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Cao X, Mo Y, Zhang F, Zhou Y, Liu YD, Zhong R. Reaction sites of pyrimidine bases and nucleosides during chlorination: A computational study. CHEMOSPHERE 2024; 358:142189. [PMID: 38688350 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.142189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2024] [Revised: 04/26/2024] [Accepted: 04/27/2024] [Indexed: 05/02/2024]
Abstract
As important components of soluble microbial products in water, nucleobases have attracted much attention due to the high toxicity of their direct aromatic halogenated disinfection by-products (AH-DBPs) during chlorination. However, multiple halogenation sites of AH-DBPs pose challenges to identify them. In this study, reaction sites of pyrimidine bases and nucleosides during chlorination were investigated by quantum chemical computational method. The results indicate that the anion salt forms play key roles in chlorination of uracil, thymine, and their nucleosides, while neutral forms make predominant contributions to cytosine and cytidine. In view of both kinetics and thermodynamics, C5 is the most reactive site for uracil and thymine, N3/C5 and N3 for respective uridine and thymidine, N1/C5/N4 and N4 for respective cytosine and cytidine, whose estimated apparent rate constants kobs-est of ∼103, 103/102, 106/102/104, and 103 M-1 s-1, respectively, in consistent with the known experimental results. C6 in all pyrimidine compounds is hardly attacked by Cl+ in HOCl ascribed to its positive charge, but readily attacked by OH‾ in hydrolysis and the N1=C6 bond was found to possess the highest reactivity in hydrolysis among all double bonds. In addition, the structure-kinetic reactivity relationship study reveals a relatively strong correlation between lgkobs-est and APT charge in all pyrimidine compounds rather than FED2 (HOMO). The results are helpful to further understand the reactivity of various reaction sites in aromatic compounds during chlorination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaomin Cao
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental and Viral Oncology, College of Chemistry and Life Science, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing, 100124, China.
| | - Yonghang Mo
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental and Viral Oncology, College of Chemistry and Life Science, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing, 100124, China
| | - Fuhao Zhang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental and Viral Oncology, College of Chemistry and Life Science, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing, 100124, China
| | - Yingying Zhou
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental and Viral Oncology, College of Chemistry and Life Science, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing, 100124, China
| | - Yong Dong Liu
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental and Viral Oncology, College of Chemistry and Life Science, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing, 100124, China.
| | - Rugang Zhong
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental and Viral Oncology, College of Chemistry and Life Science, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing, 100124, China
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Lau SS, Bokenkamp K, Tecza A, Wagner ED, Plewa MJ, Mitch WA. Mammalian Cell Genotoxicity of Potable Reuse and Conventional Drinking Waters. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2024; 58:8654-8664. [PMID: 38709862 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.4c01596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2024]
Abstract
Potable reuse water is increasingly part of the water supply portfolio for municipalities facing water shortages, and toxicity assays can be useful for evaluating potable reuse water quality. We examined the Chinese hamster ovary cell acute direct genotoxicity of potable reuse waters contributed by disinfection byproducts (DBPs) and anthropogenic contaminants and used the local conventional drinking waters as benchmarks for evaluating potable reuse water quality. Our results showed that treatment trains based on reverse osmosis (RO) were more effective than RO-free treatment trains for reducing the genotoxicity of influent wastewaters. RO-treated reuse waters were less genotoxic than the local tap water derived from surface water, whereas reuse waters not treated by RO were similarly genotoxic as the local drinking waters when frequent replacement of granular activated carbon limited contaminant breakthrough. The genotoxicity contributed by nonvolatile, uncharacterized DBPs and anthropogenic contaminants accounted for ≥73% of the total genotoxicity. The (semi)volatile DBPs of current research interest contributed 2-27% toward the total genotoxicity, with unregulated DBPs being more important genotoxicity drivers than regulated DBPs. Our results underscore the need to look beyond known, (semi)volatile DBPs and the importance of determining whole water toxicity when assessing the quality of disinfected waters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie S Lau
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, 473 Via Ortega, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Katherine Bokenkamp
- Department of Crop Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1101 West Peabody Dr., Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Safe Global Water Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 205 North Mathews Ave., Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Aleksander Tecza
- Department of Crop Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1101 West Peabody Dr., Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Safe Global Water Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 205 North Mathews Ave., Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Elizabeth D Wagner
- Department of Crop Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1101 West Peabody Dr., Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Safe Global Water Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 205 North Mathews Ave., Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Michael J Plewa
- Department of Crop Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1101 West Peabody Dr., Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Safe Global Water Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 205 North Mathews Ave., Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - William A Mitch
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, 473 Via Ortega, Stanford, California 94305, United States
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Ren J, Tang M, Wang L, Chu W, Shi W, Zhou Q, Pan Y. How to achieve adequate quenching for DBP analysis in drinking water? WATER RESEARCH 2024; 253:121264. [PMID: 38335842 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2024.121264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2023] [Revised: 02/01/2024] [Accepted: 02/03/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024]
Abstract
Quenching is an important step to terminate disinfection during preparation of disinfected water samples for the analysis of disinfection byproducts (DBPs). However, an incomplete quenching might result in continued reactions of residual chlorine, whereas an excessive quenching might decompose target DBPs. Therefore, an adequate quenching to achieve simultaneous disinfection termination and DBP preservation is of particular importance. In this study, the two-stage reaction kinetics of chlorine and three commonly used quenching agents (i.e., ascorbic acid, sodium thiosulfate, and sodium sulfite) were determined. Stopping quenching during the first stage prevented interactions of residual chlorine with natural organic matter. Complete quenching was achieved by minimizing the quenching time for ascorbic acid and sodium sulfite, while limiting the quenching time to less than 3 min for sodium thiosulfate. At the optimized quenching times, the molar ratios (MRs) of quenching agent to chlorine were 1.05, 1.10, and 0.75 for ascorbic acid, sodium sulfite, and sodium thiosulfate, respectively. The destructive effects of the three quenching agents on total organic halogen (TOX) followed the rank order of ascorbic acid (33.7-64.8 %) < sodium sulfite (41.6-72.8 %) < sodium thiosulfate (43.3-73.2 %), and the destructive effects on aliphatic DBPs also followed the rank order of ascorbic acid (29.5-44.5 %) < sodium sulfite (34.9-51.9 %) < sodium thiosulfate (46.9-53.2 %). For total organic chlorine (TOCl) and aliphatic DBPs, the quenching behavior itself had more significant destructive effect than the quenching agent type/dose and quenching time, but for total organic bromine (TOBr), the destructive effect caused by quenching agent type/dose and quenching time was more significant. High-dose, long-duration quenching enhanced the reduction of TOX, but had little effect on aliphatic DBPs. Additionally, the three quenching agents reduced the levels of halophenols (except for tribromophenol), while maintained or increased the levels of tribromophenol, halobenzoic/salicylic acids, and halobenzaldehydes/salicylaldehydes. To achieve adequate quenching for overall DBP analysis in chlorinated water samples, it is recommended to use ascorbic acid at a quenching agent-to-chlorine MR of 1.0 for a quenching time of < 0.5 h.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiafeng Ren
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210023, China
| | - Mengmeng Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210023, China
| | - Leyi Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210023, China
| | - Wenhai Chu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Wei Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210023, China
| | - Qing Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210023, China.
| | - Yang Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210023, China.
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Luo ZN, Zhang TY, Xu MY, Fang RF, Wang XX, Zheng ZX, Zhao HX, Li ZC, Tang YL, Xu B. Enhanced 2-MIB degradation by UV-LED/chlorine process: reaction kinetics, wavelength dependence, influencing factors and degradation pathways. ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY 2024; 45:2132-2143. [PMID: 36601874 DOI: 10.1080/09593330.2023.2165455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2022] [Accepted: 12/31/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
The efficient removal of 2-Methylisoborneol (2-MIB), a typical odour component, in water treatment plants (WTPs), poses a great challenge to conventional water treatment technology due to its chemical stability. In this study, the combination of ultraviolet light-emitting diode (UV-LED) and chlorine (UV-LED/chlorine) was exploited for 2-MIB removal, and the role of ultraviolet (UV) wavelength was investigated systematically. The results showed that UV or chlorination alone did not degrade 2-MIB effectively, and the UV/chlorine process could degrade 2-MIB efficiently, following the pseudo-first-order kinetic model. The 275 nm UV exhibited higher 2-MIB degradation efficiency in this UV-LED/chlorine system than 254 nm UV, 265 nm UV and 285 nm UV due to the highest mole adsorption coefficient and quantum yield of chlorine in 275 nm UV. ·OH and ·Cl produced in the 275 nm UV/chlorine system played major roles in 2-MIB degradation. HCO3- and Natural organic matter (NOM), prevalent in water, consumed ·OH and ·Cl, thus inhibiting the 2-MIB degradation by UV-LED/chlorine. In addition, NOM and 2-MIB could form a photonic competition effect. The degradation of 2-MIB by UV-LED/chlorine was done mainly through dehydration and demethylation, and odorous intermediates, such as camphor, were produced. 2-MIB was degraded through the α bond fracture and six-membered ring opening to form saturated or unsaturated hydrocarbons and aldehydes. Four DBPs, chloroform (CF), trichloroacetaldehyde (TCE), trichloroacetone (TCP) and dichloroacetone (DCP), were mainly generated, and CF was the most significant by-product.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhen-Ning Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Key Laboratory of Yangtze Water Environment, Ministry of Education, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
- Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Tian-Yang Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Key Laboratory of Yangtze Water Environment, Ministry of Education, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
- Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Meng-Yuan Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Key Laboratory of Yangtze Water Environment, Ministry of Education, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
- Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Ruo-Fan Fang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Key Laboratory of Yangtze Water Environment, Ministry of Education, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
- Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Xing-Xing Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Key Laboratory of Yangtze Water Environment, Ministry of Education, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
- Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Zheng-Xiong Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Key Laboratory of Yangtze Water Environment, Ministry of Education, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
- Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Heng-Xuan Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Key Laboratory of Yangtze Water Environment, Ministry of Education, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
- Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Zong-Chen Li
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Key Laboratory of Yangtze Water Environment, Ministry of Education, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
- Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Yu-Lin Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Key Laboratory of Yangtze Water Environment, Ministry of Education, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
- Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Bin Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Key Laboratory of Yangtze Water Environment, Ministry of Education, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
- Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
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Marques Dos Santos M, Li C, Jia S, Thomas M, Gallard H, Croué JP, Carato P, Snyder SA. Formation of halogenated forms of bisphenol A (BPA) in water: Resolving isomers with ion mobility - mass spectrometry and the role of halogenation position in cellular toxicity. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 465:133229. [PMID: 38232544 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.133229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2022] [Revised: 12/05/2023] [Accepted: 12/09/2023] [Indexed: 01/19/2024]
Abstract
Halogenated BPA (XBPA) forms resulting from water chlorination can lead to increased toxicity and different biological effects. While previous studies have reported the occurrence of different XBPAs, analytical limitation have hindered the analysis and differentiation of the many potential isomeric forms. Using online solid-phase extraction - liquid chromatography - ion-mobility - high-resolution mass spectrometry (OSPE-LC-IM-HRMS), we demonstrated a rapid analysis method for the analysis of XBPA forms after water chlorination, with a total analysis time of less than 10 min including extraction and concentration and low detection limits (∼5-80 ng/L range). A multi in-vitro bioassay testing approach for the identified products revealed that cytotoxicity and bioenergetics impacts were largely associated with the presence of halogen atoms at positions 2 or 2' and the overall number of halogens incorporated into the BPA molecule. Different XBPA also showed distinct impacts on oxidative stress, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma - PPARγ, and inflammatory response. While increased DNA damage was observed for chlorinated water samples (4.14 ± 1.21-fold change), the additive effect of the selected 20 XBPA studied could not explain the increased DNA damage observed, indicating that additional species or synergistic effects might be at play.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mauricius Marques Dos Santos
- Nanyang Environment & Water Research Institute (NEWRI), Nanyang Technological University, CleanTech One, 1 Cleantech Loop, 637141, Singapore
| | - Caixia Li
- Nanyang Environment & Water Research Institute (NEWRI), Nanyang Technological University, CleanTech One, 1 Cleantech Loop, 637141, Singapore
| | - Shenglan Jia
- Nanyang Environment & Water Research Institute (NEWRI), Nanyang Technological University, CleanTech One, 1 Cleantech Loop, 637141, Singapore
| | - Mikael Thomas
- Institut de Chimie des Milieux et des Matériaux de Poitiers, IC2MP UMR 7285 CNRS, Université de Poitiers, France
| | - Hervé Gallard
- Institut de Chimie des Milieux et des Matériaux de Poitiers, IC2MP UMR 7285 CNRS, Université de Poitiers, France
| | - Jean-Philippe Croué
- Institut de Chimie des Milieux et des Matériaux de Poitiers, IC2MP UMR 7285 CNRS, Université de Poitiers, France
| | - Pascal Carato
- Laboratoire Ecologie & Biologie des Interactions, UMR CNRS 7267, Université de Poitiers, France; INSERM CIC1402, Université de Poitiers, IHES Research Group, Poitiers, France
| | - Shane Allen Snyder
- Nanyang Environment & Water Research Institute (NEWRI), Nanyang Technological University, CleanTech One, 1 Cleantech Loop, 637141, Singapore.
