Urbanization correlates with the prevalence and richness of blood parasites in Eurasian Blackbirds (Turdus merula)

Urbanization is increasing worldwide, producing severe environmental impacts. Biodiversity is affected by the expansion of cities, with many species being unable to cope with the different human-induced stressors present in these landscapes. However, this knowledge is mainly based on research from taxa such as plants or vertebrates, while other organisms like protozoa have been less studied in this context. The impact of urbanization on the transmission of vector-borne pathogens in wildlife is still unclear despite its relevance for animal and human health. Here, we investigated whether cities are associated with changes in the prevalence and richness of lineages of three vector-borne protozoans (Plasmodium, Haemoproteus and Leucocytozoon) in Eurasian blackbirds (Turdus merula) from multiple urban and forest areas in Europe. Our results show important species-specific differences between these two habitat types. We found a significant lower prevalence of Leucocytozoon in urban birds compared to forest birds, but no differences for Plasmodium and Haemoproteus. Furthermore, the richness of parasite lineages in European cities was higher for Plasmodium but lower for Leucocytozoon than in forests. We also found one Plasmodium lineage exclusively from cities while another of Leucocytozoon was only found in forests suggesting a certain level of habitat specialization for these protozoan vectors. Overall, our findings show that cities provide contrasting opportunities for the transmission of different vector-borne pathogens and generate new scenarios for the interactions between hosts, vectors and parasites.

An epidemiological survey of vector-borne pathogens infecting cattle in Kyrgyzstan

Cattle production is a major contributor to the national economy of Kyrgyzstan. Most cattle in Kyrgyzstan are managed via extensive systems and graze in communal pastures. As a result, infestations with ectoparasites are widespread, implying that various vector-borne diseases might be common in cattle. However, methods to control such infectious diseases are not available in Kyrgyzstan because the epidemiology of vector-borne pathogens (VBPs) infecting cattle remains unclear. The present study was therefore designed to survey Kyrgyz cattle for VBPs. We prepared blood DNA samples from 319 cattle in Kyrgyzstan and screened them with specific PCR assays for detecting Babesia bovis, Babesia bigemina, Babesia naoakii, Theileria annulata, Theileria orientalis, Trypanosoma evansi, Trypanosoma theileri, and Anaplasma marginale infections. Our findings indicated that the surveyed cattle were infected with six of the eight pathogens targeted, with the exceptions being B. naoakii and Try. evansi. The most common pathogen was T. orientalis (84.3%), followed by B. bigemina (47.6%), T. annulata (16.6%), A. marginale (11.6%), Try. theileri (7.2%), and B. bovis (2.5%). Additional screening of the B. bovis- and B. bigemina-negative samples with a Babesia genus-specific 18S rRNA PCR identified two positive samples, and sequencing analysis confirmed that each of them was infected with either Babesia major or Babesia occultans. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of B. bovis, B. bigemina, B. occultans, Try. theileri, and A. marginale infections in cattle in Kyrgyzstan. Our findings suggest that cattle in Kyrgyzstan are at high risk of infectious diseases caused by VBPs.

Experimental infection and co-infection with Chinese strains of Ehrlichia canis and Babesia vogeli in intact and splenectomized dogs: Insights on clinical, hematologic and treatment responses

Animal infection models are crucial for studying various aspects of Ehrlichia canis infections. To understand the pathogenesis of the first Chinese isolate of E. canis and simulate the natural progression of canine ehrlichiosis, we developed a model with 18 Beagle dogs that consisted of E. canis initial infection (days 0-17), treatment with doxycycline or rifampicin (days 18-32), recovery (days 33-66), E. canis reinfection (days 67-91), and Babesia vogeli superinfection (days 92-116). We measured body weight and rectal temperature every other day, drew blood every 4 days for routine hematology and biochemistry tests, and for quantification of E. canis and B. vogeli by quantitative PCRs. In this study, the first isolate of E. canis from China was used to experimentally infect dogs, and the infected dogs exhibited clinical signs of acute severe ehrlichiosis, including high fever, loss of appetite, dehydration, and body weight loss, confirming the similar pathogenicity of E. canis in China as compared to isolates from other regions. Infection with E. canis and B. vogeli led to reduced body weight and fever in dogs. Doxycycline treatment led to absence of E. canis DNA in infected dogs, while rifampicin treatment lowered the blood E. canis copy number up to 1.5 folds. E. canis-free infected dogs after doxycycline treatment were successfully re-infected with E. canis, indicating dogs with antibodies are still at risk of re-infection. Super-infection with B. vogeli resulted in higher fever, more severe anemia, and a reduced number of platelets. Splenectomized dogs showed significantly higher E. canis numbers during recovery and re-infection than intact dogs. The histological changes were observed in brain, lung, kidney, liver and spleen of the infected dogs. The findings in this study provide insights into clinical and hematologic responses, as well as effective treatment options, for dogs infected with the first Chinese isolate of E. canis, and may contribute to our understanding of the diagnosis and prevention of tick-borne diseases in dogs, including canine monocytic ehrlichiosis.

Vector-Borne Disease in Wild Mammals Impacted by Urban Expansion and Climate Change

Ecologies of zoonotic vector-borne diseases may shift with climate and land use change. As many urban-adapted mammals can host ectoparasites and pathogens of human and animal health concern, our goal was to compare patterns of arthropod-borne disease among medium-sized mammals across gradients of rural to urban landscapes in multiple regions of California. DNA of Anaplasma phagocytophilum was found in 1-5% of raccoons, coyotes, and San Joaquin kit foxes; Borrelia burgdorferi in one coyote, rickettsiae in two desert kit foxes, and Yersinia pestis in two coyotes. There was serological evidence of rickettsiae in 14-37% of coyotes, Virginia opossums, and foxes; and A. phagocytophilum in 6-40% of coyotes, raccoons, Virginia opossums, and foxes. Of six flea species, one Ctenocephalides felis from a raccoon was positive for Y. pestis, and Ct. felis and Pulex simulans fleas tested positive for Rickettsia felis and R. senegalensis. A Dermacentor similis tick off a San Joaquin kit fox was PCR-positive for A. phagocytophilum. There were three statistically significant risk factors: risk of A. phagocytophilum PCR-positivity was threefold greater in fall vs the other three seasons; hosts adjacent to urban areas had sevenfold increased A. phagocytophilum seropositivity compared with urban and rural areas; and there was a significant spatial cluster of rickettsiae within greater Los Angeles. Animals in areas where urban and rural habitats interconnect can serve as sentinels during times of change in disease risk.

Role of invasive carnivores (Procyon lotor and Nyctereutes procyonoides) in epidemiology of vector-borne pathogens: molecular survey from the Czech Republic

BACKGROUND

Vector-borne pathogens (VBPs) are a major threat to humans, livestock and companion animals worldwide. The combined effect of climatic, socioeconomic and host composition changes favours the spread of the vectors, together with the expansion of invasive carnivores contributing to the spread of the pathogens. In Europe, the most widespread invasive species of carnivores are raccoons (Procyon lotor) and raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides). This study focused on the detection of four major groups of VBPs namely Babesia, Hepatozoon, Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Bartonella in invasive and native carnivores in the Czech Republic, with the emphasis on the role of invasive carnivores in the eco-epidemiology of said VBPs.

METHODS

Spleen samples of 84 carnivores of eight species (Canis aureus, Canis lupus, Lynx lynx, P. lotor, Martes foina, Lutra lutra, Mustela erminea and N. procyonoides) were screened by combined nested PCR and sequencing for the above-mentioned VBPs targeting 18S rRNA and cytB in hemoprotozoa, groEL in A. phagocytophilum, and using multilocus genotyping in Bartonella spp. The species determination is supported by phylogenetic analysis inferred by the maximum likelihood method.

