionally widespread and locally abundant species that is often commensal. To address the paucity of data, the aims of the study were to record the ectoparasite diversity associated with M. namaquensis and develop distribution maps of lice and mites associated with M. namaquensis and other rodents in South Africa. Micaelamys namaquensis individuals (n = 216) were obtained from 12 localities representing multiple biomes during 2017–2018. A total of 5591 ectoparasites representing 5 taxonomic groups – fleas, lice, mesostigmatid mites, chiggers and ticks was recorded. These consisted of at least 57 taxa of which ticks were the most speciose (20 taxa). Novel contributions include new host and locality data for several ectoparasite taxa and undescribed chigger species. Known vector species were recorded which included fleas (Ctenocephalides felis, Dinopsyllus ellobius and Xenopsylla brasiliensis) and ticks (Haemaphysalis elliptica, Rhipicephalus appendiculatus and Rhipicephalus simus). Locality records indicate within-taxon geographic differences between the 2 louse species and the 2 most abundant mite species. It is clear that M. namaquensis hosts a rich diversity of ectoparasite taxa and, as such, is an important rodent species to monitor in habitats where it occurs in close proximity to humans and domestic animals.

Multiple vector-borne pathogens of domestic animals in Egypt

Vector Borne Diseases (VBDs) are considered emerging and re-emerging diseases that represent a global burden. The aim of this study was to explore and characterize vector-borne pathogens in different domestic animal hosts in Egypt. A total of 557 blood samples were collected from different animals using a convenience sampling strategy (203 dogs, 149 camels, 88 cattle, 26 buffaloes, 58 sheep and 33 goats). All samples were tested for multiple pathogens using quantitative PCR and standard PCR coupled with sequencing. We identified Theileria annulata and Babesia bigemina in cattle (15.9 and 1.1%, respectively), T. ovis in sheep and buffaloes (8.6 and 7.7%, respectively) and Ba. canis in dogs (0.5%) as well as Anaplasma marginale in cattle, sheep and camels (20.4, 3.4 and 0.7%, respectively) and Coxiella burnetii in sheep and goats (1.7 and 3%; respectively). New genotypes of An. centrale, An. ovis, An. platys-like and Borrelia theileri were found in cattle (1.1,3.4, 3.4 and 3.4%, respectively), An. platys-like in buffaloes (7.7%), An. marginale, An. ovis, An. platys-like and Bo. theileri in sheep (3.4, 1.7, 1.7 and 3.4%, respectively), An. platys, An. platys-like and Setaria digitata in camels (0.7, 5.4 and 0.7%, respectively) and Rickettsia africae-like, An. platys, Dirofilaria repens and Acanthocheilonema reconditum in dogs (1.5, 3.4, 1 and 0.5%, respectively). Co-infections were found in cattle, sheep and dogs (5.7, 1.7, 0.5%, respectively). For the first time, we have demonstrated the presence of several vector-borne zoonoses in the blood of domestic animals in Egypt. Dogs and ruminants seem to play a significant role in the epidemiological cycle of VBDs.

Genetic diversity of vector-borne pathogens in spotted and brown hyenas from Namibia and Tanzania relates to ecological conditions rather than host taxonomy

Background

Improved knowledge on vector-borne pathogens in wildlife will help determine their effect on host species at the population and individual level and whether these are affected by anthropogenic factors such as global climate change and landscape changes. Here, samples from brown hyenas (Parahyaena brunnea) from Namibia (BHNA) and spotted hyenas (Crocuta crocuta) from Namibia (SHNA) and Tanzania (SHTZ) were screened for vector-borne pathogens to assess the frequency and genetic diversity of pathogens and the effect of ecological conditions and host taxonomy on this diversity.

Methods

Tissue samples from BHNA (n = 17), SHNA (n = 19) and SHTZ (n = 25) were analysed by PCRs targeting Anaplasmataceae, Rickettsia spp., piroplasms, specifically Babesia lengau-like piroplasms, Hepatozoidae and filarioids. After sequencing, maximum-likelihood phylogenetic analyses were conducted.

Results

The relative frequency of Anaplasmataceae was significantly higher in BHNA (82.4%) and SHNA (100.0%) than in SHTZ (32.0%). Only Anaplasma phagocytophilum/platys-like and Anaplasma bovis-like sequences were detected. Rickettsia raoultii was found in one BHNA and three SHTZ. This is the first report of R. raoultii from sub-Saharan Africa. Babesia lengau-like piroplasms were found in 70.6% of BHNA, 88.9% of SHNA and 32.0% of SHTZ, showing higher sequence diversity than B. lengau from South African cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus). In one SHTZ, a Babesia vogeli-like sequence was identified. Hepatozoon felis-like parasites were identified in 64.7% of BHNA, 36.8% of SHNA and 44.0% of SHTZ. Phylogenetic analysis placed the sequences outside the major H. felis cluster originating from wild and domestic felids. Filarioids were detected in 47.1% of BHNA, 47.4% of SHNA and 36.0% of SHTZ. Phylogenetic analysis revealed high genetic diversity and suggested the presence of several undescribed species. Co-infections were frequently detected in SHNA and BHNA (BHNA median 3 pathogens, range 1–4; SHNA median 3 pathogens, range 2–4) and significantly rarer in SHTZ (median 1, range 0–4, 9 individuals uninfected).

Conclusions

The frequencies of all pathogens groups were high, and except for Rickettsia, multiple species and genotypes were identified for each pathogen group. Ecological conditions explained pathogen identity and diversity better than host taxonomy.

Graphic Abstract

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13071-021-04835-x.

Exploring Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Microbiomes Helps in Detecting Tick-Borne Infectious Agents in the Blood of Camels

Dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius) are widely distributed in Africa, the Middle East and northern India. In this study, we aimed to detect tick-borne pathogens through investigating prokaryotic and eukaryotic microorganisms in camel blood based on a metagenomic approach and then to characterize potentially pathogenic organisms using traditional molecular techniques. We showed that the bacteria circulating in the blood of camels is dominated by Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes and Actinobacteria. At the genus level, Sediminibacterium, Hydrotalea, Bradyrhizobium and Anaplasma were the most abundant taxa. Eukaryotic profile was dominated by Fungi, Charophyta and Apicomplexa. At the genus level, Theileria was detected in 10 out of 18 samples, while Sarcocystis, Hoplorhynchus and Stylocephalus were detected in one sample each. Our metagenomic approach was successful in the detection of several pathogens or potential pathogens including Anaplasma sp., Theileria ovis, Th. separata, Th. annulate, Th. mutans-like and uncharacterized Theileria sp. For further characterization, we provided the partial sequences of citrate synthase (gltA) and heat-shock protein (groEL) genes of Candidatus Anaplasma camelii. We also detected Trypanosoma evansi type A using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) targeting the internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS1) region. This combined metagenomic and traditional approach will contribute to a better understanding of the epidemiology of pathogens including tick-borne bacteria and protozoa in animals.

A shared pathogen: Babesia rossi in domestic dogs, black-backed jackals (Canis mesomelas) and African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) in South Africa

In sub-Saharan Africa, babesiosis in domestic dogs is caused primarily by Babesia rossi. Black-backed jackals (Canis mesomelas), which are subclinical carriers of B. rossi, were a likely reservoir host from which infection passed to domestic dogs. The role of other indigenous canids, e.g. African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus), as reservoirs of B. rossi has not been elucidated. The question also arises whether genetic differences have arisen between B. rossi infecting domestic dogs and "ancestral" B. rossi in jackals. In a previous study we found that nearly one-third (27 of 91) of jackals were infected with B. rossi; this was confirmed by 18S rDNA sequence analysis. In this study, the near full-length B. rossi 18S rRNA gene was successfully amplified from 6 domestic dogs and 3 black-backed jackals. The obtained recombinant sequences were identical (100 %) to previously described B. rossi sequences of black-backed jackals in South Africa, and 99 % similar to B. rossi from dogs in South Africa and the Sudan. Although blood specimens from 5 (10 %) of 52 free-ranging African wild dogs (from Kruger National Park, South Africa, reacted with the B. rossi probe on RLB hybridisation, the presence of B. rossi could not be confirmed by amplification and sequencing, nor by multiplex, real-time PCR. Although African wild dogs they can be infected with B. rossi without showing clinical signs, our findings suggest that they are apparently not important reservoir hosts of B. rossi.