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Han J, Zhai H, Zhang X, Liu J, Sharma VK. Effects of ozone dose on brominated DBPs in subsequent chlor(am)ination: A comprehensive study of aliphatic, alicyclic and aromatic DBPs. WATER RESEARCH 2024; 250:121039. [PMID: 38142503 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2023.121039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2023] [Revised: 12/11/2023] [Accepted: 12/18/2023] [Indexed: 12/26/2023]
Abstract
Ozone‒chlor(am)ine is a commonly used combination of disinfectants in drinking water treatment. Although there are quite a few studies on the formation of some individual DBPs in the ozone‒chlor(am)ine disinfection, an overall picture of the DBP formation in the combined disinfection is largely unavailable. In this study, the effects of ozone dose on the formation and speciation of organic brominated disinfection byproducts (DBPs) in subsequent chlorination, chloramination, or chlorination‒chloramination of simulated drinking water were investigated. High-molecular-weight, aliphatic, alicyclic and aromatic brominated DBPs were selectively detected and studied using a powerful precursor ion scan method with ultra performance liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (UPLC/ESI-tqMS). Two groups of unregulated yet relatively toxic DBPs, dihalonitromethanes and dihaloacetaldehydes, were detected by the UPLC/ESI-tqMS for the first time. With increasing ozone dose, the levels of high-molecular-weight (m/z 300-500) and alicyclic and aromatic brominated DBPs generally decreased, the levels of brominated aliphatic acids were slightly affected, and the levels of dihalonitromethanes and dihaloacetaldehydes generally increased in the subsequent disinfection processes. Despite different molecular compositions of the detected DBPs, increasing ozone dose generally shifted the formation of DBPs from chlorinated ones to brominated analogues in the subsequent disinfection processes. This study provided a comprehensive analysis of the impact of ozone dose on the DBP formation and speciation in subsequent chlor(am)ine disinfection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiarui Han
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Hongyan Zhai
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China.
| | - Xiangru Zhang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong SAR, China.
| | - Jiaqi Liu
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong SAR, China; Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Texas A&M University, TX, USA
| | - Virender K Sharma
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Texas A&M University, TX, USA
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7
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Li G, Tian C, Karanfil T, Liu C. Comparative formation of chlorinated and brominated disinfection byproducts from chlorination and bromination of amino acids. CHEMOSPHERE 2024; 349:140985. [PMID: 38104740 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.140985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2023] [Revised: 12/14/2023] [Accepted: 12/14/2023] [Indexed: 12/19/2023]
Abstract
Amino acids are the main components of dissolved organic nitrogen in algal- and wastewater-impacted waters, which can react with chlorine to form toxic halogenated disinfection by-products (DBPs) in the disinfection process. In the presence of bromide, the reaction between amino acids and secondarily formed hypobromous acid can lead to the formation of brominated DBPs that are more toxic than chlorinated analogues. This study compares the formation of regulated and unregulated DBPs during chlorination and bromination of representative amino acids (AAs) (e.g., aspartic acid, asparagine, tryptophan, tyrosine, and histidine). In general, concentrations of brominated DBPs (trihalomethanes, haloacetonitriles, and haloacetamides, 24.9-5835.0 nM) during bromination were higher than their chlorinated analogues (9.3-3235.3 nM) during chlorination. This indicates the greater efficacy of bromine as a halogenating agent. However, the formation of chlorinated haloacetic acids during chlorination was higher than the corresponding brominated DBPs from bromination. It is likely that an oxidation pathway is required for the formation of haloacetic acids and chlorine is a stronger oxidant than bromine. Moreover, chlorine forms higher levels of haloacetaldehydes (74.4-1077.8 nM) from amino acids than bromine (1.0-480.2 nM) owing to the instability of brominated species. The DBP formation yields depend on the types of functional groups in the side chain of AAs. Eight intermediates resulting from chlorination/bromination of tyrosine were identified by triple quadrupole mass spectrometer, including N-chlorinated/brominated tyrosine, 3-chloro/bromo-tyrosine, and 3,5-dichloro/dibromo-tyrosine. These findings provided new insights into the DBP formation during the chlorination of algal- and wastewater-impacted waters with elevated bromide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gengxian Li
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Chenhao Tian
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China
| | - Tanju Karanfil
- Department of Environmental Engineering and Earth Sciences, Clemson University, Anderson, SC, 29625, USA
| | - Chao Liu
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China.
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8
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Zhang Z, Hu S, Sun G, Wang W. Target analysis, occurrence and cytotoxicity of halogenated polyhydroxyphenols as emerging disinfection byproducts in drinking water. WATER RESEARCH 2024; 248:120883. [PMID: 38007884 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2023.120883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2023] [Revised: 11/06/2023] [Accepted: 11/14/2023] [Indexed: 11/28/2023]
Abstract
Halogenated aromatic disinfection byproducts (DBPs) in drinking water, such as halogenated phenols, have received widespread attention due to their high toxicity and ubiquitous occurrence in recent years. This study identified a group of emerging halogenated aromatic DBPs, known as halogenated polyhydroxyphenols (HPPs), and investigated their occurrence and cytotoxicity. We developed a highly sensitive solid-phase extraction ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (SPE-UPLC-MS/MS) method under multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode, with recoveries ranging from 86 to 115% and method detection limits (MDLs) ranging from 0.10 to 1.87 ng/L for the analysis of 15 HPPs. Eleven of these HPP DBPs were detected in collected drinking water samples using this method with detection frequencies ranging from 14 to 100% and a maximum concentration of 24 ng/L. The IC50 of the 15 HPPs in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO-K1) cells were ranged from 15.13 µM to 6.08×103 µM. The tested HPPs with -CHO substitution exhibited higher cytotoxicity compared to those with -COOH substitution. The TIC-Tox values of HPPs were calculated to be higher than those of HPs, indicating a potential necessity to pay attention to HPP DBPs. A quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) model was developed for the cytotoxicity of HPPs, which was shown to be significantly associated with acid dissociation constant (pKa) and total valence connectivity (TVCon). To the best of our knowledge, this study reported the analysis, occurrence, and cytotoxicity of HPP DBPs in drinking water for the first time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhe Zhang
- Department of Environmental Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Organic Pollution Process and Control, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Shaoyang Hu
- Department of Environmental Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Organic Pollution Process and Control, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Guangrong Sun
- Department of Environmental Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Organic Pollution Process and Control, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Wei Wang
- Department of Environmental Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Organic Pollution Process and Control, Hangzhou 310058, China.
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Wei J, Wang S, Tang W, Xu Z, Ma D, Zheng M, Li J. Redox-directed identification of toxic transformation products during ozonation of aromatics. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 901:165929. [PMID: 37532054 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.165929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2023] [Revised: 07/22/2023] [Accepted: 07/29/2023] [Indexed: 08/04/2023]
Abstract
The toxicity assessment of transformation products (TPs) formed in oxidative water treatment is crucial but challenging because of their low concentration, structural diversity, and mixture complexity. Here, this study developed a novel redox-directed approach for identification of toxic TPs without the individual toxicity and concentration information. This approach based on sodium borohydride reduction comprised an integrated process of toxicological evaluation, fluorescence excitation-emission matrix characterization, high-resolution mass spectrometry detection, followed by ecological toxicity assessment of identified TPs. The redox-directed identification of primary causative toxicants was experimentally tested for the increased nonspecific toxicity observations in the ozonated effluents of model aromatics. Reduction reaction caused a remarkable decrease in toxicity and increase in fluorescence intensity, obtaining a good linear relation between them. More than ten monomeric or dimeric p-benzoquinone (p-BQ) TPs were identified in the ozonated effluents. The occurrence of the p-BQ TPs was further verified through parallel sodium sulfite reduction and actual wastewater ozonation experiments. In vitro bioassays of luminescent bacteria, as well as in silico genotoxicity and cytotoxicity predictions, indicate that the toxicity of p-BQ TPs is significantly higher than that of their precursors and other TPs. These together demonstrated that the identified p-BQ TPs are primary toxicity contributors. The redox-directed approach facilitated the revelation of primary toxicity contribution, illustrating emerging p-BQs are a concern for aquatic ecosystem safety in the oxidative treatment of aromatics-contaminated wastewater.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianjian Wei
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, School of Environmental and Biological Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing 210094, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Shuting Wang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, School of Environmental and Biological Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing 210094, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Weixu Tang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, School of Environmental and Biological Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing 210094, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Zhourui Xu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, School of Environmental and Biological Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing 210094, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Dehua Ma
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, School of Environmental and Biological Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing 210094, Jiangsu Province, China.
| | - Min Zheng
- Australian Centre for Water and Environmental Biotechnology, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Jiansheng Li
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, School of Environmental and Biological Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing 210094, Jiangsu Province, China
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10
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Fernández-Pascual E, Droz B, O’Dwyer J, O’Driscoll C, Goslan EH, Harrison S, Weatherill J. Fluorescent Dissolved Organic Matter Components as Surrogates for Disinfection Byproduct Formation in Drinking Water: A Critical Review. ACS ES&T WATER 2023; 3:1997-2008. [PMID: 37588806 PMCID: PMC10425960 DOI: 10.1021/acsestwater.2c00583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2022] [Revised: 05/26/2023] [Accepted: 05/26/2023] [Indexed: 08/18/2023]
Abstract
Disinfection byproduct (DBP) formation, prediction, and minimization are critical challenges facing the drinking water treatment industry worldwide where chemical disinfection is required to inactivate pathogenic microorganisms. Fluorescence excitation-emission matrices-parallel factor analysis (EEM-PARAFAC) is used to characterize and quantify fluorescent dissolved organic matter (FDOM) components in aquatic systems and may offer considerable promise as a low-cost optical surrogate for DBP formation in treated drinking waters. However, the global utility of this approach for quantification and prediction of specific DBP classes or species has not been widely explored to date. Hence, this critical review aims to elucidate recurring empirical relationships between common environmental fluorophores (identified by PARAFAC) and DBP concentrations produced during water disinfection. From 45 selected peer-reviewed articles, 218 statistically significant linear relationships (R2 ≥ 0.5) with one or more DBP classes or species were established. Trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs), as key regulated classes, were extensively investigated and exhibited strong, recurrent relationships with ubiquitous humic/fulvic-like FDOM components, highlighting their potential as surrogates for carbonaceous DBP formation. Conversely, observed relationships between nitrogenous DBP classes, such as haloacetonitriles (HANs), halonitromethanes (HNMs), and N-nitrosamines (NAs), and PARAFAC fluorophores were more ambiguous, but preferential relationships with protein-like components in the case of algal/microbial FDOM sources were noted. This review highlights the challenges of transposing site-specific or FDOM source-specific empirical relationships between PARAFAC component and DBP formation potential to a global model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Fernández-Pascual
- School
of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University College Cork, Cork T23 TK30, Ireland
- Environmental
Research Institute, University College Cork, Cork T23 XE10, Ireland
| | - Boris Droz
- School
of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University College Cork, Cork T23 TK30, Ireland
- Environmental
Research Institute, University College Cork, Cork T23 XE10, Ireland
| | - Jean O’Dwyer
- School
of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University College Cork, Cork T23 TK30, Ireland
- Environmental
Research Institute, University College Cork, Cork T23 XE10, Ireland
- iCRAG
Science Foundation Ireland Research Centre in Applied Geosciences, University College Dublin, Dublin D04 V1W8, Ireland
| | | | - Emma H. Goslan
- Cranfield
Water Science Institute, Cranfield University, Cranfield MK43 0AL, United Kingdom
| | - Simon Harrison
- School
of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University College Cork, Cork T23 TK30, Ireland
- Environmental
Research Institute, University College Cork, Cork T23 XE10, Ireland
| | - John Weatherill
- School
of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University College Cork, Cork T23 TK30, Ireland
- Environmental
Research Institute, University College Cork, Cork T23 XE10, Ireland
- iCRAG
Science Foundation Ireland Research Centre in Applied Geosciences, University College Dublin, Dublin D04 V1W8, Ireland
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11
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Sun G, Kaw HY, Zhou M, Guo P, Zhu L, Wang W. Chlorinated nucleotides and analogs as potential disinfection byproducts in drinking water. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2023; 452:131242. [PMID: 36963195 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.131242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2023] [Revised: 03/09/2023] [Accepted: 03/17/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Identification of emerging disinfection byproducts (DBPs) of health relevance is important to uncover the health risk of drinking water observed in epidemiology studies. In this study, mutagenic chlorinated nucleotides were proposed as potential DBPs in drinking water, and the formation and transformation pathways of these DBPs in chlorination of nucleotides were carefully investigated. A total of eleven chlorinated nucleotides and analogs were provisionally identified as potential DBPs, such as monochloro uridine/cytidine/adenosine acid and dichloro cytidine acid, and the formation mechanisms involved chlorination, decarbonization, hydrolysis, oxidation and decarboxylation. The active sites of nucleotides that reacted with chlorine were on the aromatic heterocyclic rings of nucleobases, and the carbon among the two nitrogen atoms in the nucleobases tended to be transformed into carboxyl group or be eliminated, further forming ring-opening or reorganization products. Approximately 0.2-4.0 % (mol/mol) of these chlorinated nucleotides and analogs finally decomposed to small-molecule aliphatic DBPs, primarily including haloacetic acids, trichloromethane, and trichloroacetaldehyde. Eight intermediates, particularly chlorinated imino-D-ribose and imino-D-ribose, were tentatively identified in chlorination of uridine. This study provides the first set of preliminary evidence for indicating the promising occurrence of chlorinated nucleotides and analogs as potential toxicological-relevant DBPs after disinfection of drinking water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guangrong Sun
- Department of Environmental Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Organic Pollution Process and Control, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Han Yeong Kaw
- Department of Environmental Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Organic Pollution Process and Control, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Meijiao Zhou
- Department of Environmental Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Organic Pollution Process and Control, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Pei Guo
- Department of Environmental Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Organic Pollution Process and Control, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Lizhong Zhu
- Department of Environmental Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Organic Pollution Process and Control, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Wei Wang
- Department of Environmental Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Organic Pollution Process and Control, Hangzhou 310058, China.
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12
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Li J, Chen J, Zhang Z, Liang X. Impact of prevalent chlorine quenchers on phenolic disinfection byproducts in drinking water and potential reaction mechanisms. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 871:161971. [PMID: 36739019 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.161971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2022] [Revised: 01/22/2023] [Accepted: 01/29/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
To prevent the reactions of disinfection byproducts (DBPs) or natural organic matters with residual chlorine in drinking water in the course of the water store, residual chlorine is quenched by chlorine quenchers, while some chlorine quenchers may result in dechlorination of DBPs. Phenolic compounds are a group of highly toxic DBPs compared to regulated aliphatic DBPs (trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs)), which might be a great threat to drinking water safety. Nevertheless, impact of popular chlorine quenchers on phenolic DBPs is less understanding. In this study, the influences of ammonium chloride, ascorbic acid, sodium thiosulfate, and sodium sulfite on phenolic DBPs are assessed. Total concentration of 19 phenolic DBPs in drinking water from 7 Chinese cities was 145-1821 ng/L, suggesting a widely occurrence of these pollutants. Four assessed chlorine quenchers have not impacts on mass spectra of studied phenolic DBPs. Additionally, when the storage time ≤24 h, recoveries of 19 phenolic DBPs using four assessed chlorine quenchers are within the accept levels (70-130 %). However, when the storage time increased to 168 h, ascorbic acid and sodium thiosulfate satisfied the recovery requirement of phenolic DBPs during the sample analysis, and ammonium chloride and sodium sulfite showed a unacceptable impact on bromo-chloro-phenols. In general, ascorbic acid and sodium thiosulfate are recommended to be the ideal chlorine quenchers of phenolic DBPs. Mechanism study indicated that sodium sulfite induced the dechlorination of 2-chloro-4-bromophenol via nucleophilic reaction. This study is the first attempt to provide the impact of chlorine quenchers on phenolic DBPs and corresponding reaction mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiafu Li
- School of Public Health, Soochow University, Suzhou 215122, China.
| | - Jingsi Chen
- School of Public Health, Soochow University, Suzhou 215122, China
| | - Zengli Zhang
- School of Public Health, Soochow University, Suzhou 215122, China
| | - Xiaojun Liang
- Center for Disease Control and Prevention of Kunshan, Kunshan 215301, China.