RESULTS

Out of 84 samples, 44% tested positive for at least one pathogen. Five different species of VBPs were detected in P. lotor, namely Bartonella canis, Hepatozoon canis, Hepatozoon martis, A. phagocytophilum and Bartonella sp. related to Bartonella washoensis. All C. lupus tested positive for H. canis and one for B. canis. Three VBPs (Hepatozoon silvestris, A. phagocytophilum and Bartonella taylorii) were detected in L. lynx for the first time. Babesia vulpes and yet undescribed species of Babesia, not previously detected in Europe, were found in N. procyonoides.

CONCLUSIONS

Wild carnivores in the Czech Republic are hosts of several VBPs with potential veterinary and public health risks. Among the studied carnivore species, the invasive raccoon is the most competent host. Raccoons are the only species in our study where all the major groups of studied pathogens were detected. None of the detected pathogen species were previously detected in these carnivores in North America, suggesting that raccoons adapted to local VBPs rather than introduced new ones. Babesia vulpes and one new, probably imported species of Babesia, were found in raccoon dogs.

Molecular pathogen screening of louse flies (Diptera: Hippoboscidae) from domestic and wild ruminants in Austria

BACKGROUND

Hippoboscid flies (Diptera: Hippoboscidae), also known as louse flies or keds, are obligate blood-sucking ectoparasites of animals, and accidentally of humans. The potential role of hippoboscids as vectors of human and veterinary pathogens is being increasingly investigated, but the presence and distribution of infectious agents in louse flies is still unknown in parts of Europe. Here, we report the use of molecular genetics to detect and characterize vector-borne pathogens in hippoboscid flies infesting domestic and wild animals in Austria.

METHODS

Louse flies were collected from naturally infested cattle (n = 25), sheep (n = 3), and red deer (n = 12) across Austria between 2015 and 2019. Individual insects were morphologically identified to species level and subjected to DNA extraction for molecular pathogen screening and barcoding. Genomic DNA from each louse fly was screened for Borrelia spp., Bartonella spp., Trypanosomatida, Anaplasmataceae, Filarioidea and Piroplasmida. Obtained sequences of Trypanosomatida and Bartonella spp. were further characterized by phylogenetic and haplotype networking analyses.

RESULTS

A total of 282 hippoboscid flies corresponding to three species were identified: Hippobosca equina (n = 62) collected from cattle, Melophagus ovinus (n = 100) from sheep and Lipoptena cervi (n = 120) from red deer (Cervus elaphus). Molecular screening revealed pathogen DNA in 54.3% of hippoboscids, including infections with single (63.39%), two (30.71%) and up to three (5.90%) distinct pathogens in the same individual. Bartonella DNA was detected in 36.9% of the louse flies. Lipoptena cervi were infected with 10 distinct and previously unreported Bartonella sp. haplotypes, some closely associated with strains of zoonotic potential. DNA of trypanosomatids was identified in 34% of hippoboscids, including the first description of Trypanosoma sp. in H. equina. Anaplasmataceae DNA (Wolbachia spp.) was detected only in M. ovinus (16%), while < 1% of the louse flies were positive for Borrelia spp. and Filarioidea. All hippoboscids were negative for Piroplasmida.

CONCLUSIONS

Molecular genetic screening confirmed the presence of several pathogens in hippoboscids infesting domestic and wild ruminants in Austria, including novel pathogen haplotypes of zoonotic potential (e.g. Bartonella spp.) and the first report of Trypanosoma sp. in H. equina, suggesting a potential role of this louse fly as vector of animal trypanosomatids. Experimental transmission studies and expanded monitoring of hippoboscid flies and hippoboscid-associated pathogens are warranted to clarify the competence of these ectoparasites as vectors of infectious agents in a One-Health context.

First molecular confirmation of multiple zoonotic vector-borne diseases in pet dogs and cats of Hong Kong SAR

In recent years, the incidence of vector-borne diseases (VBDs) has increased throughout the globe. In particular, tick-borne diseases (e.g., caused by Ehrlichia canis, E. ewingii, Anaplasma phagocytophilum, A. platys, Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto (s.s.) and Babesia gibsoni) and mosquito-borne diseases (e.g., caused by Dirofilaria immitis) diseases pose a burden on animal health. Nevertheless, there have been no studies undertaken on the occurrence of VBDs in pet dogs and cats in Hong Kong SAR. This study fills this gap, and is the first to determine the seroprevalence of major VBDs, such as those caused by D. immitis, E. canis, E. ewingii, A. phagocytophilum, A. platys and B. burgdorferi s.s, in dogs and cats through commercially available SNAP 4Dx plus testing. Infection by all these pathogens and Babesia sp. was further assessed through PCR and DNA sequencing. A total of 224 blood samples were collected from domestic dogs (n = 159) and cats (n = 65) in Hong Kong SAR during summer 2022. Hematocrit and platelet counts were determined in each blood sample and other hematological parameters were assessed using an automatic hematology analyzer and vortex the specimen for one to two minutes at or near the highest setting to minimize the clumping. All cat sera samples were negative for tested pathogens, but antibodies against some of the pathogens were detected in dog sera samples. Here, the highest figures were recorded for seroprevalence of E. canis/E. ewingii (10.7%), followed by D. immitis (5.7%), and A. phagocytophilum/A. platys (2.5%). No B. burgdorferi s.s. antibodies were detected in any of the dogs tested. Through molecular diagnostics, we detected the presence of B. gibsoni (3.7%), E. canis (3.1%), D. immitis (5.7%), and A. phagocytophilum (1.3%). Neighbor-Joining phylogenetic trees for vector-borne pathogens (i.e., genus Anaplasma sp.) showed 100% clustering to Japan, the USA and Germany, whereas genus Ehrlichia sp. showed 100% clustering to China, Turkey, Cuba, and Greece. Similarly, genus Babesia sp. clustered 100% to India, Sri Lanka and Austria, while D. immitis clustered in Iraq, South Korea, Portugal, France, the USA and Italy. This study provides the first evidence on the occurrence of tick-borne pathogens in pet dogs in Hong Kong SAR. Based on these findings, it is recommended that appropriate screening should be undertaken in domestic dogs to evaluate the prevalence of these pathogens and promote the timely control of VBDs.

Apicomplexan haemoparasites in domestic cats in Romania

BACKGROUND

Apicomplexan haemoparasites are protozoans that infect a variety of domestic and wild animal species, as well as humans. Data regarding haemoprotozoans in domestic cats are limited; therefore, the aim of this study was to assess the occurrence of Babesia spp., Cytauxzoon spp., and Hepatozoon spp. in domestic cats in Romania using molecular tools.

METHODS

Blood samples from 371 domestic cats were screened for the presence of piroplasmids. All samples that yielded a visible band in agarose gels were subsequently tested by specific assays targeting the 18S rDNA of Babesia spp., Cytauxzoon spp., and Hepatozoon spp. Moreover, nested PCR assays targeting mitochondrial genes of Babesia spp. were used for screening of all Babesia spp. 18S rDNA-positive samples.

RESULTS

From the total number of sampled cats, 19.4% were positive in the PCR assay targeting piroplasmids. Babesia spp. were identified in 15.1% of cats, while 0.5% were positive for Hepatozoon spp. Molecular analyses confirmed the presence of Babesia canis. No samples were positive for Cytauxzoon spp.

CONCLUSIONS

The high infection rates of domestic cats with Babesia spp. and the need for species differentiation highlight the importance of mitochondrial genes as targets for molecular protocols.

Survey of ticks and tick-borne pathogens in wild chimpanzee habitat in Western Uganda

BACKGROUND

Ticks and tick-borne pathogens significantly impact both human and animal health and therefore are of major concern to the scientific community. Knowledge of tick-borne pathogens is crucial for prescription of mitigation measures. In Africa, much research on ticks has focused on domestic animals. Little is known about ticks and their pathogens in wild habitats and wild animals like the endangered chimpanzee, our closest relative.

METHODS

In this study, we collected ticks in the forested habitat of a community of 100 chimpanzees living in Kibale National Park, Western Uganda, and assessed how their presence and abundance are influenced by environmental factors. We used non-invasive methods of flagging the vegetation and visual search of ticks both on human team members and in chimpanzee nests. We identified adult and nymph ticks through morphological features. Molecular techniques were used to detect and identify tick-borne piroplasmids and bacterial pathogens.