Prognostic markers and their discriminant score in predicting the outcome of Babesia gibsoni infection

BACKGROUND

We aimed to identify prognostic markers and their discriminant score in predicting the lethal outcome of canine Babesia gibsoni.

METHODS

Blood samples were collected from 108 client-owned dogs with clinical signs commensurate with babesiosis to analyze haematological, biochemical, haemostatic, antioxidant profile and thiobarbituric acid reactive substance levels. Samples were screened for Babesia infection (microscopic and molecular techniques). Babesiosis-affected dogs were classified into survivors and non-survivors, and 30 healthy dogs were used in the control group.

RESULTS

Haemoglobin, thrombocytes, catalase, urea, creatinine, alanine aminotransferase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase, lactate and reticulocytes were highly correlated to survival. Receiver operating characteristics analysis revealed urea, ALT and lactate as specific prognostic markers for the disease. The formula for calculation of discriminant scores (Di) for lethal outcome of the disease was generated with cut-off score 0.141. The scoring system was 79% sensitive and 83% specific in predicting the lethal outcome of the disease.

CONCLUSIONS

A scoring system developed from the prognosticating markers may aid in predicting the outcome of Babesia gibsoni infection on the day of presentation itself enabling intensive care for those animals with a cut-off score more than 0.141.

Development and application of multiplex PCR assay for the simultaneous detection of Babesia vogeli, Ehrlichia canis and Hepatozoon canis in dogs

A multiplex PCR assay was standardized and evaluated to simultaneously detect the DNA of Babesia vogeli, Ehrlichia canis and Hepatozoon canis in dogs of selected districts of Punjab state, India. Amplicons of 602 bp, 380 bp and 306 bp corresponding to B. vogeli (18S rRNA gene), E. canis (VirB9 gene), and H. canis (18S rRNA gene) were obtained, without any non-specific amplification. The results of multiplex PCR assay were further compared with the corresponding singleplex PCR assay. The diagnostic sensitivity and specificity of multiplex PCR assay with respect to singleplex PCR assay in the detection of B. vogeli, E. canis and H. canis varied from 50% to 100% and 92.08% to 98.79%, respectively revealing "moderate" to "very good" agreement by kappa value statistics. Blood samples from 322 dogs collected from selected districts of Punjab state, India, when screened by microscopy revealed the prevalence of B. vogeli, E. canis and H. canis as 0.31%, 0.93% and 1.86%, respectively whereas with multiplex PCR assay the values were 0.93%, 10.24% and 4.65%, respectively, with concurrent infection of E. canis & H. canis (1.86%) and B. vogeli & E. canis (0.31%). The diagnostic sensitivity and specificity of multiplex PCR assay with respect to microscopy in the detection of B. vogeli, E. canis and H. canis varied from 69.15% to 100% and 85.11% to 92.33%, respectively revealing "fair" agreement by kappa value statistics and the data was statistically significant. The analytical sensitivity of multiplex PCR assay in the detection of B. vogeli, E. canis and H. canis was 100 pg, 10 pg and 0.1 pg, respectively, whereas the values for the singleplex counterpart were 0.1 pg, 0.01 pg and 0.01 pg. Furthermore, various risk factors viz. age, breed, sex, season and districts were non-significantly associated with the prevalence of these haemoparasites except for E. canis that revealed a significant association with districts by multiplex PCR assay. Therefore the multiplex PCR assay developed may be useful in identification of the aetiological agents of these diseases during their early phase, which may in turn be useful in development of better health care and appropriate treatment of suspected dogs, particularly in endemic regions.

Molecular Identification of a Novel Species, Babesia panickeri sp. nov., from a Naturally Infected Domestic Cat of India and Its Comparison with Canine Babesia Isolates

INTRODUCTION

Babesiosis is a tick-borne hemo-parasitic disease of domestic and wild animals. Parasites causing babesiosis are considered to infect only specific hosts but some sporadic reports in recent past are in strong disagreement with their host specificity. This is the first report of a domestic cat being naturally infected with a novel Babesia sp. in India.

METHODS

Blood samples collected from dogs (n = 6) and a 3-month-old cat, with clinical symptoms of babesiosis, were submitted to two different laboratories for hematology analysis, light microscopical examination, and molecular confirmation of Babesia sp. using PCR, sequencing, and phylogenetic analysis.

RESULTS

Hematological alterations noticed in canine and feline samples were severe anemia and thrombocytopenia. Pear-shaped merozoites were visualized on light microscopic examination of both canine and feline blood smears. Size of the merozoites in feline blood sample was smaller when compared to canine samples. Molecular analysis using Babesia species-specific primers showed that all canine samples were positive for B. vogeli and feline sample was negative for B. canis, B. rossi, and B. vogeli infecting dogs. Amplification and sequencing of full-length ssrRNA using universal apicomplexan primers followed by molecular and phylogenetic analysis revealed that the Indian domestic cat was infected with a novel Babesia sp.

CONCLUSION

This work presents the first molecular and phylogenetic evidence of a novel Babesia sp. causing feline babesiosis in a naturally infected domestic cat in India. We propose to name this novel species as Babesia panickeri sp. nov.

Utilizing attached hard ticks as pointers to the risk of infection by Babesia and Theileria species in sika deer (Cervus nippon yesoensis), in Japan

Ticks are hematophagous ectoparasites that have a significant impact on their animal hosts. Along with mosquitoes, they are the main arthropod vectors of disease agents in domestic animals, wildlife and humans. To investigate the occurrence and prevalence of piroplasmids in ticks, DNA was extracted from 519 hard ticks collected from 116 hunted Hokkaido sika deer (Cervus nippon yesoensis). The success of the DNA extraction was confirmed by touchdown PCR targeting the mitochondrial 16S rDNA gene of ticks. Touchdown PCR and reverse line blot (RLB) hybridization targeting the 18S rRNA gene were used to detect 14 piroplasm species. All hard ticks parasitizing Hokkaido sika deer were identified as belonging to the genera Ixodes and Haemaphysalis. In total 163 samples (31.4%) were positive for Babesia and Theileria spp. among tick species according to RLB hybridization. Tick DNA hybridized to the oligonucleotide probes of Theileria sp. Thrivae (27.0% of ticks; 140/519), Theileria capreoli (10.6%; 55/519), Babesia divergens-like (1.7%; 9/519), Babesia sp. (Bab-SD) (0.6%; 3/519), Babesia microti U.S. (0.4%; 2/519), and B. microti Hobetsu (0.4%; 2/519). The partial sequencing and phylogenetic analyses of the 18S rRNA gene confirmed the RLB hybridization results. Further investigations are needed to reveal the epidemiology and respective vectors of these pathogens.