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13
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Li X, Zhao Z, Qu Z, Li X, Zhang Z, Liang X, Chen J, Li J. A Review of Traditional and Emerging Residual Chlorine Quenchers on Disinfection By-Products: Impact and Mechanisms. TOXICS 2023; 11:toxics11050410. [PMID: 37235225 DOI: 10.3390/toxics11050410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2023] [Revised: 04/17/2023] [Accepted: 04/23/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Disinfection by-products (DBPs) are the most common organic contaminants in tap water and are of wide concern because of their highly developmental toxic, cytotoxic, and carcinogenic properties. Typically, to control the proliferation of pathogenic microorganisms, a certain concentration of residual chlorine is retained in the factory water, which reacts with the natural organic matter and the disinfection by-products that have been formed, thus affecting the determination of DBPs. Therefore, to obtain an accurate concentration, residual chlorine in tap water needs to be quenched prior to treatment. Currently, the most commonly used quenching agents are ascorbic acid, sodium thiosulfate, ammonium chloride, sodium sulfite, and sodium arsenite, but these quenching agents can cause varying degrees of DBPs degradation. Therefore, in recent years, researchers have attempted to find emerging chlorine quenchers. However, no studies have been conducted to systematically review the effects of traditional quenchers and new ones on DBPs, as well as their advantages, disadvantages, and scope of application. For inorganic DBPs (bromate, chlorate, and chlorite), sodium sulfite has been proven to be the ideal chlorine quencher. For organic DBPs, although ascorbic acid caused the degradation of some DBPs, it remains the ideal quenching agent for most known DBPs. Among the studied emerging chlorine quenchers, n-acetylcysteine (NAC), glutathione (GSH), and 1,3,5-trimethoxybenzene are promising for their application as the ideal chlorine quencher of organic DBPs. The dehalogenation of trichloronitromethane, trichloroacetonitrile, trichloroacetamide, and bromochlorophenol by sodium sulfite is caused by nucleophilic substitution reaction. This paper takes the understanding of DBPs and traditional and emerging chlorine quenchers as a starting point to comprehensively summarize their effects on different types of DBPs, and to provide assistance in understanding and selecting the most suitable residual chlorine quenchers during DBPs research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xue Li
- School of Public Health, Suzhou Medical College, Soochow University, Suzhou 215000, China
| | - Zhijing Zhao
- School of Public Health, Suzhou Medical College, Soochow University, Suzhou 215000, China
| | - Zheng Qu
- School of Public Health, Suzhou Medical College, Soochow University, Suzhou 215000, China
| | - Xinyu Li
- School of Public Health, Suzhou Medical College, Soochow University, Suzhou 215000, China
| | - Zengli Zhang
- School of Public Health, Suzhou Medical College, Soochow University, Suzhou 215000, China
| | - Xiaojun Liang
- Kunshan Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Suzhou 215301, China
| | - Jingsi Chen
- School of Public Health, Suzhou Medical College, Soochow University, Suzhou 215000, China
| | - Jiafu Li
- School of Public Health, Suzhou Medical College, Soochow University, Suzhou 215000, China
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14
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Fang C, Luan X, Ao F, Wang X, Ding S, Du Z, Liu S, Jia R, Chu W. Decomposition of Total Organic Halogen Formed during Chlorination: The Iceberg of Halogenated Disinfection Byproducts Was Previously Underestimated. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:1433-1442. [PMID: 36626160 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c03596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Total organic halogen (TOX) is widely used as a surrogate bulk parameter to measure the overall exposure of halogenated disinfection byproducts (DBPs) in drinking water. In this study, we surprisingly found that the level of TOX in chlorinated waters had been significantly underestimated under common analytical conditions. After the addition of quenching agent sodium thiosulfate, total organic chlorine and total organic bromine exhibited a two-phase decomposition pattern with increasing contact time, and a significant decomposition was observed for different types of quenching agents, quenching doses, and pH conditions. More importantly, the decomposed TOX closely correlated with the acute toxicity of quenched water against luminous bacteria, implying that the DBPs responsible for TOX decomposition could be of important toxicological significance. Based on nontarget analysis by using high-resolution mass spectrometry, molecular formulas for the decomposed TOX were determined. After re-examining the mass balance of TOX in the context of unintentional decomposition, it was found that both the level and percentage of unknown TOX in chlorinated waters were considerably higher than historically thought. Overall, this study brings new insights into the knowledge of TOX formed during chlorination, providing important clues on the identification of toxicity driver in drinking water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Fang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Xinmiao Luan
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Feiyang Ao
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Xingyu Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Shunke Ding
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Zhenqi Du
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Shushen Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Ruibao Jia
- Shandong Province Water Supply and Drainage Monitoring Centre, Jinan 250101, China
| | - Wenhai Chu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
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15
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Wang J, Zhang M, Hu S, Xian Q, Chen H, Gong T. Occurrence and Cytotoxicity of Aliphatic and Aromatic Halogenated Disinfection Byproducts in Indoor Swimming Pool Water and Their Incoming Tap Water. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2022; 56:17763-17775. [PMID: 36475631 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c07175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Disinfection byproducts (DBPs) in swimming pool water are of wide concern for public health. In this study, the occurrence of five categories of aliphatic halogenated DBPs, i.e., trihalomethanes (THMs), haloacetic acids (HAAs), haloacetonitriles (HANs), halonitromethanes (HNMs), and haloketones (HKs), and six categories of aromatic halogenated DBPs, i.e., halophenols (HPs), halonitrophenols (HNPs), halohydroxy-benzaldehydes (HBALs), halohydroxybenzoic acids (HBAs), halobenzoquinones (HBQs), and haloanilines (HAs), was examined in seven indoor swimming pool water and their incoming tap water. The correlations between the DBP concentrations and water quality parameters were explored. Moreover, the cytotoxicity of the aliphatic and aromatic halogenated DBPs was tested with human hepatoma (HepG2) cells, and the concentration-cytotoxicity contributions of different DBP categories were calculated. The results demonstrate that 24 aliphatic (5 THMs, 8 HAAs, 5 HANs, 4 HNMs, and 2 HKs) and 50 aromatic halogenated DBPs (9 HPs, 8 HNPs, 9 HBALs, 8 HBAs, 11 HBQs, and 5 HAs) were present in the swimming pool water, among which 41 aromatic halogenated DBPs were detected in swimming pool water for the first time. The average concentrations of the five categories of aliphatic halogenated DBPs in the swimming pool water were in the order of HAAs > HANs > HKs > THMs > HNMs, while those in their incoming tap water were in the order of THMs > HAAs > HKs > HANs > HNMs. The average concentrations of the aromatic halogenated DBPs in the swimming pool water were significantly lower than those of the aliphatic halogenated DBPs, following the order of HBQs > HPs > HBAs > HBALs > HAs > HNPs, while those in their incoming tap water were in the order of HBALs > HBQs > HPs > HBAs > HAs > HNPs. The average concentration-cytotoxicity contributions of different DBP categories in the swimming pool water followed the order of HAAs > HANs > HNMs > HKs > HBQs > THMs > HPs > HNPs > HBAs > HBALs > HAs, with HAAs, HANs, and HNMs possessing the main concentration-cytotoxicity contributions (93.2% in total) among all DBP categories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junjie Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing210023, China
- School of Energy and Environment, Southeast University, Nanjing210096, China
| | - Meiqi Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing210023, China
| | - Shaoyang Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing210023, China
| | - Qiming Xian
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing210023, China
| | - Haoran Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing210023, China
| | - Tingting Gong
- School of Energy and Environment, Southeast University, Nanjing210096, China
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16
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Hu S, Chen X, Zhang B, Liu L, Gong T, Xian Q. Occurrence and transformation of newly discovered 2-bromo-6-chloro-1,4-benzoquinone in chlorinated drinking water. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2022; 436:129189. [PMID: 35739719 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.129189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2022] [Revised: 04/21/2022] [Accepted: 05/17/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Halobenzoquinones (HBQs) have been reported as an emerging category of disinfection byproducts (DBPs) in drinking water with relatively high toxicity, and the previously reported HBQs include 2,6-dichloro-1,4-benzoquinone, 2,3,6-trichloro-1,4-benzoquinone, 2,6-dichloro-3-methyl-1,4-benzoquinone, 2,6-dibromo-1,4-benzoquinone, 2,6-diiodo-1,4-benzoquinone, 2-chloro-6-iodo-1,4-benzoquinone, and 2-bromo-6-iodo-1,4-benzoquinone. In this study, another HBQ species, 2-bromo-6-chloro-1,4-benzoquinone (2,6-BCBQ), was newly detected and identified in drinking water. The occurrence frequency and levels of 2,6-BCBQ were investigated, and its cytotoxicity was evaluated. Since the formed 2,6-BCBQ was found to be not stable in chlorination, its transformation kinetics and mechanisms in chlorination were further studied. The results reveal that 2,6-BCBQ was generated from Suwannee River humic acid with concentrations in the range of 4.4-47.9 ng/L during chlorination within 120 h, and it was present in all the tap water samples with concentrations ranging from 1.5 to 15.7 ng/L. Among all the tested bromochloro-DBPs, 2,6-BCBQ showed the highest cytotoxicity on the human hepatoma cells. The transformation of 2,6-BCBQ in chlorination followed a pseudo-first-order decay, which was significantly affected by the chlorine dose, pH, and temperature. Seven polar chlorinated and brominated intermediates (including HBQs, halohydroxybenzoquinones, and halohydroxycyclopentenediones) were detected in chlorinated 2,6-BCBQ samples, according to which the transformation pathways of 2,6-BCBQ in chlorination were proposed. Besides, four trihalomethanes and four haloacetic acids were also generated during chlorination of 2,6-BCBQ with molar transformation percentages of 1.6-13.7%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaoyang Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China; College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Xiao Chen
- Lower Changjiang River Bureau of Hydrological and Water Resources Survey, Nanjing 210011, China
| | - Beibei Zhang
- School of Chemistry and Materials Science, Ludong University, Yantai 264025, China
| | - Lanyao Liu
- Water Resources Department of Linyi, Linyi 276037, China
| | - Tingting Gong
- School of Energy and Environment, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China; State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China.
| | - Qiming Xian
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China.
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17
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Hua Z, Li J, Zhou Z, Zheng S, Zhang Y, Fang J. Exploring Pathways and Mechanisms for Dichloroacetonitrile Formation from Typical Amino Compounds during UV/Chlorine Treatment. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2022; 56:9712-9721. [PMID: 35703371 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c01495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The formation of disinfection byproducts (DBPs) during UV/chlorine treatment, especially nitrogenous DBPs, is not well understood. This study investigated the formation mechanisms for dichloroacetonitrile (DCAN) from typical amino compounds during UV/chlorine treatment. Compared to chlorination, the yields of DCAN increase by 88-240% during UV/chlorine treatment from real waters, while the yields of DCAN from amino compounds increase by 3.3-5724 times. Amino compounds with electron-withdrawing side chains show much higher DCAN formation than those with electron-donating side chains. Phenylethylamine, l- phenylalanine, and l-phenylalanyl-l-phenylalanine were selected to represent amines, amino acids, and peptides, respectively, to investigate the formation pathways for DCAN during UV/chlorine treatment. First, chlorination of amines, amino acids, and peptides rapidly forms N-chloramines via chlorine substitution. Then, UV photolysis but not radicals promotes the transformation from N-chloramines to N-chloroaldimines and then to phenylacetonitrile, with yields of 5.4, 51.0, and 19.8% from chlorinated phenylethylamine, l-phenylalanine, and l-phenylalanyl-l-phenylalanine to phenylacetonitrile, respectively. Finally, phenylacetonitrile is transformed to DCAN with conversion ratios of 14.2-25.6%, which is attributed to radical oxidation, as indicated by scavenging experiments and density functional theory calculations. This study elucidates the pathways and mechanisms for DCAN formation from typical amino compounds during UV/chlorine treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhechao Hua
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Control and Remediation Technology, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China
| | - Junfang Li
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Control and Remediation Technology, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China
| | - Zhihong Zhou
- Guangzhou Ecological Environmental Monitoring Center, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Shanshan Zheng
- Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China
| | - Yifei Zhang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Control and Remediation Technology, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China
| | - Jingyun Fang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Control and Remediation Technology, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China
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18
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Murakami JN, Zhang X, Ye J, MacDonald AM, Pérez J, Kinniburgh DW, Kimura SY. Formation potential and analysis of 32 regulated and unregulated disinfection by-products: Two new simplified methods. J Environ Sci (China) 2022; 117:209-221. [PMID: 35725072 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2022.04.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2022] [Revised: 04/23/2022] [Accepted: 04/23/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Water disinfection is an essential process that provides safe water by inactivating pathogens that cause waterborne diseases. However, disinfectants react with organic matter naturally present in water, leading to the formation of disinfection by-products (DBPs). Multi-analyte methods based on mass spectrometry (MS) are preferred to quantify multiple DBP classes at once however, most require extensive sample pre-treatment and significant resources. In this study, two analytical methods were developed for the quantification of 32 regulated and unregulated DBPs. A purge and trap (P&T) coupled with gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) method was optimized that automated sample pre-treatment and analyzed volatile and semi-volatile compounds, including trihalomethanes (THMs), iodinated trihalomethanes (I-THMs), haloacetonitriles (HANs), haloketones (HKTs) and halonitromethanes (HNMs). LOQs were between 0.02-0.4 µg/L for most DBPs except for 8 analytes that were in the low µg/L range. A second method with liquid chromatography (LC) tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) was developed for the quantification of 10 haloacetic acids (HAAs) with a simple clean-up and direct injection. The LC-MS/MS direct injection method has the lowest detection limits reported (0.2-0.5 µg/L). Both methods have a simple sample pre-treatment, which make it possible for routine analysis. Hyperchlorination and uniform formation conditions (UFC) formation potential tests with chlorine were evaluated with water samples containing high and low TOC. Hyperchlorination formation potential test maximized THMs and HAAs while UFC maximized HANs. Ascorbic acid was found to be an appropriate quencher for both analytical methods. Disinfected drinking water from four water utilities in Alberta, Canada were also evaluated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jillian N Murakami
- Department of Chemistry, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, T2N 1N4, Canada
| | - Xu Zhang
- Alberta Centre for Toxicology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Joanne Ye
- Alberta Centre for Toxicology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Amy M MacDonald
- Alberta Centre for Toxicology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Jorge Pérez
- Department of Chemistry, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, T2N 1N4, Canada
| | - David W Kinniburgh
- Alberta Centre for Toxicology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Susana Y Kimura
- Department of Chemistry, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, T2N 1N4, Canada.