RESULTS

A total of 470 ticks were collected, which led to the identification of seven tick species: Haemaphysalis parmata (68.77%), Amblyomma tholloni (20.70%), Ixodes rasus sensu lato (7.37%), Rhipicephalus dux (1.40%), Haemaphysalis punctaleachi (0.70%), Ixodes muniensis (0.70%) and Amblyomma paulopunctatum (0.35%). The presence of ticks, irrespective of species, was influenced by temperature and type of vegetation but not by relative humidity. Molecular detection revealed the presence of at least six genera of tick-borne pathogens (Babesia, Theileria, Borrelia, Cryptoplasma, Ehrlichia and Rickettsia). The Afrotopical tick Amblyomma tholloni found in one chimpanzee nest was infected by Rickettsia sp.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, this study presented ticks and tick-borne pathogens in a Ugandan wildlife habitat whose potential effects on animal health remain to be elucidated.

Parasitic fauna of bats from Costa Rica

Bats are important reservoirs and spreaders of pathogens, including those of zoonotic concern. Though Costa Rica hosts one of the highest bat species' diversity, no information is available about their parasites. In order to investigate the occurrence of vector-borne pathogens (VBPs) and gastrointestinal (GI) parasites of chiropterans from this neotropical area, ectoparasites (n = 231) and stools (n = 64) were collected from 113 bats sampled in Santa Cruz (site 1) and Talamanca (site 2). Mites, fleas and ticks were morphologically and molecularly identified, as well as pathogens transmitted by vectors (VBPs, i.e., Borrelia spp., Rickettsia spp., Bartonella spp.) and from feces, such as Giardia spp., Cryptosporidium spp. and Eimeria spp. were molecularly investigated. Overall, 21 bat species belonging to 15 genera and 5 families were identified of which 42.5% were infested by ectoparasites, with a higher percentage of mites (38.9%, i.e., Cameronieta sp. and Mitonyssoides sp.) followed by flies (2.6%, i.e., Joblingia sp.) and tick larvae (1.7%, i.e., Ornithodoros sp.). Rickettsia spp. was identified in one immature tick and phylogenetically clustered with two Rickettsia species of the Spotted Fever Group (i.e., R. massiliae and R. rhipicephali). The frequency of GI parasite infection was 14%, being 3.1% of bats infected by Giardia spp. (un-identified non-duodenalis species), 1.5% by Eimeria spp. and 9.4% by Cryptosporidium spp. (bat and rodent genotypes; one C. parvum-related human genotype). The wide range of ectoparasites collected coupled with the detection of Rickettsia sp., Giardia and Cryptosporidium in bats from Costa Rica highlight the role these mammals may play as spreaders of pathogens and the need to further investigate the pathogenic potential of these parasites.

dynamAedes: a unified modelling framework for invasive Aedes mosquitoes

Mosquito species belonging to the genus Aedes have attracted the interest of scientists and public health officers because of their capacity to transmit viruses that affect humans. Some of these species were brought outside their native range by means of trade and tourism and then colonised new regions thanks to a unique combination of eco-physiological traits. Considering mosquito physiological and behavioural traits to understand and predict their population dynamics is thus a crucial step in developing strategies to mitigate the local densities of invasive Aedes populations. Here, we synthesised the life cycle of four invasive Aedes species (Ae. aegypti, Ae. albopictus, Ae. japonicus and Ae. koreicus) in a single multi-scale stochastic modelling framework which we coded in the R package dynamAedes. We designed a stage-based and time-discrete stochastic model driven by temperature, photo-period and inter-specific larval competition that can be applied to three different spatial scales: punctual, local and regional. These spatial scales consider different degrees of spatial complexity and data availability by accounting for both active and passive dispersal of mosquito species as well as for the heterogeneity of the input temperature data. Our overarching aim was to provide a flexible, open-source and user-friendly tool rooted in the most updated knowledge on the species' biology which could be applied to the management of invasive Aedes populations as well as to more theoretical ecological inquiries.

A community approach for pathogens and their arthropod vectors (ticks and fleas) in cats of sub-Saharan Africa

Background

Arthropod-borne pathogens and their vectors are present throughout Africa. They have been well studied in livestock of sub-Saharan Africa, but poorly studied in companion animals. Given their socioeconomic importance, the African Small Companion Animal Network (AFSCAN), as part of the WSAVA Foundation, initiated a standardized multi-country surveillance study.

Methods

In six countries (Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, Tanzania, Uganda, and Namibia) in both rural and urban settings, 160 infested cats were sampled to assess their ectoparasite community (ticks and fleas), as well as the micro-parasite prevalence within those ectoparasites (60 and 118 pools of ticks and fleas, respectively) and blood (276 cats, including 116 non-infested).

Results

Almost two thirds of all infested cats originated from Tanzania and Kenya. Despite the large macro-geographical variation, no consistent difference was found in ectoparasite diversity and numbers between East and West Africa. Far more flea-infested than tick-infested cats were found. The most dominant ectoparasite was Ctenocephalides felis. Among the ticks, the exophilic Haemaphysalis spp. were the commonest, including species that are not typically linked with companion animals (Haemaphysalis spinulosa and Haemaphysalis elliptica). The most prevalent pathogens found in the blood and fleas were Bartonella henselae and Mycoplasma haemofelis. In the ticks, the dog-associated Hepatozoon canis was most commonly found. A high degree of co-parasitism was found in all countries and habitats.

Conclusions

Our continent-wide standardized field study highlights the cat’s potential to serve as a reservoir of pathogens that can be transmitted to humans or livestock, especially when cats are expected to become more commonly kept in African villages and towns.

Graphical Abstract

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13071-022-05436-y.

Vector-borne pathogens of zoonotic concern in hunting dogs of southern Italy

Dogs are commonly exposed to vector-borne pathogens (VBPs), yet few data are available on hunting dogs, which are often at high risk of infection due to their involvement in field activities. To investigate the occurrence of VBPs and evaluate the relative performance of different diagnostic tools, blood and serum samples were collected from hunting dogs (n = 1,433) in rural areas of southern Italy. All samples were tested by Knott's technique for filarioids, serologically (SNAP® 4Dx® Plus) for Anaplasma spp., Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato, Dirofilaria immitis and Ehrlichia spp. and molecularly (qPCR) for all except B. burgdorferi of the above pathogens plus Babesia spp. and Leishmania infantum. Logistic regression was run to evaluate the statistical associations between the risk of VBP infection and independent variables (such as geographic area of provenience, age class and sex) and K-Cohen formula for assessing the concordance among diagnostic tests. Overall, out of 321 dogs (22.4%) positive to at least one VBP, 28 (1.9%) were infected by filarial species at the Knott's technique. In particular, Acanthocheilonema reconditum was the most prevalent (1.6%), followed by D. immitis (0.2%) and Dirofilaria repens (0.1%). One hundred forty (9.8%) and 231 (16.1%) dogs scored positive to VBPs by serological and molecular methods, respectively. The most prevalent pathogens detected were Ehrlichia spp. (7.3%) with SNAP® 4Dx® Plus, and A. reconditum (7.7%) by qPCR. Statistics revealed a significant association (p < 0.001) between A. reconditum infestation and both Ehrlichia spp. seropositivity and geographical origin of dogs. An agreement of 99.9%, 94.0% and 95.7% for Knott - SNAP® 4Dx® Plus, Knott - qPCR and SNAP® 4Dx® Plus - qPCR for D. immitis was found, respectively. Data demonstrate a high prevalence of VBPs in hunting dogs, indicating that this group of animals is largely exposed to several arthropod vector species and suggesting the transmission risk of pathogens to humans in rural areas of southern Italy. A multi-diagnostic approach and a deeper cooperation among healthcare and stakeholders are required to prevent VBP infections to animals and humans.