Molecular detection of apicomplexan protozoa in Hokkaido brown bears (Ursus arctos yesoensis) and Japanese black bears (Ursus thibetanus japonicus)

Many tick-borne pathogens (TBPs) are present in wildlife. The objective of this study is to reveal the role of wild bears in maintaining TBPs. A total of 49 brown bears (Ursus arctos yesoensis) from Hokkaido, and 18 Japanese black bears (Ursus thibetanus japonicus) from Tochigi, and 66 Japanese black bears from Nagano were examined by two molecular methods, reverse line blot (RLB) hybridization, and nested PCR. A total of 5 TBPs (Hepatozoon ursi, Babesia sp. UR2-like group, Cytauxzoon sp. UR1, Babesia sp. UR1, and Babesia microti) were detected from bear blood DNA samples. B. microti was detected from blood DNA samples of Japanese black bear for the first time, with the prevalence of 6.0% (5/84). Out of detected pathogens, H. ursi, Babesia sp. UR2-like pathogens, and Cytauxzoon sp. UR1 were considered as three of the most prevalent TBPs in bears. The prevalence of H. ursi were significantly higher in Japanese black bear (0% vs 96.4%) while that of Babesia sp. UR2-like group was higher in Hokkaido brown bears (89.8% vs 40.5%). The prevalence of Babesia sp. UR1 were significantly higher in Japanese black bears from Tochigi (44.4%), comparing with those from Nagano (18.2%). The prevalence of the detected TBPs were significantly higher in adult bears, comparing with those in younger bears. The present study suggests that Japanese bear species contribute in the transmission of several TBPs in Japan. The expanding distribution of bears might cause the accidental transmission of TBPs to humans and domestic animals.

Parasites of veterinary importance from domestic animals in uMkhanyakude district of KwaZulu-Natal province

This study investigated the occurrence and phylogenetic relationship of protozoan parasites and Ehrlichia infecting domestic animals from three municipalities in uMkhanyakude district of KwaZulu-Natal province, South Africa. A total of 208 blood samples collected from clinically healthy cattle, sheep, goats and dogs from uMkhanyakude district were examined by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays, using either genus or species-specific primers to determine the occurrence and phylogenetic relationship of various protozoan parasites and Ehrlichia of veterinary importance. A total of 5/109 (4.6%) cattle were PCR-positive for the presence of Toxoplasma gondii, 33/109 (30.3%) for Babesia bovis, 24/109 (22.02%) for Babesia bigemina and 20/109 (18.3%) for Trypanosoma sp., while 3/10 (30%) of sheep were PCR-positive for Theileria ovis and none of the goats were positive for any of the detected pathogens. The co-infection of 4/109 (3.7%) B. bovis and B. bigemina was detected in cattle. Only Ehrlichia canis was detected in dogs with infection rate of 20/48 (41.7%). Sequences of PCR-positive isolates (B. bovis, B. bigemina, E. canis, T. ovis and T. gondii) showed that they were closely related to their relevant species from various countries. These findings have expanded our knowledge about the prevalence and phylogenetic similarity between protozoan parasites and Ehrlichia isolates of South African origin. To date, this is the first study in South Africa to detect T. gondii infections from cattle blood using PCR.

Molecular detection of tick-borne pathogens in caracals (Caracal caracal) living in human-modified landscapes of South Africa

Background

Wild carnivores living alongside humans and domestic animals are vulnerable to changes in the infectious disease dynamics in their populations. The aims of this study were to determine the prevalence and diversity of selected tick-borne pathogens (TBPs) of veterinary and/or zoonotic concern in wild populations of caracals (Caracal caracal) occurring in human-modified landscapes in South Africa. Using molecular techniques, we screened 57 caracal blood samples for infection by rickettsial bacteria and piroplasms in three regions of South Africa: rangeland in the Central Karoo (n = 27) and Namaqualand (n = 14) as well as the urban edge of the Cape Peninsula (n = 16) of South Africa. To characterise pathogen identity, we sequenced the 18S rRNA and 16S rRNA genes from positive samples and analysed sequences within a phylogenetic framework. We also examine the diversity of potential tick vectors.

Results

All individuals tested were infected with at least one tick-borne pathogen. Pathogens included Hepatozoon felis, Babesia felis, Babesia leo and a potentially novel Babesia species. An Anaplasma species previously described in South African domestic dogs was also found in 88% of urban edge caracals. Higher rates of co-infection characterised urban edge caracals (81% vs 15% and 0% in the two rangeland populations), as well as a greater incidence of mixed infections. Host attached tick species include Haemaphysalis elliptica, an important pathogen vector among carnivore hosts.

Conclusions

This study confirms the occurrence of previously undocumented tick-borne pathogens infecting free-ranging caracals in human-modified landscapes. We identify clear differences in the pathogen profiles among our study populations and discuss the likely health costs to caracals living adjacent to urban areas.

Don't let sleeping dogs lie: unravelling the identity and taxonomy of Babesia canis, Babesia rossi and Babesia vogeli

For most of the 20th century the causative agent of canine babesiosis, wherever it occurred in the world, was commonly referred to as Babesia canis. Early research, from the 1890s to the 1930s, had shown that there were three distinctly different vector-specific parasite entities occurring in specific geographical regions, that host response to infection ranged from subclinical to acute, and that immunity to one stock of the parasite did not necessarily protect against infection with other stocks. This substantial body of knowledge was overlooked or ignored for 50 years. In this review the first records and descriptions of the disease in four geographical regions were traced: sub-Saharan Africa, Europe, North Africa and Asia. Research leading to identification of the specific tick vector species involved is documented. Evidence is given of the growing realisation that there were substantial biological differences between stocks originating from different geographical regions. Etymological provenance for Babesia vogeli is proposed.

Long-term follow-up of owned, free-roaming dogs in South Africa naturally exposed to Babesia rossi

Babesia rossi is an important, tick-borne intraerythrocytic protozoan parasite; however, its natural history and epidemiology is poorly understood. Babesia rossi is the most virulent Babesia sp. in domestic dogs and is generally considered to cause severe babesiosis, which is fatal if left untreated. However, subclinical infections and mild disease from B. rossi have been reported, although the clinical progression of these cases was not reported. Therefore, to better understand B. rossi under field conditions, we evaluated its clinical progression and seroprevalence in an owned, free-roaming dog population in Zenzele, South Africa, where the parasite is endemic and prevention is not routine. The entire dog population in Zenzele was monitored intensively at the individual level from March 2008 until April 2014, primarily for a longitudinal study on rabies control. Subsequent evaluation of B. rossi comprised analyses of clinical and laboratory data collected from the Zenzele dog population during the 6 year study period. A substantial proportion (31% (n = 34)) of 109 dogs (randomly selected from every available dog in February/March 2010 older than ~6-8 weeks (n = 246)) tested by Indirect Fluorescent Antibody Test had seroconverted strongly to B. rossi. All 34 dogs were generally consistently healthy adults, determined from regular clinical examinations between March 2008 and April 2014. Blood smear examinations at multiple time points between July 2009 and February 2011 were also undertaken for almost all of these (34) seropositive dogs and all those tested were consistently negative for Babesia spp. Subclinical infections and mild disease were also the main findings for a separate group of 18 dogs positive for Babesia spp. on blood smear examination and confirmed to be infected with B. rossi by Polymerase Chain Reaction - Reverse Line Blot. Almost all of these dogs were positive at only one time point from repeat blood smear examinations between July 2009 and February 2011. We suggest that these observations are consistent with immunity acquired from repeated, low-level exposure to the parasite, generating transient subclinical infections or mild disease. Should this be the case, the use of tick control, particularly in adult dogs in free-roaming populations in B. rossi endemic regions, should be carefully considered.