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19
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Formation of halonitromethanes from methylamine in the presence of bromide during UV/Cl 2 disinfection. J Environ Sci (China) 2022; 117:28-36. [PMID: 35725080 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2021.12.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2021] [Revised: 12/20/2021] [Accepted: 12/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The UV/Cl2 process is commonly used to achieve a multiple-barrier disinfection and maintain residuals. The study chose methylamine as a precursor to study the formation of high-toxic halonitromethanes (HNMs) in the presence of bromide ions (Br-) during UV/Cl2 disinfection. The maximum yield of HNMs increased first and then decreased with increasing concentration of Br-. An excessively high concentration of Br- induced the maximum yield of HNMs in advance. The maximum bromine incorporation factor (BIF) increased, while the maximum bromine utilization factor (BUF) decreased with the increase of Br- concentration. The maximum yield of HNMs decreased as pH value increased from 6.0 to 8.0 due to the deprotonation process. The BUF value remained relatively higher under an acidic condition, while pH value had no evident influence on the BIF value. The maximum yield of HNMs and value of BUF maximized at a Cl2:Br- ratio of 12.5, whereas the BIF value remained relatively higher at low Cl2:Br- ratios (2.5 and 5). The amino group in methylamine was first halogenated, and then released into solution as inorganic nitrogen by the rupture of C-N bond or transformed to nitro group by oxidation and elimination pathways. The maximum yield of HNMs in real waters was higher than that in pure water due to the high content of dissolved organic carbon. Two real waters were sampled to verify the law of HNMs formation. This study helps to understand the HNMs formation (especially brominated species) when the UV/Cl2 process is adopted as a disinfection technique.
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Ding S, Wu M, Xiao R, Fang C, Wang Q, Xu B, Chu W. Evaluation of N-acetylcysteine and glutathione as quenching agents for the analysis of halogenated disinfection by-products. J Environ Sci (China) 2022; 117:71-79. [PMID: 35725091 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2022.01.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2021] [Revised: 12/24/2021] [Accepted: 01/21/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Disinfection by-products (DBPs), formed from the reactions of disinfectants with natural organic matter and halides in drinking water, were considered to be cytotoxic and genotoxic, and might trigger various cancers. The relatively low concentration of DBPs in finished water (low µg/L or even ng/L levels) and the interference from water matrix inhibited in situ determination of DBPs. Moreover, the further formation and degradation of DBPs by disinfectants during the holding time (several hours to several days) from sample collection to analysis could adversely affect the determination of DBPs. To obtain accurate, precise and reliable data of DBP occurrence and formation, robust and reliable sample preservation is indispensable. However, the commonly used quenching agents (e.g., sodium sulfite, sodium thiosulfate, and ascorbic acid) for sample preservation can decompose reactive DBPs by reductive dehalogenation. This study evaluated the performance of N-acetylcysteine (NAC) and glutathione (GSH) as quenching agents for the analysis of halogenated DBPs by investigating the stoichiometry of the disinfectant-quenching agent reaction, the formation of DBPs during chlor(am)ination of NAC or GSH, and the effects of NAC or GSH on the stability of 18 individual DBPs and total organic halogen (TOX). Based on the results of this study, NAC and GSH were considered to be ideal quenching agents for the analysis of most DBPs and TOX, except halonitromethanes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shunke Ding
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; Key Laboratory of Yangtze River Water Environment, Ministry of Education, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Menglin Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; Key Laboratory of Yangtze River Water Environment, Ministry of Education, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Rong Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; Key Laboratory of Yangtze River Water Environment, Ministry of Education, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Chao Fang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; Key Laboratory of Yangtze River Water Environment, Ministry of Education, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Qi Wang
- School of Life and Environmental Science, Wenzhou University, Zhejiang 325035, China
| | - Bin Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; Key Laboratory of Yangtze River Water Environment, Ministry of Education, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Wenhai Chu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; Key Laboratory of Yangtze River Water Environment, Ministry of Education, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China.
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Hu S, Kaw HY, Zhu L, Wang W. Halohydroxybenzonitriles as a new group of halogenated aromatic DBPs in drinking water: Are they of comparable risk to halonitrophenols? WATER RESEARCH 2022; 219:118547. [PMID: 35561620 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2022.118547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2022] [Revised: 04/13/2022] [Accepted: 05/02/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Halogenated aromatic disinfection byproducts (DBPs) exhibited similar total organic halogen levels in chlorinated drinking water samples as compared with aliphatic ones, and they predominantly accounted for the overall toxicity of the samples. Among the reported halogenated aromatic DBPs, halonitrophenols (HNPs) have received particular attention in recent years due to the relatively high risk in drinking water. In this study, a new group of halogenated aromatic DBPs were detected and then proposed to be halohydroxybenzonitriles (HHBNs) by employing the ultra-performance liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometers. Thereafter, the specific HHBN species in drinking water were theoretically speculated and then thoroughly identified with standard compounds. Their occurrence in drinking water was investigated, their cytotoxicity was evaluated, and their stability in the presence of chlorine was assessed. Seven newly identified HHBNs, including 3,5-dichloro-4-hydroxybenzonitrile, 3,5-dichloro-2-hydroxybenzonitrile, 5-bromo-3-chloro-4-hydroxybenzonitrile, 5-bromo-3-chloro-2-hydroxybenzonitrile, 3,5-dibromo-4-hydroxybenzonitrile, 3,5-dibromo-2-hydroxybenzonitrile, and 3,5-diiodo-4-hydroxybenzonitrile, showed 100% detection frequency in the collected drinking water samples with concentrations up to 36 ng/L. HHBNs exhibited significantly higher cytotoxicity in Chinese hamster ovary cells than regulated DBPs (e.g., trihalomethanes and haloacetic acids), which might be contributed by their cellular uptake efficiency and nucleophilicity. The seven HHBNs were proved to undergo transformation during chlorination following pseudo-first-order decay with half-lives in the range of 9-63 h. More importantly, in comparison to HNPs, which showed relatively high toxicity and strong stability among the halogenated aromatic DBPs, HHBNs presented comparable concentration-cytotoxicity contribution (50%) and slightly weaker stability (43%), suggesting that HHBNs should be a new group of DBPs of concern in drinking water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaoyang Hu
- Department of Environmental Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China; Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Organic Pollution Process and Control, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Han Yeong Kaw
- Department of Environmental Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China; Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Organic Pollution Process and Control, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Lizhong Zhu
- Department of Environmental Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China; Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Organic Pollution Process and Control, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Wei Wang
- Department of Environmental Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China; Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Organic Pollution Process and Control, Hangzhou, 310058, China.
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22
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Miao M, Liu J, Dou Y, Hao H, Cheng X, Zhang M, Li Y. Effects of microplastics on DBPs formation under the chlorination of natural organic matters. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 296:134067. [PMID: 35216978 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.134067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2022] [Revised: 02/17/2022] [Accepted: 02/19/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Microplastics have attracted extensive attention and concern because they inflict damage on human beings and the environment. When the microplastics enter the water system, they inevitably flow into the water treatment system and encounter disinfectants during the disinfection procedure. Chlorine can react with microplastics to form different kinds of disinfection byproducts (DBPs). O-containing functional groups on the surface of microplastics may play a major role in DBP formation. Without O-containing functional groups, microplastics can also form DBPs but with totally different mechanisms. Reactive oxygen species (ROS, i.e., •OH) and reactive chlorine substances (RCS, i.e., Cl• and ClO•) may attack the microplastics and form DBP precursors. With relatively low surface area and very little pore volume, microplastics cannot affect the DBP formation between Suwannee River fulvic acid (SRFA) and chlorine. When SRFA exists, microplastics with few O-containing functional groups can hardly form DBPs because of the inhibition of ROS and RCS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manhong Miao
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering/Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria/Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Pollution Control, Nankai University, Tong Yan Road 38, Tianjin, 300350, China
| | - Jinfeng Liu
- Tianjin International Engineering Consulting Group Co.,Ltd, Dongting Road 20, Hexi District, Tianjin, China
| | - Yuanyuan Dou
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering/Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria/Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Pollution Control, Nankai University, Tong Yan Road 38, Tianjin, 300350, China
| | - Huizhi Hao
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering/Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria/Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Pollution Control, Nankai University, Tong Yan Road 38, Tianjin, 300350, China
| | - Xuhua Cheng
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering/Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria/Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Pollution Control, Nankai University, Tong Yan Road 38, Tianjin, 300350, China
| | - Min Zhang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering/Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria/Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Pollution Control, Nankai University, Tong Yan Road 38, Tianjin, 300350, China
| | - Yao Li
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering/Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria/Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Pollution Control, Nankai University, Tong Yan Road 38, Tianjin, 300350, China.
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Leite LDS, Ogura AP, Dos Santos DV, Espíndola ELG, Daniel LA. Acute toxicity of disinfection by-products from chlorination of algal organic matter to the cladocerans Ceriodaphnia silvestrii and Daphnia similis: influence of bromide and quenching agent. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 29:35800-35810. [PMID: 35061173 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-022-18752-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2021] [Accepted: 01/14/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Algal organic matter (AOM) in water reservoirs is a worldwide concern for drinking water treatment; once it is one of the main precursors for disinfection by-products formation (DBPs). In this context, this study investigated the ecotoxicity of DBPs from chlorination of AOM to Ceriodaphnia silvestrii and Daphnia similis (Crustacea, Cladocera). The bioassays evaluated three scenarios, including the AOM extracted from Chlorella sorokiniana, the quenching condition used in the tests, and the DBPs formed after the chlorination of the two test waters with AOM (with and without bromide presence). The results showed that AOM has no toxic effects for the tested species under typical environmental concentration (5 mg∙L-1). However, since AOM is a potential precursor of DBPs, the toxicity of two test waters (TW-1 and TW-2) after the chlorination process (25 mg Cl2·L-1, for 7 days, at 20 °C) was tested. The sample with higher toxicity to the tested species was TW-1, in which chloroform and chloral hydrate were quantified (615 and 267 µg∙L-1, respectively). However, TW-2 showed lower concentration of chloroform and chloral hydrate (260 and 157 µg∙L-1, respectively), although bromodichloromethane, dibromochloromethane, and bromoform were also detected (464, 366, and 141 µg∙L-1, respectively). Although free chlorine is highly toxic to the tested species, the quenching conditions also affected the organisms' survival due to the use of ascorbic acid and the presence of reaction intermediates. Nonetheless, both species were more affected by TW-1 and TW-2 than the quenching condition. These results endorse the importance of removing the AOM before the disinfection process to avoid the formation of DBPs. In addition, ecotoxicological analyses could provide a more comprehensive assessment of water quality, especially considering the challenges of quantifying DBPs and other emerging contaminants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luan de Souza Leite
- Department of Hydraulics and Sanitation, São Carlos School of Engineering, University of São Paulo, Av. Trabalhador São-Carlense, 400, São Carlos, , São Paulo, 13566-59, Brazil.
| | - Allan Pretti Ogura
- PPG-SEA and NEEA/CRHEA/SHS, São Carlos School of Engineering, University of São Paulo, São Carlos, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Evaldo Luiz Gaeta Espíndola
- PPG-SEA and NEEA/CRHEA/SHS, São Carlos School of Engineering, University of São Paulo, São Carlos, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Luiz Antonio Daniel
- Department of Hydraulics and Sanitation, São Carlos School of Engineering, University of São Paulo, Av. Trabalhador São-Carlense, 400, São Carlos, , São Paulo, 13566-59, Brazil
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Mao Y, Zhang W, Qi S, Yang H, Xie YF. Kinetics and mechanism of haloacetaldehyde formation from the reaction of acetaldehyde and chlorine. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 283:131253. [PMID: 34157622 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.131253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2021] [Revised: 06/11/2021] [Accepted: 06/15/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Haloacetaldehydes (HALs) are the third prevalent group of disinfection by-products (DBPs) by weight in drinking water, and their cytotoxicity and genotoxicity are higher than regulated DBPs. In order to understand their formation mechanism during chlorination and ozonation-chlorination, this study examined the reaction kinetics of chloral hydrate (CH), dichloroacetaldehyde (DCA), chloroacetaldehyde (CA) and acetaldehyde by chlorine at different pH values and chlorine doses. The results showed that the reaction rate constants increased with pH and chlorine dose, except that the degradation of CH would not be affected by the presence of free chlorine. At the same pH and chlorine dose, the half-lives of CH, DCA, CA and acetaldehyde were in the order of CH > acetaldehyde ≫ DCA > CA. A kinetic model used to predict the formation of HALs and chloroform during chlorination of acetaldehyde was developed, and the predicted data fitted well with the measured data. As pre-ozonation could oxidize natural organic matter to acetaldehydes, the concentration of acetaldehyde formed after pre-ozonation was used to calculate the HAL yields during ozonation-chlorination by the kinetic model, which fitted the experimental results well. The kinetic model elucidated that the formation mechanism of HALs was a stepwise substitution process on the α-hydrogen of acetaldehyde during chlorination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuqin Mao
- College of Biology and Environmental Engineering, Zhejiang Shuren University, Hangzhou, 310015, China
| | - Wen Zhang
- College of Biology and Environmental Engineering, Zhejiang Shuren University, Hangzhou, 310015, China
| | - Shengqi Qi
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Solid Waste Treatment and Recycling, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, 310012, China.
| | - Hongwei Yang
- Research Institute for Environmental Innovation (Suzhou), Tsinghua, Suzhou, 215163, China
| | - Yuefeng F Xie
- School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China; Environmental Engineering Programs, The Pennsylvania State University, Middletown, PA17057, USA
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Wang Y, Marques Dos Santos M, Ding X, Labanowski J, Gombert B, Snyder SA, Croué JP. Impact of EfOM in the elimination of PPCPs by UV/chlorine: Radical chemistry and toxicity bioassays. WATER RESEARCH 2021; 204:117634. [PMID: 34543976 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2021.117634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2021] [Revised: 08/01/2021] [Accepted: 09/01/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The UV/chlorine process as a potential tertiary municipal wastewater treatment alternative for removing refractory PPCPs has been widely investigated. However, the role of effluent organic matter (EfOM) on the radical chemistry and toxicity alteration is unclear. The elimination of two model PPCPs, primidone (PRM) and caffeine (CAF), by the co-exposure of UV and free chlorine was investigated to elucidate the impact of EfOM. Experimental results indicated that both •OH and reactive chlorine species (RCS) were importantly involved in the decay of PRM at acidic condition, while ClO• played dominant role at alkaline pH. The decay of CAF was dominated by ClO• under all conditions. Chlorine dose, initial contaminant concentration, solution pH, and water matrix affect the process efficiency at varying degree resulting from their specific effect on the radical speciation in the system. Presence of EfOM isolate remarkably inhibited the decay of PRM and CAF by preferentially scavenging RCS and particularly ClO•. Good correlations (linear for PRM and exponential for CAF) between UV absorbance at 254 nm and the observed pseudo first-order rate constants (k'obs) for all EfOM solutions were obtained, demonstrating the importance of aromatic moieties in inhibiting the degradation of targeted contaminants by UV/chlorine process. Degradation of PRM/CAF in reconstituted effluent spiked with the major effluent constituents (i.e., EfOM isolates, Cl-, HCO3-, and NO3-) was comparable to the results obtained with the real WWTP effluent and fit well to the correlation between k'obs and UV absorbance at 254 nm, suggesting that EfOM isolates can be used to determine the efficiency of UV/chlorine process in real effluent. EfOM serves as the main precursor of adsorbable organic chlorine in the UV/chlorine treatment. Bioassays indicated that chlorine-containing compounds could induce oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and increase the cell DNA damage. Among evaluated treatment conditions, the nature of EfOM, hydrophobic versus transphilic fraction, is likely the predominant factor affecting the cytotoxicity. Meanwhile the UV/chlorine treatment can significantly reduce the cytotoxicity of EfOM isolates. However, adding high level of selected contaminants (e.g., PRM and CAF) can inhibit this phenomenon due to the competition with reactive radicals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuru Wang
- Department of Environmental Science, School of Geography and Tourism, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an 710119, China; Institut de Chimie des Milieux et des Matériaux IC2MP UMR 7285 CNRS, Université de Poitiers, France.
| | - Mauricius Marques Dos Santos
- Nanyang Environment & Water Research Institute (NEWRI), Nanyang Technological University, 1 Cleantech Loop, CleanTech One, #06-08, 637141, Singapore
| | - Xinxin Ding
- Department of Environmental Science, School of Geography and Tourism, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an 710119, China
| | - Jérôme Labanowski
- Institut de Chimie des Milieux et des Matériaux IC2MP UMR 7285 CNRS, Université de Poitiers, France
| | - Bertrand Gombert
- Institut de Chimie des Milieux et des Matériaux IC2MP UMR 7285 CNRS, Université de Poitiers, France
| | - Shane Allen Snyder
- Nanyang Environment & Water Research Institute (NEWRI), Nanyang Technological University, 1 Cleantech Loop, CleanTech One, #06-08, 637141, Singapore
| | - Jean-Philippe Croué
- Institut de Chimie des Milieux et des Matériaux IC2MP UMR 7285 CNRS, Université de Poitiers, France.