Invasive raccoon (Procyon lotor) and raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides) as potential reservoirs of tick-borne pathogens: data review from native and introduced areas

In recent decades, populations of the raccoon (Procyon lotor) and the raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonides) have increased and adapted to peri-urban and urban environments in many parts of the world. Their ability to rapidly colonize new territories, high plasticity and behavioral adaptation has enabled these two species to be considered two of the most successful invasive alien species. One of the major threats arising from continually growing and expanding populations is their relevant role in maintaining and transmitting various vector-borne pathogens among wildlife, domestic animals and humans. According to the WHO, over 17% of infectious diseases are vector-borne diseases, including those transmitted by ticks. Every year tick-borne pathogens (TBPs) create new public health challenges. Some of the emerging diseases, such as Lyme borreliosis, anaplasmosis, ehrlichiosis, babesiosis and rickettsiosis, have been described in recent years as posing important threats to global health. In this review we summarize current molecular and serological data on the occurrence, diversity and prevalence of some of the TBPs, namely Babesia, Theileria, Hepatozoon, Borrelia, Rickettsia, Bartonella, Anaplasma and Ehrlichia, that have been detected in raccoons and raccoon dogs that inhabit their native habitats and introduced areas. We draw attention to the limited data currently available on these invasive carnivores as potential reservoirs of TBPs in different parts of the world. Simultaneously we indicate the need for more research in order to better understand the epidemiology of these TBPs and to assess the future risk originating from wildlife.

A community approach of pathogens and their arthropod vectors (ticks and fleas) in dogs of African Sub-Sahara

BACKGROUND

Arthropod-borne pathogens and their vectors are present throughout Africa. They have been well-studied in livestock of sub-Saharan Africa, but poorly in companion animals. Given the socio-economic importance of companion animals, the African Small Companion Animal Network (AFSCAN), as part of the WSAVA Foundation, initiated a standardized multi-country surveillance study.

METHODS

Macro-geographic variation in ectoparasite (ticks and fleas) and pathogen communities in dogs was assessed through molecular screening of approximately 100 infested dogs in each of six countries (Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, Tanzania, Uganda and Namibia), both in rural and urban settings. The most important intrinsic and extrinsic risk factors within the subpopulation of infested dogs were evaluated.

RESULTS

Despite the large macro-geographic variation in the dogs screened, there was no consistent difference between East and West Africa in terms of the diversity and numbers of ticks. The highest and lowest numbers of ticks were found in Nigeria and Namibia, respectively. Most often, there was a higher diversity of ticks in rural habitats than in urban habitats, although the highest diversity was observed in an urban Uganda setting. With the exception of Namibia, more fleas were collected in rural areas. We identified tick species (including Haemaphysalis spinulosa) as well as zoonotic pathogens (Coxiella burnetti, Trypanosoma spp.) that are not classically associated with companion animals. Rhipicephalus sanguineus was the most abundant tick, with a preference for urban areas. Exophilic ticks, such as Haemaphysalis spp., were more often found in rural areas. Several multi-host ticks occurred in urban areas. For R. sanguineus, housing conditions and additional pets were relevant factors in terms of infestation, while for a rural tick species (Haemaphysalis elliptica), free-roaming dogs were more often infested. Tick occurrence was associated to the use of endoparasiticide, but not to the use of ectoparasiticide. The most prevalent tick-borne pathogen was Hepatozoon canis followed by Ehrlichia canis. High levels of co-parasitism were observed in all countries and habitats.

CONCLUSIONS

As dogs share a common environment with people, they have the potential to extend the network of pathogen transmission to humans. Our study will help epidemiologists to provide recommendations for surveillance and prevention of pathogens in dogs and humans.

Detection of zoonotic Bartonella species in ticks and fleas parasitizing free-ranging cats and dogs residing in temples of Bangkok, Thailand

Bartonellosis is a vector-borne disease caused by intraerythrocytic bacteria known as Bartonella spp. The potential vectors that transmit Bartonella spp. are fleas, ticks, sand flies, and lice. Several Bartonella spp. cause diseases in humans; however, there is few molecular evidence of Bartonella spp. in vectors in Thailand. The objectives of this study were to investigate Bartonella spp. and to evaluate the spatial distribution of Bartonella spp. prevalence in the ectoparasites parasitizing free-ranging cats and dogs in temple clusters of Bangkok, Thailand. In total, 343 ectoparasites were studied to extract their genomic DNA. Species of all specimens were identified using an identification key and conventional polymerase chain reaction (cPCR) was applied to confirm flea and tick species. Extracted DNA samples were processed using primers that targeted the gltA, rpoB, ftsZ, and ribC genes of Bartonella spp. Then, PCR-positive amplicons were sequenced and a phylogenetic tree was constructed. Recorded data were statistically analyzed using descriptive statistics, the chi-square test, Fisher's exact test, and the odds ratio. Area data were analyzed and a prevalence distribution map was plotted. The major parasitizing ticks and fleas in this study were Rhipicephalus sanguineus and Ctenocephalides felis, respectively. Overall, the prevalence of Bartonella spp. in ectoparasites was 7.00%. The gltA amplicons revealed the presence of B. henselae (4.78%) and B. clarridgeiae (4.78%) in C. felis, and B. koehlerae (1.25%) and B. phoceensis (1.25%) in R. sanguineus. Bartonella DNA was encountered in 16/39 (41.03%) districts and 28.57% of the temple clusters. Bang Khun Thian district had the highest positive proportion and Bang Bon district showed co-evidence of different Bartonella species. In addition, the intervening zones were a risk factor of Bartonella (p < 0.05), and the distribution map showed a scattered pattern of Bartonella-positive clusters. Finally, fleas showed to be important vector reservoirs for Bartonella spp., especially zoonotic species, however, experimental studies are needed to prove the Bartonella transmission in ticks.

High-throughput detection of eukaryotic parasites and arboviruses in mosquitoes

Vector-borne pathogens cause many human infectious diseases and are responsible for high mortality and morbidity throughout the world. They can also cause livestock epidemics with dramatic social and economic consequences. Due to its high costs, vector-borne disease surveillance is often limited to current threats, and the investigation of emerging pathogens typically occurs after the reports of clinical cases. Here, we use high-throughput sequencing to detect and identify a wide range of parasites and viruses carried by mosquitoes from Cambodia, Guinea, Mali and the USA. We apply this approach to individual Anopheles mosquitoes as well as pools of mosquitoes captured in traps; and compare the outcomes of this assay when applied to DNA or RNA. We identified known human and animal pathogens and mosquito parasites belonging to a wide range of taxa, as well as DNA sequences from previously uncharacterized organisms. Our results also revealed that analysis of the content of an entire trap could be an efficient approach to monitor and identify rare vector-borne pathogens in large surveillance studies. Overall, we describe a high-throughput and easy-to-customize assay to screen for a wide range of pathogens and efficiently complement current vector-borne disease surveillance approaches.

Molecular detection of Anaplasma phagocytophilum in hair and spleen of cats revealed a possible underestimation of feline vector-borne pathogens

Feline Vector-Borne Diseases show increased global prevalence and some Anaplasma and Ehrlichia species may pose a risk to human health. The diagnosis of Anaplasma and Ehrlichia species infection in cats is achieved by the combined use of different methods as cytologic examination evidencing intracytoplasmic morulae, serologic tests and molecular assays. The peripheral whole blood is considered the sample of choice for Anaplasma and Ehrlichia species DNA detection in cats, but false negative results are reported leading to underestimation of infection prevalence. In order to have a more accurate assessment of the spread of feline vector-borne pathogens, the presence of Anaplasma spp. and Ehrlichia spp. DNA in 37 owner and shelter cats subjected to necropsy were prospectively investigated by testing in end-point PCR spleen, bone marrow, blood clot and hair samples. The bacteria identified were genetically characterised. Three shelter cats tested positive for A. phagocytophilum DNA in spleen (one cat) or in hair samples (two cats). None of the cats tested positive in bone marrow and blood samples. From the results obtained, it can be assumed that the use of spleen or hair samples could allow a more reliable detection of A. phagocytophilum DNA in cats with blood tested negative. In the phylogeny constructed with a fragment of the heat shock (groEL) gene nucleotide sequences, all the identified A. phagocytophilum clustered with bacteria infecting a wide range of hosts, including humans, showing a potential zoonotic role.