Molecular and serological detection of animal and human vector-borne pathogens in the blood of dogs from Côte d'Ivoire

In Côte d'Ivoire, limited information are available on vector-borne pathogens, their prevalence and distribution. Here, we assess the occurrence and diversity of canine vector-borne diseases (CVBDs) in Abidjan and Yamoussoukro cities. Blood from a total of 123 dogs were tested for Leishmania infantum and Ehrlichia canis antibodies and screened for Leishmania and Trypanosoma spp., Piroplasmida, Filariidae and Anaplasmataceae by PCR and sequencing. Among dogs, 39 % were positive for at least one pathogen. Seroprevalences were: 15.4 % and 12.2 % for L. infantum and E. canis, respectively. DNA of L. infantum and T. congolense (4.1 %), Baabesia vogeli (1.6 %), Filariidae (Dirofilaria immitis, D. repens and Acanthocheilonema reconditum) (10.6 %) has been detected. Anaplasmataceae were detected in (17.1 %) and E. canis was the only identified specie. Co-infections were observed in 13.8 % of dogs: E. canis-L. infantum co-infection was the most prevalent (4.9 %). Age, breed and sex of dogs do not seem to influence infections. Village dogs were more susceptible to CVBDs than kennel dogs (PV = 0.0000008). This study reports for the first time the presence of L. infantum, B. vogeli, A. reconditum, D. immitis and D. repens in dogs from Côte d'Ivoire and determines the prevalence and diversity of CVBD pathogens. The results indicate that human and animal pathogens are abundant in Ivoirian dogs which requires attention of veterinarians, physicians and authorities against these diseases, especially against major zoonosis such as visceral leishmaniasis (L. infantum).

Ticks and accompanying pathogens of domestic and wild animals of Kerala, South India

The objective of the present study was to detect the chosen nucleotide DNA or RNA sequences of the pathogens in ticks of domestic and wild animals of Kerala, South India based on molecular techniques. Among 602 ticks collected, 413 were from bovines (cattle and buffalo), 26 from goats, 101 from dogs and 62 from wild animals. Amblyomma integrum, Am. gervaisi, Dermacentor auratus, Haemaphysalis bispinosa, Ha. intermedia, Ha. shimoga, Ha. spinigera, Rhipicephalus annulatus, Rh. microplus, Rh. haemaphysaloides and Rh. sanguineus s.l. were identified from various domestic and wild animals of Kerala. The cDNA synthesized from the RNA isolated from fully or partially engorged adult female/nymphal ticks was used as template for the specific polymerase chain reactions (PCR). Out of 602 ticks examined, nucleotide sequences of pathogens were detected in 28 ticks (4.65%). The nucleotide sequences of tick-borne pathogens like Theileria orientalis, Babesia vogeli, Hepatozoon canis, Anaplasma marginale, An. bovis, Rickettsia sp. closely related to Ri. raoultii, Ri. massiliae, Ri. africae and Ri. slovaca were detected. The identification of the previously unreported nucleotide sequences of rickettsial pathogens from India is of particular interest due to their zoonotic significance. The phylogenetic analysis of the major piroplasm surface protein (MPSP) gene of T. orientalis amplified from Rh. annulatus ticks revealed that they were genetically close to type 7, which belong to the highly pathogenic Ikeda group.

A Retrospective Epidemiological Study: The Prevalence of Ehrlichia canis and Babesia vogeli in Dogs in the Aegean Region of Turkey

Among tick-borne diseases, Ehrlichia canis and Babesia piroplasm cause important diseases in dogs where the distributions of the pathogen, vector and host overlap. The primary aim of the present study was to detect the prevalence of Babesia spp. and E. canis using PCR and reverse line blot (RLB) hybridization assay in a total of 379 samples comprising stray and owned dogs and to compare the diagnostic sensitivity of the two tests. Overall, 41.4% of dogs were infected with B. vogeli and/or E. canis as single (35.4%) and mixed (6.1%) infections. The majority of Babesia positive dogs (74.1%) were co-infected with E. canis. PCR detected a higher (P= 0.000) number of positivity in some provinces compared to RLB. To the best of our knowledge, these findings provide the first molecular evidence for the existence of B. vogeli in the Aegean Region, Turkey. The present study pinpoints the distribution and prevalence of E. canis and B. vogeli in the Aegean region of Turkey as of 2004 and as such establishes a baseline. This is of pivotal importance for future studies aimed to demonstrate changes in the dynamics of E. canis and B. vogeli infections in the region.

Thromboelastographic platelet mapping in dogs with complicated Babesia rossi infection

BACKGROUND

Dogs with Babesia rossi infection display a normocoagulable thromboelastogram, despite being markedly thrombocytopenic, which is purportedly due to large-scale platelet activation. Thromboelastographic platelet mapping (TEG-PM) evaluates individual contributions of thrombin, fibrinogen, and platelets to clot formation, and may elucidate some of the pathomechanisms of thrombocytopenia-associated hemostatic alterations.

OBJECTIVE

This study investigated potential differences in TEG-PM variables in dogs with complicated B rossi infection compared with healthy controls, and whether these variables correlated with platelet activation indices.

METHODS

The maximum amplitude (MA) following thrombin generation (MA_Thrombin ) was determined using kaolin-activated TEG. The TEG-PM variables included MA following the addition of platelet agonists arachidonic acid (MA_AA ) and adenosine diphosphate (MA_ADP ), and MA due to fibrin alone (MA_Fibrin ). In addition, platelet indices and fibrinogen concentrations were determined.

RESULTS

Thirteen dogs with complicated B rossi infection and five healthy controls were included. The median MA_Fibrin and fibrinogen concentrations were significantly higher (P < 0.01 for both) and median platelet count was significantly lower (P < 0.01) in the babesiosis group vs the control group. No significant differences were found for MA_Thrombin and MA_AA/ADP . maximum amplitude due to fibrin alone was positively correlated with fibrinogen concentration (r = 0.735), mean platelet volume (r = 0.517), and mean platelet mass (r = 0.498), and negatively correlated with hematocrit (r = -0.685), platelet count (r = -0.476), and plateletcrit (r = -0.479) (P < 0.05 for all).

CONCLUSIONS

This study suggests that the presence of hyperfibrinogenemia offsets the severe thrombocytopenia associated with B rossi to result in normal thromboelastograms and lack of overt clinical bleeding.

Vitamin D status in dogs with babesiosis

Canine babesiosis is a virulent infection of dogs in South Africa caused principally by Babesia rossi. Hypovitaminosis D has been reported in a wide range of infectious diseases in humans and dogs, and low vitamin D status has been associated with poor clinical outcomes. However, the relationship between vitamin D status and canine babesiosis has not been investigated. The objective of this study was to examine the relationship between the presence and severity of B. rossi infection and vitamin D status of infected dogs. Owners with dogs with a confirmed diagnosis of B. rossi infection and of healthy control dogs were invited to enrol onto the study. Vitamin D status was assessed by measurement of serum concentrations of the major circulating vitamin D metabolite, 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25[OH]D). Dogs with babesiosis (n = 34) had significantly lower mean serum 25(OH)D concentrations than healthy dogs (n = 24) (37.76 ± 21.25 vs. 74.2 ± 20.28 nmol/L). The effect of babesiosis on serum 25(OH)D concentrations was still significant after adjusting for any effect of age, body weight and sex. There was a negative relationship between serum 25(OH)D concentrations and disease severity in dogs with babesiosis. Serum concentrations of creatinine and alanine aminotransferase and time to last meal were not associated with serum 25(OH)D concentrations in dogs with babesiosis. In conclusion, dogs with Babesia rossi infections had lower serum 25(OH)D concentrations than healthy dogs. The inverse correlation between 25(OH)D concentrations and the clinical severity score indicate that hypovitaminosis D might be a helpful additional indicator of disease severity.