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Zhou Y, Ye ZX, Huang H, Liu YD, Zhong R. Formation mechanism of chloropicrin from amines and free amino acids during chlorination: A combined computational and experimental study. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2021; 416:125819. [PMID: 33865110 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.125819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2021] [Revised: 03/22/2021] [Accepted: 04/01/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Chloropicrin as one of the most frequently detected N-DBPs has drawn great attention due to its high toxicity. However, our understanding of its formation mechanism is still very limited. A combined computational and experimental approach was used in this study to reveal chloropicrin formation mechanism during chlorination. Ethylamine, n-propylamine, alanine and tryptophan along with the above two amines and their four derivatives substituted by -OH or/and -NO2 groups were chosen as computational and experimental model precursors, respectively. The results indicate that primary amines and free amino acids are more likely to share the same chloropicrin formation pathway including N-chlorination, imidization, β-C-alcoholization, N-nitration, α-C-chlorination and dealdehydation processes. Moreover, elimination of hydrochloric acid from N,N-dichloro-amine and electrophilic addition of N-chloroalkylimide with hypochlorous acid were found to be the rate-limiting steps among all the elementary reactions. By skipping over both of the above rate-limiting steps, RCH(OH)CH2NO2 and RCH(OH)CH2NH(OH) compounds were proposed to be potent chloropicrin precursors, and experiments confirmed that 2-nitroethanol and N-methylhydroxylamine have the highest chloropicrin yields in the chlorination among all the precursors reported to date. The findings of this work are helpful for expanding the knowledge of chloropicrin formation mechanisms and predicting the potential chloropicrin precursors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingying Zhou
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental and Viral Oncology, College of Life Science & Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, China
| | - Zhao-Xi Ye
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Control and Remediation Technology, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China
| | - Huang Huang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Control and Remediation Technology, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China.
| | - Yong Dong Liu
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental and Viral Oncology, College of Life Science & Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, China.
| | - Rugang Zhong
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental and Viral Oncology, College of Life Science & Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, China
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Zhan W, Han Z, Li Y, Liu F, Zhang Y. [Simultaneous determination of six haloacetonitriles in finished water for drinking by purge and trap-gas chromatography-triple quadrupole mass spectrometry]. Se Pu 2021; 39:758-763. [PMID: 34227374 PMCID: PMC9404238 DOI: 10.3724/sp.j.1123.2020.08026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Haloacetonitriles (HANs) are widely used in finished water as unregulated disinfection by-products. HANs may pose much threat to human health, and there is no relevant standard examination method for these compounds. A method was established for the simultaneous determination of six HANs (chloroacetonitrile (CAN), dichloroacetonitrile (DCAN), trichloroacetonitrile (TCAN), bromoacetonitrile (BAN), bromochloroacetonitrile (BCAN), and dibromoacetonitrile (DBAN)) in finished water by using purge and trap-gas chromatography-triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS). The purge and trap technology helps realize automatic determination of samples after collection, without using any harmful reagent. The cost and analytical efficiency of this method were superior to those of solid phase microextraction (SPME). Considering the instability of HANs, the analysis must be carried out as soon as possible after sampling, in order to avoid significant changes in their concentration during storage. In particular, the use of an appropriate quenching agent was critical to sample collection. In this study, ascorbic acid was chosen as the quenching agent. The stabilities of the spiked samples at the levels of 0.1 (TCAN), 0.2 (CAN), 1.0 (DCAN), 1.0 (BAN), 1.0 (BCAN), 4.0 (DBAN) μg/L were tested. The effect of sample storage time (0, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6 h) on the responses of the target component was evaluated. The stability results showed that within 6 h, the relative standard deviations of the responses for the six HANs ranged from 2.32% to 6.98%. To validate the method, first, different traps, viz. 7# (Tenax), 10# (Teanx/silica gel/cms), 11# (VOCARB), and 12# (BTEXTRAP) were optimized. Second, various chromatographic columns (VF-5, Rxi-624, DB-VRX, and HP-INNOWAX) were compared to investigate their influence on the peak shape. Under the optimal detection conditions, the six HANs in finished water were extracted with the 10# trap. The volume of the water sample was used 25 mL, with purging at 35 ℃ for 11 min, and desorbed at 190 ℃ for 1 min. Chromatographic separation was performed on a Rxi-624Sil MS chromatographic column (60 m×0.25 mm×1.40 μm). Gas chromatographic conditions were obtained under the following conditions: split ratio, 1∶10; linear velocity, 30 cm/s. The triple quadrupole mass spectrometer was operated in the electron impact (EI) mode. The target compounds were detected in the multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode. Quantitation was carried out using the external standard method. The results showed that the matrix effects of the six HANs ranged from 0.85 to 1.09. Good linearities were obtained in the range of the standard curves. The correlation coefficients (r) were greater than 0.9991. The limits of detection (LODs, S/N=3) were 0.8-120.0 ng/L. The limits of quantification (LOQs, S/N=10) were 1.5-300.0 ng/L. The average recoveries of the six HANs ranged from 84.2% to 106%, and the RSDs were in the range of 1.81%-10.7%. In August 2020, 38 samples of finished water were tested. All of the six HANs were found in the finished water. The concentrations of the HANs were in the range of 0.0101-1.28 μg/L, and the total detection rate was 92.1%. The detection rates of the individual components followed the order DCAN>BCAN>CAN>TCAN>BAN>DBAN. The developed method is efficient, sensitive, and environmentally friendly. It provides a high-quality technical choice for monitoring and health risk assessment of the emerging disinfection by-products of HANs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Zhan
- Beijing Center for Disease Prevention and Control, Beijing Research Center for Preventive Medicine, Beijing 100013, China
| | - Zhiyu Han
- Beijing Center for Disease Prevention and Control, Beijing Research Center for Preventive Medicine, Beijing 100013, China
| | - Yong Li
- Beijing Center for Disease Prevention and Control, Beijing Research Center for Preventive Medicine, Beijing 100013, China
| | - Fei Liu
- Beijing Center for Disease Prevention and Control, Beijing Research Center for Preventive Medicine, Beijing 100013, China
| | - Yong Zhang
- Beijing Center for Disease Prevention and Control, Beijing Research Center for Preventive Medicine, Beijing 100013, China
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28
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Tang H, Zhong H, Pan Y, Zhou Q, Huo Z, Chu W, Xu B. A New Group of Heterocyclic Nitrogenous Disinfection Byproducts (DBPs) in Drinking Water: Role of Extraction pH in Unknown DBP Exploration. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:6764-6772. [PMID: 33928775 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c00078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
pH adjustment prior to extraction is an important step in water sample pretreatment processes for exploration of new/unknown disinfection byproducts (DBPs) in drinking water. To achieve a better extraction efficiency, the pH of a water sample is usually adjusted to a low level (e.g., < 0.5) to ensure that target DBPs are in their neutral forms. However, such a practice may elude some amphoteric DBPs (especially those nitrogenous DBPs with multiple functional groups), which can accept protons at a low pH and lose protons at a high pH. In this study, with careful extraction pH selection and optimization, we first report the detection and identification of a new group of heterocyclic nitrogenous DBPs, halogenated pyridinols, in simulated drinking water using ultra performance liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization-triple quadrupole mass spectrometry and time-of-flight mass spectrometry, including 5-chloro-3-pyridinol, 2-bromo-3-pyridinol, 2,6-dichloro-4-pyridinol, 2,6-dibromo-3-pyridinol, 3-bromo-2-chloro-5-pyridinol, 5-bromo-2-chloro-3-pyridinol, 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol, and 2,4,6-tribromo-3-pyridinol. On the basis of the speciation of dissociated chemical species and recovery tests at different extraction pH values, it was found that, only at a pH of 3.0, all the eight new DBPs could achieve recoveries of >50%. With subsequent instrumental parameter optimization, the method detection and quantitation limits of the eight new DBPs were determined to be 0.04-1.58 and 0.15-4.11 ng/L, respectively. The optimized method enabled an accurate detection of the eight new DBPs in two real drinking water samples. Further aided with in vivo developmental and acute toxicity assays using zebrafish embryos, the developmental and acute toxicity of the new DBPs were found to be slightly lower than those of halogenated benzoquinones but dozens of times higher than those of commonly known DBPs such as tribromomethane and iodoacetic acid.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haiyang Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, Jiangsu, China
| | - Hongli Zhong
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yang Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, Jiangsu, China
| | - Qing Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, Jiangsu, China
| | - Zongli Huo
- Jiangsu Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, No.172 Jiangsu Road, Nanjing 210009, Jiangsu, China
| | - Wenhai Chu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Bin Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
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Li Z, Song G, Bi Y, Gao W, He A, Lu Y, Wang Y, Jiang G. Occurrence and Distribution of Disinfection Byproducts in Domestic Wastewater Effluent, Tap Water, and Surface Water during the SARS-CoV-2 Pandemic in China. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:4103-4114. [PMID: 33523638 PMCID: PMC7875339 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c06856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2020] [Revised: 01/18/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2021] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Intensified efforts to curb transmission of the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 might lead to an elevated concentration of disinfectants in domestic wastewater and drinking water in China, possibly resulting in the generation of numerous toxic disinfection byproducts (DBPs). In this study, the occurrence and distribution of five categories of DBPs, including six trihalomethanes (THMs), nine haloacetic acids (HAAs), two haloketones, nine nitrosamines, and nine aromatic halogenated DBPs, in domestic wastewater effluent, tap water, and surface water were investigated. The results showed that the total concentration level of measured DBPs in wastewater effluents (78.3 μg/L) was higher than that in tap water (56.0 μg/L, p = 0.05), followed by surface water (8.0 μg/L, p < 0.01). Moreover, HAAs and THMs were the two most dominant categories of DBPs in wastewater effluents, tap water, and surface water, accounting for >90%, respectively. Out of the regulated DBPs, none of the wastewater effluents and tap water samples exceeded the corresponding maximum guideline values of chloroform (300 μg/L), THM4 (80 μg/L), NDMA (100 ng/L), and only 2 of 35 tap water samples (67.6 and 63.3 μg/L) exceeded the HAA5 (60 μg/L) safe limit. HAAs in wastewater effluents showed higher values of risk quotient for green algae. This study illustrates that the elevated use of disinfectants within the guidance ranges during water disinfection did not result in a significant increase in the concentration of DBPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhigang Li
- School of Environment, Hangzhou
Institute for Advanced Study, University of Chinese
Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou 310000,
People’s Republic of China
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental
Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for
Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Beijing 100085, People’s
Republic of China
| | - Gaofei Song
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater
Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430072,
People’s Republic of China
| | - Yonghong Bi
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater
Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430072,
People’s Republic of China
| | - Wei Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental
Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for
Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Beijing 100085, People’s
Republic of China
| | - Anen He
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental
Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for
Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Beijing 100085, People’s
Republic of China
| | - Yao Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental
Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for
Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Beijing 100085, People’s
Republic of China
| | - Yawei Wang
- School of Environment, Hangzhou
Institute for Advanced Study, University of Chinese
Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou 310000,
People’s Republic of China
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental
Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for
Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Beijing 100085, People’s
Republic of China
- University of Chinese
Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049,
People’s Republic of China
| | - Guibin Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental
Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for
Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Beijing 100085, People’s
Republic of China
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Liu Z, Xu B, Zhang TY, Hu CY, Tang YL, Dong ZY, Cao TC, El-Din MG. Formation of disinfection by-products in a UV-activated mixed chlorine/chloramine system. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2021; 407:124373. [PMID: 33153788 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.124373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2020] [Revised: 10/10/2020] [Accepted: 10/21/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, ultraviolet (UV) irradiation coupled with chlor(am)ination process is ubiquitous in secondary water supply systems in many cities of China. However, the disinfection by-products (DBPs) formation in a UV-activated mixed chlorine/chloramine system (MCCS) still remains unclear. In this study, the DBPs formation in a UV-activated MCCS was systematically investigated, considering influencing factors including the mass ratios of free chlorine to NH2Cl, UV irradiation, pH values, NOM types, Br- concentration and toxicity of the DBPs. Results indicated that DBPs formation decreased remarkably as mass ratio of free chlorine to NH2Cl changed from 5:0 to 0:5. The DBPs formation in humic acid (HA)-containing water was the highest, followed by those in fulvic acid (FA) and algal organic matter (AOM). Besides, better control of the DBP-related calculated toxicity can be achieved in acidic conditions regardless of the UV irradiation. Furthermore, in the presence of Br-, a significant reduction of DBPs formation could be achieved in a UV-activated MCCS. The findings also demonstrated that DBPs formation in real water can be effectively reduced at high UV fluence in a MCCS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhi Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Key Laboratory of Yangtze Water Environment, Ministry of Education, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, PR China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, PR China
| | - Bin Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Key Laboratory of Yangtze Water Environment, Ministry of Education, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, PR China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, PR China
| | - Tian-Yang Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Key Laboratory of Yangtze Water Environment, Ministry of Education, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, PR China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, PR China.