Evaluation of hematological alteration of vector-borne pathogens in cats from Bangkok, Thailand

Background

Cats can be carriers of infected arthropods and be infected with several vector-borne pathogens (VBPs) but there is limited knowledge about their pathogenic role in cats. This study aimed to assess the prevalence of some feline vector-borne agents by molecular technique and to characterize the hematological findings associated with these infections in a cat population from Bangkok Thailand.

Results

PCR was positive with at least one pathogen in 237 out of 372 subjects (63.7%), with prevalence of 39.5% (147/372) for Babesia spp., 36.9% (137/372) for hemoplasmas and 3.2% (12/372) for Hepatozoon spp. The cats older than 1 year were at significantly greater risk for VBPs infection (P = 0.001; OR = 1.43; 95% CI: 1.12 – 1.81) and hemoplasmas infection (χ2 = 10.8, df = 1; P < 0.0001; OR = 2.45; 95% CI: 1.49 – 4.01). A significant association between hematological findings and hemoplasma infection were identified in the present study. Besides, VBPs infection revealed more frequent in male cats (χ2= 6.38, df = 1, P = 0.01). Macrocytic hypochromic type of anemia was observed in cats infested with blood-sucking arthropods compared to the non-infested cats presented.

Conclusions

The current study confirmed that Babesia, Hepatozoon and hemoplasmas had infected semi-domesticated cats in Bangkok, Thailand, with Babesia and hemoplasmas being dominant in prevalence. Some hematological findings were significantly associated with cats infected with vector-borne pathogens in this study including leukocyte count and platelets count that may help support veterinary technicians in diagnosis and appropriate treatment. Campaigns of VBPs monitoring in Bangkok emphasizing on the investigation of vectors and possible routes of the infection in animals should be conducted to prevent the transmission of the pathogens.

Determinants of the current and future distribution of the West Nile virus mosquito vector Culex pipiens in Spain

Changes in environmental conditions, whether related or not to human activities, are continuously modifying the geographic distribution of vectors, which in turn affects the dynamics and distribution of vector-borne infectious diseases. Determining the main ecological drivers of vector distribution and how predicted changes in these drivers may alter their future distributions is therefore of major importance. However, the drivers of vector populations are largely specific to each vector species and region. Here, we identify the most important human-activity-related and bioclimatic predictors affecting the current distribution and habitat suitability of the mosquito Culex pipiens and potential future changes in its distribution in Spain. We determined the niche of occurrence (NOO) of the species, which considers only those areas lying within the range of suitable environmental conditions using presence data. Although almost ubiquitous, the distribution of Cx. pipiens is mostly explained by elevation and the degree of urbanization but also, to a lesser extent, by mean temperatures during the wettest season and temperature seasonality. The combination of these predictors highlights the existence of a heterogeneous pattern of habitat suitability, with most suitable areas located in the southern and northeastern coastal areas of Spain, and unsuitable areas located at higher altitude and in colder regions. Future climatic predictions indicate a net decrease in distribution of up to 29.55%, probably due to warming and greater temperature oscillations. Despite these predicted changes in vector distribution, their effects on the incidence of infectious diseases are, however, difficult to forecast since different processes such as local adaptation to temperature, vector-pathogen interactions, and human-derived changes in landscape may play important roles in shaping the future dynamics of pathogen transmission.

Molecular detection of pathogens in ticks and fleas collected from companion dogs and cats in East and Southeast Asia

Background

Ticks and fleas are considered amongst the most important arthropod vectors of medical and veterinary concern due to their ability to transmit pathogens to a range of animal species including dogs, cats and humans. By sharing a common environment with humans, companion animal-associated parasitic arthropods may potentially transmit zoonotic vector-borne pathogens (VBPs). This study aimed to molecularly detect pathogens from ticks and fleas from companion dogs and cats in East and Southeast Asia.

Methods

A total of 392 ticks and 248 fleas were collected from 401 infested animals (i.e. 271 dogs and 130 cats) from China, Taiwan, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, the Philippines and Vietnam, and molecularly screened for the presence of pathogens. Ticks were tested for Rickettsia spp., Anaplasma spp., Ehrlichia spp., Babesia spp. and Hepatozoon spp. while fleas were screened for the presence of Rickettsia spp. and Bartonella spp.

Result

Of the 392 ticks tested, 37 (9.4%) scored positive for at least one pathogen with Hepatozoon canis being the most prevalent (5.4%), followed by Ehrlichia canis (1.8%), Babesia vogeli (1%), Anaplasma platys (0.8%) and Rickettsia spp. (1%) [including Rickettsia sp. (0.5%), Rickettsia asembonensis (0.3%) and Rickettsia felis (0.3%)]. Out of 248 fleas tested, 106 (42.7%) were harboring at least one pathogen with R. felis being the most common (19.4%), followed by Bartonella spp. (16.5%), Rickettsia asembonensis (10.9%) and “Candidatus Rickettsia senegalensis” (0.4%). Furthermore, 35 Rhipicephalus sanguineus ticks were subjected to phylogenetic analysis, of which 34 ticks belonged to the tropical and only one belonged to the temperate lineage (Rh. sanguineus (sensu stricto)).

Conclusion

Our data reveals the circulation of different VBPs in ticks and fleas of dogs and cats from Asia, including zoonotic agents, which may represent a potential risk to animal and human health.

Detection of Rickettsia felis in ectoparasites collected from domestic animals

Ticks and fleas are arthropods widely distributed around the world involved in the transmission of various vector-borne diseases (VBDs), including Brazilian Spotted Fever (BSF), Baggio-Yoshinari Syndrome and the plague, with outstanding consequences for the public health. The aim of this study was to investigate the presence of Rickettsia spp., Borrelia spp. and Yersinia pestis in arthropods collected from dogs, cats and horses living in the state of Pernambuco, Northeastern Brazil. From January 2017 to April 2019, ectoparasites were collected, morphologically identified and molecularly analysed through PCR and sequencing. In total 401 specimens were collected from 86 animals, being 68% (n = 273) and 32% (n = 128) from rural and urban areas, respectively. The most commonly detected species were the ticks Dermacentor nitens, Amblyomma sculptum, Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu lato (s.l.), Rhipicephalus microplus, and Amblyomma ovale, and the fleas Ctenocephalides felis and Ctenocephalides canis. DNA of Rickettsia felis was detected in D. nitens collected from horses, and C. felis, and R. sanguineus s.l. collected from dogs. All samples scored negative for Borrelia spp. and Y. pestis DNA. This study provides valuable data on ectoparasite fauna from domestic animals and identifies the circulation of a zoonotic pathogen (i.e., R. felis) in the population of the arthropods assessed. Therefore, preventive measures should be adopted in order to reduce the risk of occurrence of neglected VBD caused by this pathogen in animal and human hosts.

Epidemiological serosurvey of vector-borne and zoonotic pathogens among homeless people living in shelters in Marseille: cross-sectional one-day surveys (2005-2015)

Homeless people are often exposed to unhygienic environments as well as to animals carrying arthropods which both transmit zoonotic infections and human louse-borne pathogens. We attempted to determine the prevalence of antibodies against several vector-borne and zoonotic pathogens among homeless adults living in Marseille. During the 2005-2015 period, we collected sera samples from 821 homeless adults living in shelters. Antibodies against Bartonella quintana, Bartonella henselae, Borrelia recurrentis, Coxiella burnetii, Francisella tularensis (with a cut-off of 1:100), Rickettsia akari, Rickettsia conorii, Rickettsia felis, Rickettsia prowazekii, and Rickettsia typhi (with a cut-off of 1:64) were searched by microimmunofluorescence (MIF). MIF-positive serum samples were confirmed by cross-adsorption to characterise cross-reacting antigens and immunoblotting. Positive sera by Western blot were further tested using qPCR. We evidenced a prevalence of 4.9% seroreactivity to at least one pathogen including phase II C. burnetii (2.1%), B. quintana (1.7%), R. conorii (0.4%), R. prowazekii (0.4%), R. typhi (0.1%), B. recurrentis (0.1%), and F. tularensis (0.1%). No DNA from any pathogens was detected. A comparison with studies conducted prior to the 2000-2003 period showed a decrease in the overall seroprevalence of several vector-borne and zoonotic infections.