"Tekenscanner": a novel smartphone application for companion animal owners and veterinarians to engage in tick and tick-borne pathogen surveillance in the Netherlands

Background

The engagement of companion animal owners into the process of collecting epidemiological data can be facilitated through smartphone applications. In April 2018, the “tekenscanner“ (Dutch for tick scanner) app was launched with the aim of engaging pet owners and veterinarians to record ticks removed from their pets and submit these ticks for identification and pathogen testing. Tick-borne pathogens identified in ticks removed from dogs and cats during the first 6 months after the app was launched in the Netherlands are reported.

Methods

The tekenscanner app was used to record the geographical coordinates of ticks removed from dogs or cats onto a map of the Netherlands. A barcode was assigned to each tick for the easy tracking of each submission to our laboratory for taxonomic identification. Thereafter, DNA extracted from the ticks was PCR amplified, subjected to reverse line blot hybridization (RLB) and screened for a broad range of tick-borne pathogens. Results were added to the same app, usually within 2 weeks after the submission of each tick.

Results

The app was downloaded 5591 times and resulted in the collection of 1273 georeferenced and barcoded ticks, with a peak submission in May and June of 2018. There were 1005 ticks collected from 406 dogs and 268 ticks collected from 111 cats. Ixodes ricinus was the predominant species (90.0%), with all stages found on dogs as well as on cats. Ixodes hexagonus (7.3%) female and nymphal ticks were also identified on both hosts, whereas adults of Dermacentor reticulatus (2.4%) and Rhipicephalus sanguineus (0.2%) were exclusively found on dogs. Nearly 15% of the ticks recovered from dogs carried one or more pathogens, whereas 13.8% of the ticks removed from cats were infected. Ixodes ricinus collected from dogs contained Borrelia spp. (1.9%), Babesia spp. (0.7%), Anaplasma phagocytophilum (1.3%), “Candidatus Neoehrlichia mikurensis” (2.9%) and Rickettsia helvetica (7.3%). Ixodes ricinus recovered from cats were infected with Borrelia spp. (1.9%), Babesia spp. (0.4%), A. phagocytophilum (1.9%), “Ca. Neoehrlichia mikurensis” (2.6%) and R. helvetica (6.7%). Ixodes hexagonus ticks (n = 93) were not infected. Dermacentor reticulatus ticks, found only in autumn, were infected with Rickettsia raoultii (16 %) and A. phagocytophilum. Three R. sanguineus, on dogs from France and the USA imported into the Netherlands, were all negative.

Conclusions

The tekenscanner app is a versatile tool to use for submission of ticks and facilitated the fast feedback of test results. Community engagement through the app is suitable for identifying hotspots for ticks and tick-borne pathogens and provided an early warning system for exotic ticks invading the Netherlands.

Development and validation of a multiplex, real-time PCR assay for Babesia rossi and Babesia vogeli

Canine babesiosis is caused by tick-transmitted intraerythrocytic protozoan parasites occurring worldwide. In southern Africa, babesiosis is caused by Babesia rossi and B. vogeli and is one of the most common and important infectious diseases affecting dogs. There is no reliable, rapid and sensitive method for the detection of these parasites, especially when parasitaemia is low. The aim of this study was to develop a sensitive and specific multiplex TaqMan® MGB PCR assay for the diagnosis of canine babesiosis infections occurring in southern Africa, and to discriminate between Babesia rossi and B. vogeli. The fitness of purpose of the assay was to confirm diagnosis of suspect or clinical cases, and estimate prevalence of infection for research purposes. A total of 648 published sequences were used to design the assay. A set of group-specific canine Babesia spp. primers were designed to amplify a 117 nucleotide region of the 18S rRNA gene of all canine Babesia spp. Species-specific TaqMan® MGB probes were developed for B. rossi, B. vogeli, B. canis and B. gibsoni, but analytical validation was only performed for B. rossi and B. vogeli as a multiplex assay. The assay had a broad dynamic range and amplified B. rossi and B. vogeli efficiently (98.6% and 94.7% respectively). The assay was sensitive, with a 95% LOD of 10^-2.67% parasitized erythrocytes (PE) for B. rossi and 10^-2.03% PE for B. vogeli, and specific, with no cross reaction between B. rossi and B. vogeli and no detection of other haemoparasites that infect dogs, such as Ehrlichia canis and Anaplasma platys. Consistent repeatability within and between PCR runs was shown. This assay will be able to accurately and rapidly confirm babesiosis in canines and allow for treatment to be administered in the early stages of the disease, speeding up the recovery time in affected dogs.

Prevalence of canine Babesia and Ehrlichia co-infection and the predictive value of haematology

Canine babesiosis and ehrlichiosis are important tick-borne infections in South Africa. Many South African general veterinary practitioners perceive co-infection with Ehrlichia spp. as a common occurrence in dogs with babesiosis. Studies about the prevalence of co-infection in South African dogs are lacking. This retrospective study aimed to determine the prevalence of Ehrlichia co-infection in dogs with babesiosis. Additionally, the predicative value of specific haematological variables for co-infection was evaluated. The study population consisted of 205 dogs diagnosed with canine babesiosis presented to the Onderstepoort Veterinary Academic Hospital (OVAH) in 2006 and between 2011 and 2013. The Babesia-infected dogs were grouped based on presence or absence of an Ehrlichia spp. co-infection. Ehrlichia spp. co-infection was confirmed using polymerase chain reaction. Positive and negative predictive values (PPVs and NPVs) of leukopenia or thrombocytopenia for co-infection were also calculated. The prevalence of Babesia spp. and Ehrlichia spp. co-infection in this cohort of dogs was 2%. In the babesiosis dogs, the PPV of leukopenia for co-infection with Ehrlichia spp. was 1.3%, and the NPV 97.4%. Similarly, the PPV and NPVs of thrombocytopenia for co-infection were 2.1% and 100%, respectively. Co-infection with Ehrlichia spp. was a rare occurrence in dogs with babesiosis presented to the OVAH. Normal leukocyte or platelet counts confidently ruled out the presence of concurrent ehrlichiosis in this cohort of dogs. However, the diagnosis of Ehrlichia co-infection based on the presence of thrombocytopenia or leukopenia would have been associated with false positive results in more than 97.4% of cases.

Canine Babesiosis: Where Do We Stand?

Canine babesiosis is a tick-borne disease caused by protozoal haemoparasites of different Babesia species. Babesiosis is one of the most important globally extended and quickly spreading tick-borne infections of dogs. This comprehensive review gives an in-depth overview of Babesia species currently identified in dogs together with relevant vector tick species and their geographical distribution, life cycle and transmission of parasite. The main mechanisms in the pathogenesis of babesiosis are described and elucidated by recent literature overview. As Babesia infection causes a disease with very variable clinical manifestations, special attention is given to clinical signs, laboratory features and clinicopathological findings. The diagnosis of canine babesiosis by microscopy, serological and molecular methods is reviewed, together with recent advances in mass spectrometry based assays. Accurate detection and species recognition are important for the selection of the appropriate therapy, monitoring and prediction of the outcome of the disease. Finally, guidelines for the treatment and prevention of canine babesiosis are given.

Canine babesiosis treatment rates in South African veterinary clinics between 2011 and 2016

BACKGROUND

South African veterinarians report the perception of a multi-year decline in the number of dogs presenting with clinical babesiosis, a common and serious disease of dogs in the country. This study tested this observation through analysis of veterinary hospital medical records from 2011 through 2016.

METHODS

Medical records were collected from 44 participating South African veterinary hospitals. The collected medical records were searched to enumerate the number of Babesia-specific medication treatments administered to dogs at all participating hospitals. A healthcare use rate was calculated for canine babesiosis treatment for each calendar year from 2011 to 2016. The healthcare use rate numerator was the total number of canine babesiosis treatments and the denominator was the total dog visits to all participating veterinary practices over the same period.