| | - Chen-Yan Hu
- College of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai University of Electric Power, Shanghai 200090, PR China
| | - Yu-Lin Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Key Laboratory of Yangtze Water Environment, Ministry of Education, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, PR China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, PR China
| | - Zheng-Yu Dong
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Key Laboratory of Yangtze Water Environment, Ministry of Education, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, PR China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, PR China
| | - Tong-Cheng Cao
- School of Chemical Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory of Road and Traffic Engineering of Ministry of Education, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, PR China
| | - Mohamed Gamal El-Din
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton AB T6G1H9, Canada
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Shi T, Hou X, Guo S, Zhang L, Wei C, Peng T, Hu X. Nanohole-boosted electron transport between nanomaterials and bacteria as a concept for nano-bio interactions. Nat Commun 2021; 12:493. [PMID: 33479209 PMCID: PMC7820612 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-20547-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2020] [Accepted: 11/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Biofilms contribute to bacterial infection and drug resistance and are a serious threat to global human health. Antibacterial nanomaterials have attracted considerable attention, but the inhibition of biofilms remains a major challenge. Herein, we propose a nanohole-boosted electron transport (NBET) antibiofilm concept. Unlike known antibacterial mechanisms (e.g., reactive oxygen species production and cell membrane damage), nanoholes with atomic vacancies and biofilms serve as electronic donors and receptors, respectively, and thus boost the high electron transport capacity between nanomaterials and biofilms. Electron transport effectively destroys the critical components (proteins, intercellularly adhered polysaccharides and extracellular DNA) of biofilms, and the nanoholes also significantly downregulate the expression of genes related to biofilm formation. The anti-infection capacity is thoroughly verified both in vitro (human cells) and in vivo (rat ocular and mouse intestinal infection models), and the nanohole-enabled nanomaterials are found to be highly biocompatible. Importantly, compared with typical antibiotics, nanomaterials are nonresistant and thereby exhibit high potential for use in various applications. As a proof-of-principle demonstration, these findings hold promise for the use of NBET in treatments for pathogenic bacterial infection and antibiotic drug resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tonglei Shi
- Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria (Ministry of Education)/Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, 300350, Tianjin, China
| | - Xuan Hou
- Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria (Ministry of Education)/Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, 300350, Tianjin, China
| | - Shuqing Guo
- Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria (Ministry of Education)/Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, 300350, Tianjin, China
| | - Lei Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria (Ministry of Education)/Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, 300350, Tianjin, China
| | - Changhong Wei
- Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria (Ministry of Education)/Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, 300350, Tianjin, China
| | - Ting Peng
- Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria (Ministry of Education)/Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, 300350, Tianjin, China
| | - Xiangang Hu
- Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria (Ministry of Education)/Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, 300350, Tianjin, China.
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Postigo C, Andersson A, Harir M, Bastviken D, Gonsior M, Schmitt-Kopplin P, Gago-Ferrero P, Ahrens L, Ahrens L, Wiberg K. Unraveling the chemodiversity of halogenated disinfection by-products formed during drinking water treatment using target and non-target screening tools. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2021; 401:123681. [PMID: 33113720 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.123681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2020] [Revised: 08/05/2020] [Accepted: 08/07/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
To date, there is no analytical approach available that allows the full identification and characterization of highly complex disinfection by-product (DBP) mixtures. This study aimed at investigating the chemodiversity of drinking water halogenated DBPs using diverse analytical tools: measurement of adsorbable organic halogen (AOX) and mass spectrometry (MS)-based target and non-target analytical workflows. Water was sampled before and after chemical disinfection (chlorine or chloramine) at four drinking water treatment plants in Sweden. The target analysis had the highest sensitivity, although it could only partially explain the AOX formed in the disinfected waters. Non-target Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance (FT-ICR) MS analysis indicated that only up to 19 Cl and/or Br-CHO formulae were common to all disinfected waters. Unexpectedly, a high diversity of halogenated DBPs (presumed halogenated polyphenolic and highly unsaturated compounds) was found in chloraminated surface water, comparable to that found in chlorinated surface water. Overall, up to 86 DBPs (including isobaric species) were tentatively identified using liquid chromatography (LC)-Orbitrap MS. Although further work is needed to confirm their identity and assess their relevance in terms of toxicity, they can be used to design suspect lists to improve the characterization of disinfected water halogenated mixtures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Postigo
- Water, Environmental, and Food Chemistry Unit (ENFOCHEM), Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research (IDAEA-CSIC), Jordi Girona 18-26, 08034, Barcelona, Spain; Department of Aquatic Sciences and Assessment, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Box 7050, SE-750 07, Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - Anna Andersson
- Department of Thematic Studies-Environmental Change, Linköping University, 581 83, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Mourad Harir
- Research Unit Analytical BioGeoChemistry, Department of Environmental Sciences, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Ingolstaedter Landstrasse 1, D-85764, Neuherberg, Germany; Chair of Analytical Food Chemistry, Technische Universität München, Maximus-von-Imhof-Forum 2, 85354 Freising, Germany
| | - David Bastviken
- Department of Thematic Studies-Environmental Change, Linköping University, 581 83, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Michael Gonsior
- Chesapeake Biological Laboratory, University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science, Solomons, MD, 20688, United States
| | - Philippe Schmitt-Kopplin
- Research Unit Analytical BioGeoChemistry, Department of Environmental Sciences, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Ingolstaedter Landstrasse 1, D-85764, Neuherberg, Germany; Chair of Analytical Food Chemistry, Technische Universität München, Maximus-von-Imhof-Forum 2, 85354 Freising, Germany
| | - Pablo Gago-Ferrero
- Catalan Institute for Water Research (ICRA), Emili Grahit, 101, Edifici H2O, Parc Científic i Tecnològic de la Universitat de Girona, 17003, Girona, Spain
| | - Lisa Ahrens
- Department of Aquatic Sciences and Assessment, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Box 7050, SE-750 07, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Lutz Ahrens
- Department of Aquatic Sciences and Assessment, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Box 7050, SE-750 07, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Karin Wiberg
- Department of Aquatic Sciences and Assessment, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Box 7050, SE-750 07, Uppsala, Sweden
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Han J, Zhang X, Li W, Jiang J. Low chlorine impurity might be beneficial in chlorine dioxide disinfection. WATER RESEARCH 2021; 188:116520. [PMID: 33091806 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2020.116520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2020] [Revised: 09/23/2020] [Accepted: 10/13/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Chlorine dioxide (ClO2) is a prevalently used disinfectant alternative to chlorine, due to its effectiveness in pathogen inactivation and low yields of organic halogenated disinfection byproducts (DBPs). However, during ClO2 generation, chlorine is inevitably introduced into the obtained ClO2 solution as an "impurity", which could compromise the merits of ClO2 disinfection. In this study, drinking water disinfection with ClO2 containing 0‒25% chlorine impurity (i.e., at Cl2 to ClO2 mass ratios of 0‒25%) was simulated, and the effect of chlorine impurity on the DBP formation and developmental toxicity of the finished water was evaluated. With increasing the chlorine impurity in ClO2, the chlorite level kept decreasing and the chlorate level gradually increased; meanwhile, an unexpected trend from decline to rise was observed for the total organic halogenated DBPs, with the minimum level appearing at 5% chlorine impurity. To unravel the mechanisms for the variations of organic halogenated DBPs with chlorine impurity, a quantitative kinetic model was developed to simulate the formation of chlorinated, brominated, and iodinated DBPs in the ClO2-disinfected drinking water. The modeling results indicated that reactions involving iodide accounted for the decrease of organic halogenated DBPs at a relatively low chlorine impurity level. In accordance with DBP formation, ClO2 with 5% chlorine impurity generated less toxic drinking water than pure ClO2, while significantly higher developmental toxicity was induced until the chlorine impurity reached 25%. For E. coli inactivation, the presence of chlorine impurity enhanced the disinfection efficiency due to a synergistic effect of ClO2 and chlorine. Therefore, disinfection practices with ClO2 containing low chlorine impurity (e.g., <10%) might be favored (i.e., there is no need to eliminate low chlorine impurity in the ClO2 solution), while those containing high chlorine impurity should be concerned.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiarui Han
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Hong Kong University of Science & Technology, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Xiangru Zhang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Hong Kong University of Science & Technology, Hong Kong SAR, China.
| | - Wanxin Li
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Hong Kong University of Science & Technology, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Jingyi Jiang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Hong Kong University of Science & Technology, Hong Kong SAR, China
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Ou T, Fang C, Ding S, Zhao T, Liu S, Yu Z, Chu W. Has the formation of disinfection by-products been overestimated? Membrane leakage from syringe filter heads serves as unexpected precursors. CHEMOSPHERE 2020; 258:127278. [PMID: 32554006 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.127278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2020] [Revised: 05/26/2020] [Accepted: 05/30/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Syringe filters are widely used for sample pretreatments in laboratories. This study found that, surprisingly, these filters can leak dissolved organic carbon (DOC) that can potentially serve as precursors of disinfection by-products (DBPs). Nine common types of syringe filters were assessed. The results showed that the DOC of ultrapure water increased after syringe filtration. The DOC shed from filter membranes was characterized, whose spectra showed that the main compounds exhibited a low apparent molecular weight. Five classes of DBPs were investigated including trihalomethanes, haloacetaldehydes, haloacetonitriles, haloacetamides and halonitromethanes, among which trichloromethane (TCM), dichloroacetaldehyde (DCAL), trichloroacetaldehyde (TCAL), dichloroacetonitrile (DCAN), and trichloronitromethane (TCNM) were principally detected. The DBP formation was affected by chlorination time and membrane types. In general, the use of the poly vinylidene fluoride membrane resulted in the highest formation of TCM and TCAL, whereas nylon and mixed cellulose esters membranes contributed significantly to the formation of DCAN and TCNM, respectively. The shedding DOC and the formation of TCM, DCAL and TCAL from filter membranes were mitigated effectively by pre-washing; however, the contribution of membrane leakage to DCAN and TCNM formation was still notable, even with a pre-wash volume of 50 mL. When unwashed syringe filters were used for a real water sample, the DBP formation increased by up to 73.2% compared to the pre-washed ones; particularly for TCNM it was always over 15%. Therefore, for better quality control in laboratories, more attention should be paid to the syringe filters during sample pre-treatments, particularly when DBP formation is being investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tian Ou
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China
| | - Chao Fang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China
| | - Shunke Ding
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China
| | - Tiantao Zhao
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chongqing University of Technology, Chongqing, 400054, China
| | - Shaogang Liu
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Chemistry and Engineering of Forest Products, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Guangxi University for Nationalities, Nanning, 530008, Guangxi, China
| | - Zhenxun Yu
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Ningbo University, Zhejiang, 315211, China.
| | - Wenhai Chu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China.
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Liu C, Ersan MS, Wagner E, Plewa MJ, Amy G, Karanfil T. Toxicity of chlorinated algal-impacted waters: Formation of disinfection byproducts vs. reduction of cyanotoxins. WATER RESEARCH 2020; 184:116145. [PMID: 32771689 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2020.116145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2020] [Revised: 06/02/2020] [Accepted: 07/02/2020] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Seasonal algal blooms in surface waters can impact water quality through an input of algal organic matter (AOM) to the pool of dissolved organic matter as well as the release of cyanotoxins. The formation and speciation of disinfection byproducts (DBPs) during chlorination of algal-impacted waters, collected from growth of Microcystis aeruginosa were studied. Second-order rate constants for the reactions of microcystins (MCs) with chlorine and bromine were determined. Finally, the toxicity of chlorinated algal-impacted waters was evaluated by Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cytotoxicity and genotoxicity assays. Under practical water treatment conditions, algal-impacted waters produced less regulated trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs), haloacetonitriles (HANs), and total organic halogen (TOX) than natural organic matter (NOM). For example, the weight ratios of DBP formation from AOM to NOM (median levels) were approximately 1:5, 1:3, 1:2 and 1:3 for THMs, HAAs, HANs, and TOX, respectively. Increasing initial bromide level significantly enhanced THM and HAN concentrations, and therefore unknown TOX decreased. The second-order rate constant for the reactions of MC-LR (the most common MC species) with chlorine was 60 M-1 s-1 at pH 7.5 and 21 °C, and the rate constants for MC congeners follow the order: MC-WR > MC-LW > MC-YR > MC-LY > MC-LR ≈ MC-RR. The reaction rate constant of bromine with MC-LR is two orders of magnitude higher than that of chlorine. Unchlorinated algal-impacted waters were toxic owning to the presence of MCs, and chlorination enhanced their cytotoxicity and genotoxicity due to the formation of toxic halogenated DBPs. However, the toxicity of treated waters depended on the evolution of cyanotoxins and formation of DBPs (particularly unknown or emerging DBPs).
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Liu
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China; Department of Environmental Engineering and Earth Sciences, Clemson University, Anderson, SC, 29625, USA
| | - Mahmut S Ersan
- Department of Environmental Engineering and Earth Sciences, Clemson University, Anderson, SC, 29625, USA
| | - Elizabeth Wagner
- Department of Crop Sciences, and the Safe Global Water Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
| | - Michael J Plewa
- Department of Crop Sciences, and the Safe Global Water Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
| | - Gary Amy
- Department of Environmental Engineering and Earth Sciences, Clemson University, Anderson, SC, 29625, USA
| | - Tanju Karanfil
- Department of Environmental Engineering and Earth Sciences, Clemson University, Anderson, SC, 29625, USA.
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Li X, Rao NRH, Linge KL, Joll CA, Khan S, Henderson RK. Formation of algal-derived nitrogenous disinfection by-products during chlorination and chloramination. WATER RESEARCH 2020; 183:116047. [PMID: 32622232 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2020.116047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2020] [Revised: 06/05/2020] [Accepted: 06/11/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Algal cells and algal organic matter (AOM) are a source of high dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and nitrogen (DON) concentrations. This poses a possible health risk due to their potential to form disinfection by-products (DBPs), some of which may be of health concern, after disinfection. While several studies have focussed on the formation of carbonaceous DBPs from AOM, only a few studies have focussed on the formation of nitrogen containing N-DBPs from AOM. Hence, the main aim of this study was to thoroughly investigate the N-DBP formation potential of the AOM from a species of cyanobacteria commonly found in natural waters, Microcystis aeruginosa. Three haloacetonitriles, two halonitromethanes, two haloacetamides, and eight N-nitrosamines were analysed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry after chlorination and chloramination of the extracted AOM. To provide further insight into the influence of changing DON character on N-DBP formation potential, the AOM from three other species, Chlorella vulgaris, Dolichospermum circinale and Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii, were also tested. Dichloroacetonitrile (DCAN) was the DBP formed in the highest concentrations for both chlorination and chloramination of bulk AOM from all the species. Furthermore, during chlorination and chloramination, the high molecular weight fraction (>1 kDa) of AOM from M. aeruginosa had a greater DCAN formation potential (normalised to DOC or DON) than the AOM in the low molecular weight fraction (<1 kDa) of M. aeruginosa, regardless of growth stage. N-Nitrosamine formation from the bulk AOM of all species occurred only after chloramination. The molar concentration of N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) was lower than the other N-nitrosamines detected. However, NDMA formation increased with culture age for all four species, in contrast to most other N-nitrosamines whose formation remained consistent or decreased with culture age. Overall, algal growth could result in elevated concentrations of N-DBPs due to the increasing concentrations of high molecular weight algal DON in the AOM. It is suggested that the AOM comprises precursors containing long C-chain amine (R1-NH-R2) or cyclic N-containing amine structures. Comparisons to previously measured N-DBP concentrations in drinking water suggest that the AOM from the algae and cyanobacteria examined in this study are not likely to be a major source of precursors for either DCAN or NDMA in real waters. However, AOM may present a major precursor source for other N-nitrosamines.