A molecular survey of vector-borne pathogens and haemoplasmas in owned cats across Italy

BACKGROUND

Feline vector-borne pathogens (FeVBPs) have been increasingly investigated for their impact on cat health and their zoonotic potential. The aim of the present study was to assess the prevalence of FeVBPs and haemoplasmas in cats across Italy and to identify potential risk factors linked to their occurrence.

METHODS

Blood samples from 958 owned cats living in the North (n = 556), Centre (n = 173) and South (n = 229) of Italy were tested for Babesia spp., Hepatozoon spp., Ehrlichia spp., Anaplasma spp. and filarioids by conventional PCR (cPCR) and for haemoplasmas and Bartonella spp. by SYBR green real-time PCR. Cats included in the study represent a sub-sample from a larger number of animals enrolled in a previous study, which were selected based on the geographical origin. Data on cats' positivity for Leishmania infantum, feline leukaemia virus (FeLV) and for feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), available from the previous study, were included and examined. Potential risk factors for pathogen infection were assessed in relationship to categorical variables including sex, geographical origin, breed, neutering status and age of cats.

RESULTS

Out of the 958 cats, 194 (20.2%) were positive for at least one of the tested pathogens, 89 (16%) from the North, 32 (18.5%) from the Centre and 73 (31.9%) from the South of Italy. A high prevalence of FeVBPs was detected in male cats (n = 125, 27.8%), living in the southern part of the country (n = 73, 31.9%), younger than 18 months of age (n = 24, 22.4%) and not neutered (n = 39; 27.5%). In particular, 24 cats (2.5%) tested PCR-positive for Bartonella spp., of which 1.6% for B. henselae and 0.9% for B. clarridgeiae. A total of 111 cats scored PCR-positive for haemoplasmas (11.6%), specifically "Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum" (n = 95, 9.9%), M. haemofelis (n = 14, 1.5%) and "Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis" (n = 2, 0.2%). Moreover, 39, 31 and 8 cats were positive for FeLV (4.1%), L. infantum (3.2%) and FIV (0.8%), respectively. Co-infections were registered for 19 (9.8%) cats.

CONCLUSIONS

These results confirm the occurrence of haemoplasmas and FeVBPs throughout Italy. Preventive measures to protect both animal and human health should be carried out also for owned cats, even if no health status of animals has been assessed in this study.

Survey of Dirofilaria immitis antigen and antibodies to Leishmania infantum and Toxoplasma gondii in cats from Madeira Island, Portugal

BACKGROUND

Dirofilaria immitis, Leishmania infantum and Toxoplasma gondii are zoonotic parasites which can affect domestic cats. Considering the lack of published data from the local feline population, this study aimed to assess infection with or exposure to these pathogens in cats from Madeira Island, Portugal.

METHODS

One hundred and forty-one domestic cats (77 males and 64 females; median age: 2 years) were sampled at a veterinary medical centre in Funchal, from September 2018 to January 2019. Serum samples were tested for D. immitis antigen, with an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kit, and for antibodies to Leishmania spp. or to T. gondii, with the direct agglutination test and the modified agglutination test, respectively.

RESULTS

Five cats (3.5%; 95% confidence interval, CI: 1.2-8.1) were positive to D. immitis; no cats were seropositive to Leishmania spp. (0%; 95% CI: 0-2.6%); and 43 cats (30.5%; 95% CI: 23.0-38.8%) were seropositive to T. gondii. Prevalence of the D. immitis antigen was significantly different between cats that received ectoparasiticides and those which did not (0 vs 12.2%; P = 0.009). Prevalence of antibodies to T. gondii was significantly different between juvenile and adult cats (12.8 vs 38.0%; P = 0.007). There were two cats concurrently positive to D. immitis and T. gondii, but no statistical association between these two dependent variables was found (P = 0.641).

CONCLUSIONS

To our knowledge, this is the first report of the presence of parasites D. immitis and T. gondii in the feline population of Madeira Island. Knowledge on the epidemiological situation of these and other zoonotic pathogens should raise awareness, both at the veterinary medical and public health levels, and contribute to promoting prevention and control.

Molecular and serological detection of animal and human vector-borne pathogens in the blood of dogs from Côte d'Ivoire

In Côte d'Ivoire, limited information are available on vector-borne pathogens, their prevalence and distribution. Here, we assess the occurrence and diversity of canine vector-borne diseases (CVBDs) in Abidjan and Yamoussoukro cities. Blood from a total of 123 dogs were tested for Leishmania infantum and Ehrlichia canis antibodies and screened for Leishmania and Trypanosoma spp., Piroplasmida, Filariidae and Anaplasmataceae by PCR and sequencing. Among dogs, 39 % were positive for at least one pathogen. Seroprevalences were: 15.4 % and 12.2 % for L. infantum and E. canis, respectively. DNA of L. infantum and T. congolense (4.1 %), Baabesia vogeli (1.6 %), Filariidae (Dirofilaria immitis, D. repens and Acanthocheilonema reconditum) (10.6 %) has been detected. Anaplasmataceae were detected in (17.1 %) and E. canis was the only identified specie. Co-infections were observed in 13.8 % of dogs: E. canis-L. infantum co-infection was the most prevalent (4.9 %). Age, breed and sex of dogs do not seem to influence infections. Village dogs were more susceptible to CVBDs than kennel dogs (PV = 0.0000008). This study reports for the first time the presence of L. infantum, B. vogeli, A. reconditum, D. immitis and D. repens in dogs from Côte d'Ivoire and determines the prevalence and diversity of CVBD pathogens. The results indicate that human and animal pathogens are abundant in Ivoirian dogs which requires attention of veterinarians, physicians and authorities against these diseases, especially against major zoonosis such as visceral leishmaniasis (L. infantum).

Molecular detection of Hepatozoon felis in cats from Maio Island, Republic of Cape Verde and global distribution of feline hepatozoonosis

Background

Vector-borne diseases are emerging worldwide and have an important zoonotic relevance. In the last few years, the interest in vector-borne pathogens in cats has increased. However, studies on feline vector-borne pathogens on tropical islands are lacking. Islands differ from continental countries because they have an enclosed population of animals, with all year presence of the vectors and, most often, without vector control measures. This study focused on the molecular identification and phylogenetic analysis of vector-borne pathogens in autochthonous cats with a mixed indoor–outdoor lifestyle from Maio Island, Cape Verde archipelago.

Methods

Blood samples were collected from 80 asymptomatic cats, representing almost a quarter of the total cat population of the island. The presence of DNA of protozoa of the genus Hepatozoon and bacteria belonging to family Anaplasmataceae and to genus Bartonella was assessed by PCR and phylogenetic analysis was conducted. Statistical analysis was performed to identify risk factors associated with infection. For feline hepatozoonosis, a worldwide dataset of Hepatozoon felis sequences retrieved from mammal species and vectors along with Hepatozoon spp. sequences retrieved from felids was generated, phylogenetically analyzed and the geographical and host distribution was assessed.

Results

Hepatozoon felis genotype I was identified in 12 (15%) cats from Maio Island whereas none of the cats were PCR positive for the other pathogens tested. No significant association of H. felis infection with age, sex, location or presence of vectors was observed by statistical analysis in Cape Verde’s cats. Phylogenetic analysis on the worldwide dataset of feline Hepatozoon sequences showed two significant distinct clades for H. felis genotype I and II. Different geographical distributions were assessed: H. felis genotype I was the only genotype found in Africa and has been reported worldwide, with the exception of Japan and Brazil where only H. felis genotype II has been reported.