RESULTS

There were 2.6 million dog visits to 44 participating veterinary practices between 2011 and 2016. The number of canine babesiosis treatments for each year in chronological order starting with 2011 was: 2957; 2679; 2456; 2746; 2272; and 1592. South African regions with the highest number of canine babesiosis treatments were Gauteng, Free State and Mpumalanga. The overall calculated healthcare use rate for canine babesiosis treatment declined 72% over the study period from 1.18% in 2011 to 0.33% in 2016. The steepest decline of 31% was observed between 2015 and 2016.

CONCLUSIONS

South African veterinary practices saw a decline in canine babesiosis treatment administration from 2011 to 2016 with the steepest decline beginning in 2015.

Molecular identification and characterization of piroplasm species in Hokkaido sika deer (Cervus nippon yesoensis), Japan

Babesia and Theileria species are tick-borne protozoan parasites that have a veterinary and zoonotic importance. In order to investigate the prevalence and genetic diversity of these parasites, a total of 269 sika deer blood DNA samples collected from Hokkaido, Japan, were examined for Babesia and Theileria species by touch-down PCR targeting the 18S rRNA gene. Reverse line blot (RLB) hybridization was then used to detect 12 piroplasm species. The results revealed that 95.5% (257/269), 94.1% (253/269), 14.1% (38/269), 87.7% (236/269) and 11.5% (31/269) of the examined PCR products hybridized with the probes which were designed to detect all Babesia and Theileria spp., all Theileria spp., all Babesia spp., Theileria sp. Thrivae and Babesia divergens-like, respectively. The 18S rRNA gene partial sequences were divided into Theileria sp. Thrivae, T. capreoli, B. divergens-like and an undescribed Babesia species. This study showed the first detection of the undescribed Babesia sp. from Japan. Therefore, more studies are required to understand the ecology of the newly detected tick-borne pathogens in Hokkaido.

Approaches for Reverse Line Blot-Based Detection of Microbial Pathogens in Ixodes ricinus Ticks Collected in Austria and Impact of the Chosen Method

Ticks transmit a large number of pathogens capable of causing human disease. In this study, the PCR-reverse line blot (RLB) method was used to screen for pathogens in a total of 554 Ixodes ricinus ticks collected from all provinces of Austria. These pathogens belong to the genera Borrelia, Rickettsiae, Anaplasma/Ehrlichia (including "Candidatus Neoehrlichia"), Babesia, and Coxiella The pathogens with the highest detected prevalence were spirochetes of the Borrelia burgdorferisensu lato complex, in 142 ticks (25.6%). Borrelia afzelii (80/142) was the most frequently detected species, followed by Borrelia burgdorferisensu stricto (38/142) and Borrelia valaisiana (36/142). Borrelia garinii/Borrelia bavariensis, Borrelia lusitaniae, and Borrelia spielmanii were found in 28 ticks, 5 ticks, and 1 tick, respectively. Rickettsia spp. were detected in 93 ticks (16.8%): R. helvetica (39/93), R. raoultii (38/93), R. monacensis (2/93), and R. slovaca (1/93). Thirteen Rickettsia samples remain uncharacterized. "Candidatus Neoehrlichia mikurensis," Babesia spp. (B. venatorum, B. divergens, B. microti), and Anaplasma phagocytophilum were found in 4.5%, 2.7%, and 0.7%, respectively. Coxiella burnetii was not detected. Multiple microorganisms were detected in 40 ticks (7.2%), and the cooccurrence of Babesia spp. and "Candidatus Neoehrlichia mikurensis" showed a significant positive correlation. We also compared different PCR-RLBs for detection of Borrelia burgdorferisensu lato and Rickettsia spp. and showed that different detection approaches provide highly diverse results, indicating that analysis of environmental samples remains challenging.IMPORTANCE This study determined the wide spectrum of tick-borne bacterial and protozoal pathogens that can be encountered in Austria. Surveillance of (putative) pathogenic microorganisms occurring in the environment is of medical importance, especially when those agents can be transmitted by ticks and cause disease. The observation of significant coinfections of certain microorganisms in field-collected ticks is an initial step to an improved understanding of microbial interactions in ticks. In addition, we show that variations in molecular detection methods, such as in primer pairs and target genes, can considerably influence the final results. For instance, detection of certain genospecies of borreliae may be better or worse by one method or the other, a fact of great importance for future screening studies.

A survey of canine haemoprotozoan parasites from Turkey, including molecular evidence of an unnamed Babesia

Canine tick-borne apicomplexan parasites have emerged in recent years, showing a wider geographic distribution and increased global prevalence. A reverse line blot assay was performed on 219 blood samples collected from domestic dogs for simultaneous detection of all named canine piroplasm species as well as Hepatozoon canis. Ten samples hybridized to the Theileria/Babesia and Babesia catch all probes but did not hybridize to any species-specific probe tested, suggesting the presence of an unrecognized Babesia species or genotype. Sequencing results showed 91.5%, 91.9%, 92.4%, 92.4%, and 89.2% similarity to B. canis, B. vogeli, B. rossi, B. gibsoni, and B. conradae, respectively. The highest homology (98.1-98.5%) observed was with unnamed Babesia sp. isolates (Ludhiana and Malbazar) described in dogs, Babesia sp. of buffalo origin, Babesia sp. Kashi 2, and Babesia orientalis, along with Babesia occultans of cattle origin. The partial cox1 sequence indicated that this isolate was most similar to Babesia sp. 1 HG-2012, with an identity of 86.5%. The survey revealed high prevalence of haemoprotozoans in domestic dogs (57.5%, CI 50.7-64.2), with Hepatozoon canis the most prevalent (54.3%, CI 47.5-61.117%), followed by Babesia sp. (4.6%, CI 2.2-8.2), B. vogeli (1.4%; CI 0.3-3.9), and B. canis (0.4%, CI 0-2.5). Combined infection of Hepatozoon canis and Babesia sp. was detected in five (2.3%, CI 0.7-5.2) samples and of H. canis and B. vogeli in two (0.9%, CI 0.1-3.2) dogs. The study contributes insight into the distribution and phylogenetic diversity of canine piroplasms in Turkey.

First molecular detection and characterization of Hepatozoon and Sarcocystis spp. in field mice and voles from Japan

Sarcocystis and Hepatozoon species are protozoan parasites that are frequently detected in domestic and wild animals. Rodents are considered common intermediate and paratenic hosts for several Sarcocystis and Hepatozoon species. Here, blood DNA samples from a total of six rodents, including one Myodes rutilus, one Myodes rufocanus, and four Apodemus speciosus, collected from Hokkaido, Japan, were shown by conventional PCR of the 18S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene to contain Sarcocystis and Hepatozoon DNA. Sequencing of the DNA detected one Sarcocystis sp. in the M. rufocanus sample and two different Hepatozoon spp. in the M. rutilus and A. speciosus samples. Phylogenetic analysis showed that the detected Sarcocystis sp. sequence grouped with GenBank Sarcocystis sequences from rodents, snakes, and raccoons from Japan and China. The 18S rRNA partial gene sequences of both detected Hepatozoon spp. clustered with GenBank Hepatozoon sequences from snakes, geckos and voles in Europe, Africa, and Asia. This study provides evidence that wild rodents have a role in the maintenance of Sarcocystis and Hepatozoon species on the island of Hokkaido.