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Affiliation(s)
- X Li
- AOM Lab, School of Chemical Engineering, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - N R H Rao
- AOM Lab, School of Chemical Engineering, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - K L Linge
- Curtin Water Quality Research Group, School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, Australia; ChemCentre, Perth, Australia
| | - C A Joll
- Curtin Water Quality Research Group, School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, Australia
| | - S Khan
- UNSW Water Research Centre, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - R K Henderson
- AOM Lab, School of Chemical Engineering, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia.
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37
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Lajin B, Goessler W. Simultaneous Determination of Chlorinated and Brominated Acetic Acids in Various Environmental Water Matrixes by High-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Inductively Coupled Plasma Tandem Mass Spectrometry without Sample Preparation. Anal Chem 2020; 92:9156-9163. [PMID: 32545952 PMCID: PMC7467423 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.0c01456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2020] [Accepted: 06/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The halogenated acetic acids (HAAs) are generally considered as environmental contaminants and are suspected to pose a major public health concern. The inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICPMS) has been improved by coupling with the tandem mass spectrometry technology (ICPMS/MS), enabling ultratrace determination of heteroatoms. There have been few reports about the determination of chlorine-containing analytes by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)-ICPMS/MS but none about utilizing this technique for the speciation analysis of organic halogenated compounds in environmental matrixes. We report a rapid method for the simultaneous determination of up to nine chlorinated and brominated acetic acids by HPLC-ICPMS/MS in Austrian surface, ground, and tap water. The chromatographic separation of the main five regulated haloacetic acids (so-called HAA5: chloroacetic acid, dichloroacetic acid, trichloroacetic acid, bromoacetic acid, and dibromoacetic acid) could be achieved in <6 min with limits of detection of 1.4-1.6 μg Cl L-1 and 0.8-1.5 μg Br L-1 for the chlorinated and brominated acetic acids, respectively. The method was validated through recovery experiments at four concentration levels (10-500 μg L-1) as well as by analyzing the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 552.2 CRM (certified reference material) in pure water and in three different water matrixes (tap, river, and groundwater), and thereby validated for repeatability (RSD% 1-10%), accuracy (±1.0-15%), and linearity (r2 = 0.9996-0.9999). The method fulfills the regulatory concentration limits by the EPA for HAA5 [maximum contaminant level (MCL) 60 μg L-1] and the limits currently being reviewed by the European Union for HAA9 (80 μg L-1) and demonstrates the advantages of HPLC-ICPMS/MS for the analysis of environmental water samples for halogen-tagged contaminants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bassam Lajin
- Institute of Chemistry—Analytical
Chemistry for Health and Environment, University
of Graz, Universitaetsplatz 1, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Walter Goessler
- Institute of Chemistry—Analytical
Chemistry for Health and Environment, University
of Graz, Universitaetsplatz 1, 8010 Graz, Austria
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Cuthbertson AA, Kimura SY, Liberatore HK, Knappe DRU, Stanford B, Summers RS, Dickenson ER, Maness JC, Glover C, Selbes M, Richardson SD. GAC to BAC: Does it make chloraminated drinking water safer? WATER RESEARCH 2020; 172:115432. [PMID: 32004911 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2019.115432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2019] [Revised: 12/18/2019] [Accepted: 12/20/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Biological activated carbon (BAC) is widely used as a polishing step at full-scale drinking water plants to remove taste and odor compounds and assimilable organic carbon. BAC, especially with pre-ozonation, has been previously studied to control regulated disinfection by-products (DBPs) and DBP precursors. However, most previous studies only include regulated or a limited number of unregulated DBPs. This study explored two full-scale drinking water plants that use pre-chloramination followed by BAC and chloramine as the final disinfectant. While chloramine generally produces lower concentrations of regulated DBPs, it may form increased levels of unregulated nitrogenous and iodinated DBPs. We evaluated 71 DBPs from ten DBP classes including haloacetonitriles, haloacetamides, halonitromethanes, haloacetaldehydes, haloketones, iodinated acetic acids, iodinated trihalomethanes, nitrosamines, trihalomethanes, and haloacetic acids, along with speciated total organic halogen (total organic chlorine, bromine and iodine) across six different BAC filters of increasing age. Most preformed DBPs were well removed by BAC with different ages (i.e., operation times). However, some preformed DBPs were poorly removed or increased following treatment with BAC, including chloroacetaldehyde, dichloronitromethane, bromodichloronitromethane, N-nitrosodimethylamine, dibromochloromethane, tribromomethane, dibromochloroacetic acid, and tribromoacetic acid. Some compounds, including dibromoacetaldehyde, bromochloroacetamide, and dibromoacetamide, were formed only after treatment with BAC. Total organic halogen removal was variable in both plants and increases in TOCl or TOI were observable on one occasion at each plant. While calculated genotoxicity decreased in all filters, decreases in overall DBP formation did not correlate with decreases in calculated cytotoxicity. In three of the six filters, calculated toxicity increased by 4-27%. These results highlight that DBP concentration alone may not always provide an adequate basis for risk assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy A Cuthbertson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, 29208, USA
| | - Susana Y Kimura
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, 29208, USA; Department of Chemistry, University of Calgary, 2500 University Dr. NW Calgary, Alberta, T2N 1N4, Canada
| | - Hannah K Liberatore
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, 29208, USA
| | - Detlef R U Knappe
- Department of Civil, Construction, and Environmental Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, 27695, USA
| | | | - R Scott Summers
- Department of Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, 80309, USA
| | - Eric R Dickenson
- Water Quality Research and Development Division, Southern Nevada Water Authority, Henderson, NV, 89015, USA
| | - J Clark Maness
- Department of Civil, Construction, and Environmental Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, 27695, USA
| | - Caitlin Glover
- Water Quality Research and Development Division, Southern Nevada Water Authority, Henderson, NV, 89015, USA
| | | | - Susan D Richardson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, 29208, USA.
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Zhang X, Chen Z, Shen J, Zhao S, Kang J, Chu W, Zhou Y, Wang B. Formation and interdependence of disinfection byproducts during chlorination of natural organic matter in a conventional drinking water treatment plant. CHEMOSPHERE 2020; 242:125227. [PMID: 31704522 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.125227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2019] [Revised: 10/23/2019] [Accepted: 10/24/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
It is crucial to explore the source, formation process and interdependence of disinfection byproducts (DBPs) to reduce their risk on public health. In this investigation, a source water was chlorinated to evaluate the initial formation rates and the maximum yields of trichloromethane (TCM), dichloroacetic acid (DCAA), and trichloroacetic acid (TCAA) based on a hyperbola model. The results showed that TCM achieved the highest initial formation rate and maximum theoretical concentration compared with DCAA and TCAA. The TCM yield can be used to forecast the yields of DCAA and TCAA throughout the whole reaction process, and the yields of chloral hydrate (CH), dichloroacetonitrile (DCAN) and 1,1,1-trichloropropanone (1,1,1-TCP) within the initial reaction stage. Besides, the raw water, settled water and filtered water collected from a drinking water treatment plant were divided into five fractions, respectively, by ultrafiltration membranes to evaluate their DBP formation after chlorination. Compared with the medium molecular weight species, high and low molecular weight organic matters exhibited relatively high specific regulated and unregulated DBP yields (expressed as μg/mg C), respectively. Humic acid-like compositions predominantly contributed to regulated DBP yields, while soluble microbial by-product-like compounds preferentially generated DCAN. The correlation study revealed that the TCM could also serve as an indicator for the measured DBPs from chlorination of sample fractions with different molecular weight. Finally, it was found that the theoretical cytotoxicity was enhanced during chlorination of filtered water compared with chlorination of settled water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoxiao Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150090, PR China; Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong
| | - Zhonglin Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150090, PR China
| | - Jimin Shen
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150090, PR China
| | - Shengxin Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150090, PR China
| | - Jing Kang
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150090, PR China.
| | - Wei Chu
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong.
| | - Yaoyu Zhou
- College of Resources and Environment, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, 410128, China
| | - Binyuan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150090, PR China
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40
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Huang G, Ng TW, Chen H, Chow AT, Liu S, Wong PK. Formation of assimilable organic carbon (AOC) during drinking water disinfection: A microbiological prospect of disinfection byproducts. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2020; 135:105389. [PMID: 31838266 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2019.105389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2019] [Revised: 09/26/2019] [Accepted: 12/03/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Disinfection processes might alter the chemical structure of biological recalcitrant natural organic matter (NOM) in source water to form assimilable organic carbon (AOC), which can be readily utilized by microbes for growth. However, AOC has not been classified as disinfection byproducts (DBPs) before and little is known about the chemical and structural nature of AOC. This study, for the first time, considers the disinfection-induced AOC as DBPs from a microbiological perspective. The AOC formation by three types of disinfection processes, i.e., chlorination, UVC irradiation (254 nm) and photocatalysis represented by TiO2-UVA in drinking water containing two reference NOM materials of Suwannee River and Nordic Reservoir (SRNOM and NRNOM, respectively) were comparatively benchmarked using Pseudomonas aeruginosa as inoculum. Results showed that chlorination caused a substantial increase in AOC content, whereas TiO2-UVA led to a moderate increase in AOC content and UVC rendered the AOC content unchanged, independent of the types of NOM. Molecular weight indicated by spectral slope ratio and fluorescence fingerprint were found to not provide critical information about the AOC formation potential. FTIR and FT-ICR-MS results indicated that the AOC formation by chlorination was attributed to the oxidation and chlorine substitution on aromatic molecules to form molecules with carboxylic- and alcohol- functionalities, as well as chlorinated aromatics. These molecules could be metabolized and assimilated by Pseudomonas species by a catechol pathway. The results obtained in this study can provide valuable insight regarding the selection of proper technologies for disinfection to prevent microbial growth/regrowth in the distributing system and is intended to encourage more thinking and research on AOC as a new prospect of DBPs during disinfection of drinking water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guocheng Huang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, PR China; School of Life Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, N.T., Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
| | - Tsz-Wai Ng
- School of Life Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, N.T., Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
| | - Huan Chen
- Baruch Institute of Coastal Ecology & Forest Science, Clemson University, Georgetown, SC, USA
| | - Alex T Chow
- Baruch Institute of Coastal Ecology & Forest Science, Clemson University, Georgetown, SC, USA.
| | - Shengwei Liu
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, PR China.
| | - Po Keung Wong
- School of Life Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, N.T., Hong Kong Special Administrative Region; Institute of Environmental Health and Pollution Control, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China.
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41
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Gao J, Proulx F, Rodriguez MJ. Synergistic effects of quenching agents and pH on the stability of regulated and unregulated disinfection by-products for drinking water quality monitoring. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2020; 192:143. [PMID: 31989324 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-020-8112-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2019] [Accepted: 01/21/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Quenching agents (QAs) are widely used in order to prevent the additional formation of disinfection by-products (DBPs) during the sample holding time. In addition, DBP levels are usually stabilized by adjusting the pH of water samples. Previous studies have mostly focused on the individual effects of QAs or of pH on the stability of DBPs in water samples. Considering that disinfectant quenching and pH adjustments are applied simultaneously during routine analyses, it is more appropriate to evaluate the stability of DBPs with all the chemicals (e.g., disinfectants, QAs, buffers) present in the water. This study investigated the synergistic effects of different QAs (ascorbic acid, ammonium chloride, or no quenching) and pH adjustment (3-9) strategies on the stability of different classes of DBPs (i.e., trihalomethanes (THMs), halogenated acetaldehydes (HALs), haloacetonitriles (HANs), haloketones (HKs), and halonitromethane (HNM)). Sample preservation conditions that did not include a QA were shown to be inadequate for GC-ECD analysis, due to interference problems. Ammonium chloride was found to be effective for most DBPs. However, some HALs continued to form in the presence of chloramine, which is a by-product of dechlorination using ammonium chloride. Conversely, using ascorbic acid efficiently inactivated residual chlorine, providing a clean chromatographic baseline. Based on the results of this study, we recommend the use of ascorbic acid for quenching and sulfuric acid for acidifying (pH 3.5) samples. Considering the instability of some DBPs in water matrices over long periods (i.e., 14 days), samples should be processed as soon as possible after collection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianan Gao
- ÉSAD, Université Laval, Pavillon Félix-Antoine-Savard, 2325, rue des Bibliothèques, Québec, G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Francois Proulx
- ÉSAD, Université Laval, Pavillon Félix-Antoine-Savard, 2325, rue des Bibliothèques, Québec, G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Manuel J Rodriguez
- ÉSAD, Université Laval, Pavillon Félix-Antoine-Savard, 2325, rue des Bibliothèques, Québec, G1V 0A6, Canada.