Conclusions

The identification of H. felis genotype I in cats in Maio Island highlights the need to further investigate the significance of H. felis genotypes and to clarify the epidemiological aspects of this infection.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s13071-019-3551-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Seroprevalence of vector-borne pathogens in dogs from Croatia

Canine vector-borne pathogens (VBPs) are a group of globally distributed and rapidly spreading microorganisms transmitted by arthropods. In the present survey, we investigated Anaplasma spp., Ehrlichia canis, Dirofilaria immitis and Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato seroprevalence between three groups of dogs (asymptomatic, suspected and deceased) from continental and coastal regions of Croatia with the commercial point-of-care SNAP®4Dx®Plus for VBPs. The overall prevalence for tested pathogens in dogs was 6.1% with the highest prevalence detected for Anaplasma spp. (4.5%), while the remaining pathogens were found at a prevalence of less than 1% (E. canis 0.6%, B. burgdorferi s.l. 0.4%, D. immitis 0.6%). No statistically significant differences in VBP detection between dog cohorts could be found with the exception of D. immitis in the deceased group. Interestingly, no evidence of D. immitis could be found in the hearts of dogs in this group at necropsy, however. This study provides the first data on the seroprevalence of selected VBPs between dogs of different health statuses in Croatia. The results demonstrate that serological evidence of VBPs alone or in combination with co-infections were found just as frequently in asymptomatic dogs as those with suspected or confirmed evidence of VBP disease, raising questions about the pathogenic potential of these organisms in domesticated dogs.

Polymerase chain reaction detection of Bartonella spp. in dogs from Spain with blood culture-negative infectious endocarditis

OBJECTIVES

The presence of Bartonella spp. was detected by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in dogs from Spain with blood culture-negative endocarditis. The aim of this study is to add information about canine infectious endocarditis in Europe.

ANIMALS

Thirty dogs with naturally occurring blood culture-negative endocarditis were examined from 2010 to 2017 at three veterinary referral hospitals, located in northwest, northeast, and southeast of Spain.

METHODS

It is a retrospective study. Medical records were reviewed to extract relevant data. Frozen or paraffin-embedded cardiac valve tissue and/or ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid blood samples were evaluated by PCR for the presence of Bartonella DNA. Positive results were sequenced to confirm the species.

RESULTS

Polymerase chain reaction was positive for eight out of 30 dogs included (26.6%). Bartonella rochalimae, Bartonella vinsonii subsp. berkhoffii, and Bartonella koehlerae were detected in valve tissue or blood.

CONCLUSIONS

Bartonella could be an important cause of blood culture-negative infectious endocarditis in dogs from Spain. The outcome for those dogs affected with Bartonella spp. was grave. Prompt empirical treatment with amoxicillin-clavulanate plus fluoroquinolones could be of value in cases of blood culture-negative endocarditis.

Clinical evaluation of outdoor cats exposed to ectoparasites and associated risk for vector-borne infections in southern Italy

BACKGROUND

Cats can be carriers of infected arthropods and be infected with several vector-borne pathogens (VBP) but there is limited knowledge about their pathogenic role in cats.

RESULTS

A cross-sectional controlled study investigated the clinical status and antibody (Bartonella henselae, Rickettsia conorii, Ehrlichia canis, Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Babesia microti and Leishmania infantum) and/or blood PCR (Mycoplasma spp., Bartonella spp., Rickettsia spp., Ehrlichia/Anaplasma spp., piroplasmids, L. infantum, Hepatozoon felis) prevalence in 197 cats. Outdoor cats lacking ectoparasiticide treatment or hosting ectoparasites (study group [SG], n = 134) and indoor cats treated against ectoparasites (control group [CG], n = 63) were enrolled. Clinical data and retroviral co-infections were compared between the two groups. Multivariable analysis tested associations between variables and VBP exposure. Lymphadenia, stomatitis, and various haematological abnormalities were statistically more frequent in SG. Antibodies against R. conorii, B. henselae, A. phagocytophylum, B. microti, E. canis and L. infantum were detected. Bartonella henselae, Bartonella clarridgeiae, Mycoplasma haemofelis, "Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum" and "Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis" DNA were identified. Very high antibody (87.8%) and PCR (40.1%) positivity to at least one pathogen were detected and were significantly higher in SG. Co-infections were confirmed in about one-third of the cats and were more frequent in SG cats. Molecular and overall (antibody and PCR) positivity to Bartonella and antibody positivity to R. conorii were higher in SG. Multivariable analysis found significant associations of Bartonella spp. infection with Feline Immunodeficiency Virus (FIV) infection and increased globulins, and of Mycoplasma spp. infection with adult age, FIV infection, anaemia, and increased creatinine.

CONCLUSIONS

A very high prevalence of exposure to zoonotic VBP was found in cats, with Rickettsia and Bartonella infections being most prevalent. Some risk factors were documented namely for Mycoplasma spp. and Bartonella spp. The lifestyle of cats is clinically relevant and requires specific preventative measures to protect their health.

Vectors and vector-borne pathogens of dogs in Nigeria: a meta-analysis of their prevalence and distribution from data published between 1975 and 2016

Knowledge of vectors and the pathogens they transmit is essential for veterinarians and public health workers to ensure successful diagnosis, treatment and public health protection. In the present study, the guideline for Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) was employed to determine the prevalence and distribution of vectors and vector-borne pathogens (VBPs) of dogs across Nigeria in a meta-analysis of data published between 1975 and 2016. Pooled prevalence estimate (PPE) was determined by the random-effects model while heterogeneity was evaluated using Cochran's Q-test. A total of 2897 cases of vectors and VBPs were reported from 9880 dogs in 28 studies across 15 Nigerian states. Overall PPE was 29.3% (95% CI: 28.4, 30.2) and ranged between 4.4% (95% CI: 2.3, 7.6) and 59.1% (95% CI: 55.7, 62.5) across sub-groups. Rhipicephalus sanquineus (Prev: 25.3%, 95% CI: 23.7, 27.0) and Hepatozoon canis (Prev: 16.9%, 95% CI: 13.9, 20.3) were the most prevalent vector and VBP respectively. Vectors and VBPs of zoonotic and veterinary importance were prevalent in Nigerian dogs and were distributed across the six regions. Vector control, adequate hygiene and sanitation as well as appropriate policies on pet ownership and implementation of control measures will help control these pathogens and curtail the risk of transmission to humans in Nigeria.

Molecular detection of vector-borne pathogens in Greek cats

Infectious diseases have been increasingly recognized in cats worldwide. The objective of this study was the molecular investigation of the prevalence of selected pathogens in healthy and sick cats from Greece, a country highly endemic for several canine vector-borne pathogens. Blood and/or bone marrow samples from 50 clinically healthy and 50 sick adult (>1 year-old) cats were retrospectively examined for the amplification of Bartonella spp., haemoplasmas, Ehrlichia spp., Anaplasma spp., Babesia spp., and Cytauxzoon spp. DNA. Overall, 14.9% of the cats were found to be infected or co-infected by haemoplasmas, including Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum and M. haemofelis. In addition, 8.5% of the cats were infected by Bartonella henselae, Bartonella clarridgeiae or Bartonella koehlerae. In contrast, DNA of Ehrlichia spp., Anaplasma spp., Babesia spp. and Cytauxzoon spp. was not amplified from the blood or bone marrow of any cat. There was no significant difference in either haemoplasma or Bartonella infection rates when comparing healthy and sick cats. This study represents the first description of Bartonella koehlerae in Greek cats.