Black-backed jackals (Canis mesomelas) are natural hosts of Babesia rossi, the virulent causative agent of canine babesiosis in sub-Saharan Africa

Background

Babesia rossi, which is transmitted by Haemaphysalis spp. and is highly virulent to domestic dogs, occurs only in sub-Saharan Africa. Since dogs are not native to the region, it has been postulated that the natural host of B. rossi is an indigenous African canid. Although various attempts at artificial infection indicated that black-backed jackals (Canis mesomelas) could become subclinically infected with B. rossi, data on occurrence of B. rossi in free-ranging jackals was lacking. A long-term behaviour study in which free-ranging black-backed jackals were radio-collared offered the opportunity of collecting blood specimens from a large number of free-ranging jackals.

Methods

Genomic DNA was extracted from the EDTA blood samples (n = 107). PCR products were subjected to Reverse Line Blot hybridization using Theileria and Babesia genera-specific as well as 28 species-specific oligonucleotide probes, including Babesia canis, Babesia rossi, Babesia vogeli and Babesia gibsoni. The near full-length parasite 18S rRNA gene was amplified from two selected samples (free-ranging jackals), cloned and a total of six recombinants were sequenced.

Results

Of 91 free-ranging jackals, 77 (84.6%) reacted with the Babesia genus-specific probe; 27 (29.7%) also reacted with the B. rossi probe. Of 16 captive jackals, 6 (37.5%) reacted with the B. rossi probe, while one further sample reacted with the Babesia genus-specific probe only. After cloning, 6 recombinants yielded identical sequences identical to that of B. rossi (L19079) and differing by 2 base pairs from B. rossi (DQ111760) in GenBank. The observed sequence similarities were confirmed by phylogenetic analyses using neighbour joining and maximum parsimony.

Conclusions

Black-backed jackals are natural hosts of B. rossi.

Molecular epidemiology of Anaplasma platys, Ehrlichia canis and Babesia vogeli in stray dogs in Paraná, Brazil

ABSTRACT: Hemoparasitic infections are tick-borne diseases, which affect animals and humans. Considering the importance of canine hemoparasitic infections in veterinary clinics, this study aimed to determine the occurrence of Anaplasma platys, Ehrlichia canis and Babesia vogeli in blood samples from 182 dogs not domiciled in the city of Pato Branco, southwestern region of Paraná State, Brazil, using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The prevalence of A. platys and B. vogeli was 32.9% and 10.9% respectively, and A. platys infection prevailed (p<0.001). The number of dogs positive for A. platys was larger in Winter (p<0.05). All blood samples were negative for E. canis. In the dogs, infestation by Amblyomma cajennense predominated over that by Rhipicephalus sanguineus (p<0.001); but there was no significant association between PCR and the variables presence of ticks, sex and age. Dogs infected by A. platys and B. vogeli showed thrombocytopenia, lymphopenia and leukocytosis; but there was no correlation between such hematological changes and infection by hemoparasites. This appears to be the first molecular study that demonstrates the existence of A. platys and B. vogeli in dogs from the southwestern region of Paraná.

Confirmation of occurrence of <i>Babesia vogeli</i> in a dog in Windhoek, central Namibia

Although there is evidence of high seroprevalence of antibodies to Babesia spp. in dogs in central Namibia, clinical babesiosis is rarely diagnosed. Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu lato, the vector of Babesia vogeli, is common in Namibia while Haemaphysalis elliptica, the vector of the highly virulent but morphologically indistinguishable Babesia rossi, has rarely been recorded, mainly in northern Namibia. On the basis of vector occurrence, clinical cases of canine babesiosis in Windhoek, central Namibia, have been ascribed to B. vogeli. DNA extracted from a blood smear made from a sick dog was subjected to the reverse line blot hybridisation assay. The polymerase chain reaction amplicons hybridised with the B. vogeli–specific probe, but not with the Babesia canis– and B. rossi–specific probes. Although attempts at cloning and sequencing of the full-length 18S rRNA gene were unsuccessful, we can confirm that B. vogeli occurs in central Namibia.

Molecular identification of Babesia spp. in naturally infected dogs of Kerala, South India

Canine babesiosis is a tick borne haemoprotozoan disease caused by large and small intraerythrocytic apicomplexan piroplasms of the genus Babesia spp. The clinical manifestations of the disease vary from inapparent subclinical form to hyperacute shock related haemolytic crisis. Microscopic examination of blood smears from suspected dogs revealed Babesia canis and B. gibsoni in 3.45 and 25.86 % of samples respectively. A seminested PCR based on previously published species specific primers targeting the 18S rRNA gene was utilized to identify the Babesia species infecting dogs of Kerala at the sub species level. The study revealed 57.5 % prevalence of Babesia spp. among dogs. This report also presents the first molecular evidence of Babesia canis vogeli and B. gibsoni among naturally infected dogs in Kerala, South India. Molecular survey revealed a high prevalence of B. gibsoni infections when compared with B. canis vogeli infections among canines of the state. Preliminary survey of the tick population revealed the presence of Rhipicephalus sanguineus, R. haemaphysaloides and Haemaphysalis bispinosa in infected animals. Further studies need be directed towards utilizing the PCR protocol for confirming the vectors of these species in the region.

Molecular prevalence and genetic characterization of piroplasms in dogs from Tunisia

In this study, the prevalence of piroplasms in dogs was assessed using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to identifyBabesiaandTheileriaspecies in 200 dogs from Northern and Central Tunisia between spring and autumn 2014. The overall molecular prevalence for piroplasms was 14·5% ± 0·05 (29/200); PCR detected 2 species, namelyBabesia vogeliandTheileria annulatawith an overall prevalence of 12·5 ± 0·04 and 2% ± 0·02, respectively. No differences in the molecular prevalences ofB. vogeliwere revealed for age and sex (P> 0·05). The molecular prevalence ofB. vogeliwas significantly higher in central Tunisia (26·5% ± 0·01) compared with the North (9·6% ± 0·04) (P< 0·05). More working and companion dogs were infected byB. vogeli(25·8 ± 0·15 and 21·1% ± 0·13, respectively) in comparison with guarding dogs (1·8% ± 0·03) (P< 0·05). ConcerningT. annulata,no significant variation was observed for all studied risk factors (P> 0·05). Comparison of the partial sequences of18S rRNAandTams 1genes confirmed the presence of 2 novelB. vogeliandT. annulatagenotypes. This is the first molecular detection ofT. annulataand genetic characterization of dogs’ piroplasms in Tunisia. Further studies are needed to better assess the epidemiological feature of piroplasms infection in North Africa.

A review of canine babesiosis: the European perspective

Canine babesiosis is a significant tick-borne disease caused by various species of the protozoan genus Babesia. Although it occurs worldwide, data relating to European infections have now been collected for many years. These data have boosted the publication record and increased our working knowledge of these protozoan parasites. Both the large and small forms of Babesia species (B. canis, B. vogeli, B. gibsoni, and B. microti-like isolates also referred to as "B. vulpes" and "Theileria annae") infect dogs in Europe, and their geographical distribution, transmission, clinical signs, treatment, and prognosis vary widely for each species. The goal of this review is to provide veterinary practitioners with practical guidelines for the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of babesiosis in European dogs. Our hope is that these guidelines will answer the most frequently asked questions posed by veterinary practitioners.