Molecular detection of tick-borne pathogens in wild red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) from Central Italy

Spleen samples from 153 red foxes, shot during regular hunting season in the province of Pisa (Central Italy), were examined to detect DNA of Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Ehrlichia canis, Coxiella burnetii, Francisella tularensis, Hepatozoon canis and Babesia sp./Theileria sp. DNA of vector-borne pathogens was detected in 120 (78.43%; 95% CI: 71.06-84.66%) foxes. Specifically, 75 (49%; 95% CI: 40.86-57.22%) animals scored PCR-positive per H. canis, 68 (44.44%; 95% CI: 36.42-52.69%) for E. canis, 35 (22.88%; 95% CI: 16.48-30.35%) for piroplasms (Theileria annae), 3 (1.96%; 95% CI: 0.41-5.62%) for C. burnetii and 1 (0.65%; 95% CI: 0.02-3.59%) for A. phagocytophilum. No positive reaction was observed for F. tularensis. Fifty-six animals (36.6%; 95% CI: 28.97-44.76%) were positive for two or three pathogens. Red foxes result to be involved in the cycle of vector-borne pathogens that are associated to disease in dogs and humans.

Seroprevalence of Bartonella Species in Patients with Ocular Inflammation

Bartonella species, vector-borne etiologic agents of many systemic or self-limited infections, are responsible for a widening spectrum of diseases in humans, including inflammatory conditions of the eye. The aim of this study was to determine whether there is any relationship between uveitis and the evidence of Bartonella spp. infection in the serum, ocular fluid, and cataract mass in patients with intraocular inflammation. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based tests and DNA sequencing were performed on surgery-extracted specimens of intraocular fluid and lens mass of 33 patients. Sera from 51 patients and 101 control subjects were tested for the presence of specific antibodies against Bartonella spp. Neither IgM-class antibodies against Bartonella spp. nor Bartonella spp. DNA were detected. A specific IgG-class antibody was found in 33.3% of the patients with uveitis. The rate of positive Bartonella serology was higher among the uveitis patients than that in control subjects. This high rate may in part result from unrecognized indirect mechanisms rather than the immediate presence and multiplication of Bartonella spp. in the eyeball. Nonetheless we believe that screening for Bartonella spp. should become part of the diagnostic workup in uveitis.

Exposure to vector-borne pathogens in candidate blood donor and free-roaming dogs of northeast Italy

Background

Many vector-borne pathogens including viruses, bacteria, protozoa and nematodes occur in northeast Italy, representing a potential threat to animal and human populations. Little information is available on the circulation of the above vector-borne pathogens in dogs. This work aims to (i) assess exposure to and circulation of pathogens transmitted to dogs in northeast Italy by ticks, sandflies, and mosquitoes, and (ii) drive blood donor screening at the newly established canine blood bank of the Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie.

Methods

Blood samples from 150 privately-owned canine candidate blood donors and 338 free-roaming dogs were screened by serology (IFA for Leishmania infantum, Ehrlichia canis, Anaplasma phagocythophilum, Babesia canis, Rickettsia conorii, R. rickettsii), microscopic blood smear examination, and blood filtration for Dirofilaria spp. All candidate donors and seropositive free-roaming dogs were tested by PCR for L. infantum, E. canis, A. phagocythophilum, Babesia/Theileria and Rickettsia spp. The dogs had no clinical signs at the time of sampling.

Results

Overall, 40 candidate donors (26.7 %) and 108 free-roaming dogs (32 %) were seroreactive to at least one vector-borne pathogen. Seroprevalence in candidate donors vs free-roaming dogs was: Leishmania infantum 6.7 vs 7.1 %; Anaplasma phagocytophilum 4.7 vs 3.3 %; Babesia canis 1.3 vs 2.7 %; Ehrlichia canis none vs 0.9 %; Rickettsia conorii 16 vs 21.3 % and R. rickettsii 11 vs 14.3 %. Seroreactivity to R. rickettsii, which is not reported in Italy, is likely a cross-reaction with other rickettsiae. Filariae, as Dirofilaria immitis (n = 19) and D. repens (n = 2), were identified in free-roaming dogs only. No significant differences were observed between candidate donors and free-roaming dogs either in the overall seroprevalence of vector-borne pathogens or for each individual pathogen. All PCRs and smears performed on blood were negative.

Conclusions

This study demonstrated that dogs are considerably exposed to vector-borne pathogens in northeast Italy. Although the dog owners reported regularly using ectoparasiticides against fleas and ticks, their dogs had similar exposure to vector-borne pathogens as free-roaming dogs. This prompts the need to improve owner education on the use of insecticidal and repellent compounds in order to reduce the risk of arthropod bites and exposure to vector-borne pathogens. Based on the absence of pathogens circulating in the blood of healthy dogs, the risk of transmission of these pathogens by blood transfusion seems to be low, depending also on the sensitivity of the tests used for screening.

Detection of vector-borne pathogens in cats and their ectoparasites in southern Italy

BACKGROUND

Vector-borne pathogens are the subject of several investigations due to the zoonotic concern of some of them. However, limited data are available about the simultaneous presence of these pathogens in cats and their ectoparasites. The aim of the present study was to define the species of ectoparasites found on cats as well as to investigate vector-borne pathogens in cats and their ectoparasites in southern Italy.

METHODS

Blood from 42 cats and fleas or flea pools (n = 28) and ticks (n = 73) collected from them were investigated by quantitative PCR for the detection of vector-borne pathogens. Feline serum samples were tested by IFAT to detect IgG antibodies against Leishmania infantum, Bartonella henselae, Rickettsia conorii, Rickettsia felis, Rickettsia typhi, Babesia microti, Ehrlichia canis and Anaplasma phagocytophilum antigens.

RESULTS

Only one flea species (Ctenocephalides felis) and four tick species belonging to the genera Rhipicephalus and Ixodes were identified on cats from southern Italy. Molecular evidence of Bartonella spp., Rickettsia spp., hemoplasmas, Babesia vogeli and L. infantum was found in ectoparasites (fleas and/or ticks) while DNA from Hepatozoon felis and Ehrlichia/Anaplasma spp. was not detected. Likewise, DNAs from Bartonella, hemoplasma and Leishmania were the only pathogens amplified from feline blood samples. Cats had also antibodies against all the investigated pathogens with the exception of Rickettsia typhi. Agreement between serological and molecular results in individual cats and their ectoparasites was not found. The only exception was for Bartonella with a fair to moderate agreement between individual cats and their ectoparasites. Bartonella clarridgeiae was the species most frequently found in cats and their fleas followed by B. henselae.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, cats harboring ticks and fleas are frequently exposed to vector-borne pathogens. Furthermore, ticks and fleas harbored by cats frequently carry pathogens of zoonotic concern therefore appropriate feline ectoparasiticide preventative treatments should be used in cats.

First detection of Cytauxzoon spp. infection in European wildcats (Felis silvestris silvestris) of Italy

Cytauxzoonosis is an emerging, tick-transmitted, protozoan disease affecting domestic and wild felids and caused by Cytauxzoon felis, Cytauxzoon manul and Cytauxzoon spp. This study aimed to determine the presence of infection with Cytauxzoon spp. in Felis silvestris silvestris in Italy, in order to enhance the comprehension of its pattern distribution among domestic cat populations. In addition, wildcats were tested for other endemic vector-borne pathogens in Italy. The carcasses of 21 F. s. silvestris were collected from central and northern regions of Italy. All the animals were submitted to necropsy and samples of the spleens were collected. Cytauxzoon infection was surveyed by a conventional PCR amplifying a portion of the SSU-rDNA of species of Piroplasmida. The samples were also screened for Anaplasma spp., Ehrlichia spp., Rickettsia spp., Babesia spp., Theileria spp., and Leishmania spp. using SYBR Green Real-Time PCR (rPCR) assays. Four animals (19%) were positive for Piroplasmida-PCR assay and three sequenced amplicons were obtained (14.3%), clustering with the Italian, Spanish, French and Romanian Cytauxzoon spp. isolates and with C. manul found in Mongolia. The samples were negative for the other pathogens screened. The present results showed that Cytauxzoon spp. may infect both F. s. silvestris and F. s. catus.