Dynamics, co-infections and characteristics of zoonotic tick-borne pathogens in Hokkaido small mammals, Japan

Many of the emerging infectious diseases originate in wildlife and many of them are caused by vector-borne pathogens. In Japan, zoonotic tick-borne pathogens (TBPs) are frequently detected in both ticks and wildlife. Here, we studied the infection rates of potentially zoonotic species, including Anaplasma, Ehrlichia, Neoehrlichia and Babesia spp., in Hokkaido's most abundant small mammals as they relate to variable extrinsic factors that might affect the infection rates of these pathogens. A total of 412 small mammals including 64 Apodemus argenteus, 219 Apodemus speciosus, 78 Myodes rufocanus, 41 Myodes rutilus, 6 Myodes rex and 4 Sorex unguiculatus were collected from Furano and Shari sites in Hokkaido, Japan, in 2010 and 2011 and were examined by multiplex PCR for TBPs. A reverse line blot hybridization (RLB) was then developed for the specific detection of 13 potentially zoonotic TBPs. A total of 4 TBPs were detected: Anaplasma sp. AP-sd, Ehrlichia muris, Candidatus Neoehrlichia mikurensis and Babesia microti. The infection rates were 4.4% (18/412), 1.2% (5/412), 13.1% (54/412) and 17.2% (71/412), respectively. The infection rates of each of the detected TBPs were significantly correlated with host small mammal species. A total of 22 (two triple and 20 double) co-infection cases were detected (5.3%). The most frequent co-infection cases occurred between Candidatus N. mikurensis and B. microti 68.2% (15/22). Further studies are required to examine human exposure to these zoonotic TBPs in Hokkaido.

A Study of Naturally Acquired Canine Babesiosis Caused by Single and Mixed Babesia Species in Zambia: Clinicopathological Findings and Case Management

A retrospective and prospective analysis of clinical records of dogs diagnosed with Babesia infections was carried out for the years 2000 to 2013 from practices in Lusaka, Zambia. Records of 363 dogs with confirmed Babesia infections were analysed using demographic factors including sex, breed, age, and clinical signs in relation to haematological findings and Babesia species. The clinical and laboratory findings observed are described as well as Babesia species identification. The study included 18 breeds and the highest proportion were mongrels (32.2%), males representing 64.5% of the population. The most common presenting problems were anorexia (65.3%) and lethargy/weakness (65.3%). The most common clinical signs were fever (87.3%), pallor (52.3%), lymphadenopathy (47.4%), and presence of ticks (44.9%). Anaemia (96.4%) and nucleated erythrocytes (42.2%) were the most common laboratory findings. A mixed infection of Babesia rossi and Babesia gibsoni was present in 59.7% of dogs, whilst 8% and 32.2% had B. rossi and B. gibsoni as a single infection, respectively. Case management mainly involved therapy with tetracyclines and imidocarb and was usually accompanied by clinical improvement. This study highlights, for the first time, the presence of B. gibsoni in natural dog populations in Zambia, where previously only B. rossi was reported.

Infection and exposure to vector-borne pathogens in rural dogs and their ticks, Uganda

BACKGROUND

In rural parts of Africa, dogs live in close association with humans and livestock, roam freely, and usually do not receive prophylactic measures. Thus, they are a source of infectious disease for humans and for wildlife such as protected carnivores. In 2011, an epidemiological study was carried out around three conservation areas in Uganda to detect the presence and determine the prevalence of vector-borne pathogens in rural dogs and associated ticks to evaluate the risk that these pathogens pose to humans and wildlife.

METHODS

Serum samples (n = 105), blood smears (n = 43) and blood preserved on FTA cards (n = 38) and ticks (58 monospecific pools of Haemaphysalis leachi and Rhipicephalus praetextatus including 312 ticks from 52 dogs) were collected from dogs. Dog sera were tested by indirect immunofluorescence to detect the presence of antibodies against Rickettsia conorii and Ehrlichia canis. Antibodies against R. conorii were also examined by indirect enzyme immunoassay. Real time PCR for the detection of Rickettsia spp., Anaplasmataceae, Bartonella spp. and Babesia spp. was performed in DNA extracted from FTA cards and ticks.

RESULTS

99% of the dogs were seropositive to Rickettsia spp. and 29.5% to Ehrlichia spp. Molecular analyses revealed that 7.8% of the blood samples were infected with Babesia rossi, and all were negative for Rickettsia spp. and Ehrlichia spp. Ticks were infected with Rickettsia sp. (18.9%), including R. conorii and R. massiliae; Ehrlichia sp. (18.9%), including E. chaffeensis and Anaplasma platys; and B. rossi (1.7%). Bartonella spp. was not detected in any of the blood or tick samples.

CONCLUSIONS

This study confirms the presence of previously undetected vector-borne pathogens of humans and animals in East Africa. We recommend that dog owners in rural Uganda be advised to protect their animals against ectoparasites to prevent the transmission of pathogens to humans and wildlife.

Pathogens in ticks collected from dogs in Berlin/Brandenburg, Germany

BACKGROUND

Tick-borne diseases are a major health risk for humans and dogs. In addition to collection and analysis of questing ticks, analysis of host-associated ticks for the presence of pathogens is a valuable method to gain insight into transmission patterns of tick-borne diseases.

METHODS

Ticks were collected from dogs living in the Berlin/Brandenburg area. The three tick species Ixodes ricinus, Ixodes hexagonus and Dermacentor reticulatus were examined for the presence of Babesia spp., Borrelia spp., Rickettsia spp. and Anaplasmataceae. Conventional PCR followed by sequencing was used for pathogen detection and characterization.

RESULTS

Babesia spp. were found in 2.5% and 3% of I. ricinus and I. hexagonus, respectively. Sequencing revealed the presence of Babesia microti, Babesia capreoli and Babesia venatorum. D. reticulatus were free of Babesia canis. Rickettsia spp. were detected in 61% of I. ricinus, 44% of I. hexagonus and 39% of D. reticulatus. Specifically detected were Rickettsia raoulti in D. reticulatus and I. hexagonus, Rickettsia helvetica in I. ricinus and I. hexagonus and Rickettsia monacensis in I. hexagonus. Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Candidatus Neoehrlichia mikurensis have been reported previously in I. ricinus (6.5% and 4.3%, respectively) and I. hexagonus (3.9% and 5.9%). Borrelia spp. were found in 11.6% of I. ricinus and 11.2% of I. hexagonus. Subsequent genospecies analysis revealed Borrelia afzelii, Borrelia garinii, Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto and Borrelia miyamotoi. Simultanous presence of more than one pathogen was found in 20% of I. ricinus and in 59% of I. hexagonus whereas the total frequency of any pathogen was 65% in I. ricinus, 59% in I. hexagonus and 64% in D. reticulatus. Ticks in which A. phagocytophilum was detected had a significantly increased risk of also containing Rickettsia. Ticks harbouring a pathogen had significantly higher scutal indices than ticks without presence of any pathogen.

CONCLUSIONS

Frequencies of potential human or canine pathogens in ticks were considerable and DNA of all four groups of pathogens was detected. Differences in scutal indices might suggest that pathogens are frequently taken up by ticks when feeding on dogs in Berlin/Brandenburg.

Clinical and laboratory findings of Babesia infection in dogs

Canine babesiosis is a worldwide tick borne disease. Dogs with fever, in appetence and enlarged lymph nodes were screened for the presence of haemoprotozoan parasites during the one year period of study at T.V.C.C., C.V.Sc., Proddatur. Based on the stained peripheral blood smears examination, six dogs were found to be affected with babesiosis. Clinical examination of the dogs revealed ticks over the body, congested conjunctival mucus membranes, dullness, fever, tachycardia, tachypnoea in all the dogs. Some of the dogs had icterus, lymphadenopathy, haemoglobinuria. Laboratory examination of the clinical samples revealed reduction in haemoglobin concentration, erythrocyte count, platelet count, serum total protein, serum albumin and glucose levels. Increased serum SGPT, creatinine, BUN levels were recorded. Dogs were treated with inj. Diminazene aceturate (Berenil RTU) @ 5 mg/kg body weight, single dose along with supportive and symptomatic therapy in individual cases.