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42
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Cuthbertson AA, Liberatore HK, Kimura SY, Allen JM, Bensussan AV, Richardson SD. Trace Analysis of 61 Emerging Br-, Cl-, and I-DBPs: New Methods to Achieve Part-Per-Trillion Quantification in Drinking Water. Anal Chem 2020; 92:3058-3068. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.9b04377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Amy A. Cuthbertson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina 29208, United States
| | - Hannah K. Liberatore
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina 29208, United States
| | - Susana Y. Kimura
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina 29208, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of Calgary, 2500 University Drive NW, Calgary, Alberta T2N 1N4, Canada
| | - Joshua M. Allen
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina 29208, United States
| | - Alena V. Bensussan
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina 29208, United States
| | - Susan D. Richardson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina 29208, United States
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43
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Wang F, Wang X, Zhang M, Hao H, Wang H, Wang Y, Li Y. Effects of residual carbon materials on the disinfection byproduct formation in artificial and natural waters. CHEMOSPHERE 2020; 238:124695. [PMID: 31545215 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.124695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2019] [Revised: 08/26/2019] [Accepted: 08/27/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
As the effective adsorbents, carbon materials (CMs) are typically used in the removal of disinfection byproduct (DBP) precursors during the water treatment by adding CMs before disinfection procedure. However, after the separation of CMs from the treated water by flocculation, sedimentation, and filtration, a small amount of loaded activated carbon could be released into the water treatment system and affect the DBP formation in the following disinfection. In this study, three CMs, including coal-made activated carbon (CAC), sawdust charcoal (SCC), and hydroxylated multiwall carbon nanotubes (OH-MWCNT), were used to explore the effects of residual CMs in the formation of DBPs. The results indicated that some DBP precursors could be irreversibly adsorbed into the pore structure of CMs and hardly to be extracted and determined, then affected the DBP formation in the water system. In the chlorination process of surface water samples, CMs have similar effects on the formation of DBPs. However, given that water samples contain a variety of complex substances, the effects of residual CMs on the formation of DBPs were also slightly changed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fang Wang
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Water Resources and Environment, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, 300387, China.
| | - Xuan Wang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Pollution Control, Nankai University, Tong Yan Road 38, Tianjin, 300350, China
| | - Min Zhang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Pollution Control, Nankai University, Tong Yan Road 38, Tianjin, 300350, China
| | - Huizhi Hao
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Pollution Control, Nankai University, Tong Yan Road 38, Tianjin, 300350, China
| | - Huihui Wang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Pollution Control, Nankai University, Tong Yan Road 38, Tianjin, 300350, China
| | - Yingying Wang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Pollution Control, Nankai University, Tong Yan Road 38, Tianjin, 300350, China
| | - Yao Li
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Pollution Control, Nankai University, Tong Yan Road 38, Tianjin, 300350, China.
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44
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Mao Y, Qi S, Zhao E, Yang H, Xie YF. Mechanism of ozonation enhanced formation of haloacetaldehydes during subsequent chlorination. CHEMOSPHERE 2019; 236:124361. [PMID: 31325823 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.124361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2019] [Revised: 07/10/2019] [Accepted: 07/12/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Haloacetaldehydes (HAs) are the third prevalent group of disinfection by-products of great health concern. A bench-scale study was performed to investigate the formation and speciation of HAs in raw and treated waters after chlorination and ozonation-chlorination. Pre-ozonation resulted in enhanced HA formation during subsequent chlorination, and the HA yields from ozonation-chlorination were 1.66 and 1.63 times higher than that from chlorination of raw and treated waters. The mechanism about the increase of HA formation during ozonation-chlorination was systematically investigated in this study. The results showed that acetaldehyde formed after ozonation was the dominant precursor for the enhanced HA formation during subsequent chlorination. Increase in pH and chlorine dose increased HA formation during acetaldehyde chlorination. Based on the kinetic studies on the HA formation during acetaldehyde chlorination and the HA stabilities with and without free chlorine, it was found that chlorine was incorporated into the α-hydrogen in acetaldehyde to form a sequence of mono-, di- and tri-chloroacetaldehyde. During this process, these three chlorinated acetaldehydes would also undergo base-catalyzed hydrolysis through decarburization and dehalogenation pathways. This study elucidated that acetaldehyde formed after ozonation resulted in the increase of HA formation during subsequent chlorination. This study also revealed the formation pathway of HA during chlorination of acetaldehyde, which would help to minimize HA formation at drinking water plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuqin Mao
- College of Biology and Environmental Engineering, Zhejiang Shuren University, Hangzhou, 310015, China
| | - Shengqi Qi
- School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China.
| | - Erzhuo Zhao
- School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Hongwei Yang
- Research Institute for Environmental Innovation (Suzhou), Tsinghua, Suzhou, 215163, China
| | - Yuefeng F Xie
- School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China; Environmental Engineering Programs, The Pennsylvania State University, Middletown, PA, 17057, USA
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45
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Pan L, Zhang X, Yang M, Han J, Jiang J, Li W, Yang B, Li X. Effects of dechlorination conditions on the developmental toxicity of a chlorinated saline primary sewage effluent: Excessive dechlorination is better than not enough. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 692:117-126. [PMID: 31344565 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.07.207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2019] [Revised: 07/10/2019] [Accepted: 07/14/2019] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Chlorine-disinfected sewage effluents are typically dechlorinated by using NaHSO3, Na2SO3, or Na2S2O3, as chlorine residual could be harmful to aquatic organisms upon discharge of sewage effluents into receiving marine water. In this study, we systematically investigated the effects of dechlorination-related factors on the developmental toxicity of a chlorinated saline primary sewage effluent, via direct exposure of the embryos of a marine polychaete to the effluent. The results showed that dechlorination ratio (i.e., the ratio of the dosed amount to the requisite stoichiometric amount of a dechlorination agent) and mixing condition were critical factors affecting the toxicity of the effluent. The toxicity of the effluent under insufficient dechlorination conditions was mainly caused by residual chlorine, especially monochloramine. Although the three dechlorination agents generally performed similarly, dechlorination with Na2S2O3 required a more vigorous mixing condition than that with NaHSO3 or Na2SO3, as the relatively high density of Na2S2O3 might affect the mixing efficiency. Under insufficient mixing conditions, a prolonged dechlorination time was beneficial to achieving complete dechlorination and thus lowered the toxicity of the effluent. Moreover, because disinfection byproducts (DBPs) may have chronic effects on aquatic organisms, the developmental toxicity of the DBP mixtures in the chlorinated effluent in different dechlorination scenarios was also evaluated. The results indicated that increasing the dechlorination ratio reduced the developmental toxicity of the DBP mixture in the chlorinated saline sewage effluent, which might be ascribed to the decrease of the levels of overall brominated and iodinated DBPs; the dechlorination agent (NaHSO3 or Na2S2O3) might act as a nucleophile in the nucleophilic substitution and cause the substitution of bromine or iodine atoms in brominated and iodinated DBPs. The results from this study might aid in the design and operation of dechlorination facilities in sewage treatment plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Long Pan
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China
| | - Xiangru Zhang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China.
| | - Mengting Yang
- College of Chemistry and Environmental Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China.
| | - Jiarui Han
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China
| | - Jingyi Jiang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China
| | - Wanxin Li
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China
| | - Bo Yang
- College of Chemistry and Environmental Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Xiaoyan Li
- Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
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Zhang M, Wang X, Du T, Wang H, Hao H, Wang Y, Li Y, Hao T. Effects of carbon materials on the formation of disinfection byproducts during chlorination: Pore structure and functional groups. WATER RESEARCH 2019; 162:1-10. [PMID: 31254881 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2019.06.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2019] [Revised: 06/11/2019] [Accepted: 06/21/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Release of carbon materials (CMs) into water and wastewater treatment systems occurs due to their increasing utilization as adsorbents for water treatment. When the CMs, mixed with natural organic matter (NOM), interact with disinfectants used during water treatment (e.g. chlorine), the released CMs can affect the formation of disinfection byproducts (DBPs). In this study, three common CMs were investigated to reveal their possible effects and the mechanisms of DBP formation during the chlorination of NOM. The experimental results indicate that DBPs generation decreased by 10-40% in the presence of CMs when Suwannee River humic acid (SRHA) was chlorinated. The adsorption of SRHA by CMs was hypothesized as the major cause for the DBPs inhibition. CMs could irreversibly adsorb DBP precursors in their mesopores through π-π bonding and hydrophobic effects. OH groups on the surface of CMs were shown to be critical for DBPs inhibition through linking with the OH or COOH groups on the surface of NOM via hydrogen bonding. The study also showed that water chemistry parameters, such as pH and salinity, can affect DBP formation by changing the adsorption of NOM onto CMs. With diverse NOM components, the presence of CMs resulted in decreased formation of trichloromethane from 57.1 μg/L to 23.8, 38.4, and 40.4 μg/L when coal-made activated carbon (CAC), wheat straw-made BC pyrolyzed at 300 °C (WSBC300), and multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs), respectively, were added to surface water; and from 30.6 μg/L to 20.0, 19.2, and 13.2 μg/L when CAC, WSBC300, and MWCNTs, respectively, were added to wastewater.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Zhang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Pollution Control, Nankai University, Tong Yan Road 38, Tianjin, 300350, China
| | - Xuan Wang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Pollution Control, Nankai University, Tong Yan Road 38, Tianjin, 300350, China
| | - Tingting Du
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Pollution Control, Nankai University, Tong Yan Road 38, Tianjin, 300350, China
| | - Huihui Wang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Pollution Control, Nankai University, Tong Yan Road 38, Tianjin, 300350, China
| | - Huizhi Hao
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Pollution Control, Nankai University, Tong Yan Road 38, Tianjin, 300350, China
| | - Yingying Wang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Pollution Control, Nankai University, Tong Yan Road 38, Tianjin, 300350, China
| | - Yao Li
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Pollution Control, Nankai University, Tong Yan Road 38, Tianjin, 300350, China.
| | - Tianwei Hao
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Macau, Macau, China.
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Diana M, Felipe-Sotelo M, Bond T. Disinfection byproducts potentially responsible for the association between chlorinated drinking water and bladder cancer: A review. WATER RESEARCH 2019; 162:492-504. [PMID: 31302365 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2019.07.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2019] [Revised: 07/05/2019] [Accepted: 07/06/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Epidemiological studies have consistently associated the consumption of chlorinated drinking water with an enhanced risk of bladder cancer. While this suggests that some disinfection byproducts (DBPs) are bladder carcinogens, causal agents are unknown. This study aims to highlight likely candidates. To achieve this, structures of known and hypothesised DBPs were compared with 76 known bladder carcinogens. The latter are dominated by nitrogenous and aromatic compounds; only 10 are halogenated. Under 10% of the chlorine applied during drinking water treatment is converted into identified halogenated byproducts; most of the chlorine is likely to be consumed during the generation of unidentified non-halogenated oxidation products. Six nitrosamines are among the nine most potent bladder carcinogens, and two of them are known to be DBPs: N-nitrosodiphenylamine and nitrosodibutylamine. However, these and other nitrosamines are formed in insufficiently low concentrations in chlorinated drinking water to account for the observed bladder cancer risk. Furthermore, although not proven bladder carcinogens, certain amines, haloamides, halocyclopentenoic acids, furans and haloquinones are potential candidates. At present, most identified bladder carcinogens are nitrogenous, whereas >90% of natural organic matter is not. Therefore, non-nitrogenous DBPs are likely to contribute to the bladder cancer risk. Given the high proportion of DBPs that remains uncharacterised, it is important that future research prioritises compounds believed to be potent toxicants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marine Diana
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Surrey, Guildford, GU2 7XH, UK
| | | | - Tom Bond
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Surrey, Guildford, GU2 7XH, UK.
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Lee WN, Huang CH, Zhu G. Analytical methods for conventional and emerging disinfection by-products in fresh-cut produce. Food Chem 2019; 291:30-37. [PMID: 31006468 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2019.03.150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2018] [Revised: 03/27/2019] [Accepted: 03/30/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
The formation of toxic disinfection by-products (DBPs) is among the main concerns in the use of chlorine sanitizers for washing fresh and fresh-cut produce to minimize microbial cross-contamination. Even so, robust analytical methods for measuring various DBPs in produce have been lacking. This study has established two liquid-liquid extraction methods, followed by gas chromatography with electron capture detection, to measure 32 conventional and emerging DBPs in different produce types including lettuce, cabbage and strawberry. Good recoveries (50-130%) were achieved for most DBPs in the different produce. The method detection limits were in the range of 0.3-10 ng/g for trihalomethanes, haloacetic acids, nitrogenous DBPs, and other carbonaceous DBPs. Preliminary screening analysis indicated one-third of the target DBPs were found in unwashed produce, and washing with chlorine significantly promoted DBPs' formation and concentrations in the produce. The developed analytical methods will be useful tools for future research on food DBPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wan-Ning Lee
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 200 Bobby Dodd Way, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA.
| | - Ching-Hua Huang
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 200 Bobby Dodd Way, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA.
| | - Guangxuan Zhu
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 200 Bobby Dodd Way, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA.
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Sun J, Chen Y, Xiang Y, Ling L, Fang J, Shang C. Oxidative debromination of 2,2-bis(bromomethyl)-1,3-propanediol by UV/persulfate process and corresponding formation of brominated by-products. CHEMOSPHERE 2019; 228:735-743. [PMID: 31071560 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.04.168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2019] [Revised: 04/12/2019] [Accepted: 04/22/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
This study investigated the oxidative debromination of 2,2-bis(bromomethyl)-1,3-propanediol (BBMP), a widely used brominated flame retardant, and the corresponding formation of brominated by-products by the UV/persulfate process. The debromination of BBMP by the UV/persulfate process was primarily driven by sulfate radicals (SO4-) at pHs 4.0-6.0 and hydroxyl radicals (HO) at pHs 9.0-12.0. The debromination rate increased with increasing pH from 4.0 to 9.0 and remained the same at pHs 9.0 and 12.0. Bromate was formed through the oxidation of bromide released from BBMP mainly by SO4-, with free bromine as a key intermediate. Bromate formation increased with increasing pH from 4.0 to 6.0, while it remarkably decreased with increasing pH from 6.0 to 12.0. This was mainly due to the transformation of SO4- to HO and also the quenching of bromine atoms that were the key intermediate for the formation of free bromine, by hydroxyl ions at the alkaline pH. In addition, the oxidative debromination of BBMP resulted in a significant decrease in the concentrations of total organic bromine, but the formation of brominated acetic acids and unknown brominated organic by-products. The concentrations of brominated organic by-products firstly increased and then decreased with prolonged reaction time. Also, the formation of brominated organic by-products and genotoxicity at pH 9.0 were much lower than that at pH 6.0. In this study, we propose that the UV/persulfate process under mildly alkaline conditions not only debrominates BBMP efficiently but also eliminates the formation of bromate and brominated organic by-products and genotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianliang Sun
- School of Chemistry & Environment, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China; Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong
| | - Yu Chen
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong
| | - Yingying Xiang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong
| | - Li Ling
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong
| | - Jingyun Fang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Control and Remediation Technology, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China.
| | - Chii Shang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong; Hong Kong Branch of Chinese National Engineering Research Center for Control & Treatment of Heavy Metal Pollution, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong.
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Wang L, Chen Y, Chen S, Long L, Bu Y, Xu H, Chen B, Krasner S. A one-year long survey of temporal disinfection byproducts variations in a consumer's tap and their removals by a point-of-use facility. WATER RESEARCH 2019; 159:203-213. [PMID: 31096067 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2019.04.062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2019] [Revised: 04/28/2019] [Accepted: 04/30/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
In order to better understand the occurrence of disinfection byproducts (DBPs) in tap water and their real impacts on consumers, this study made a one-year long survey of the temporal variations of a series of DBPs before and after a point-of-use (POU) treatment facility installed in a building serving for ∼300 people. Water samples were collected every week at a fixed location and time for 1 year, and frequent samplings were carried out every 6 h a day for 1 month at selected seasons, which ultimately amounted to 322 samples. The results show that the concentrations of DBPs were higher in the summer than other seasons, with the lowest DBP levels being observed in spring. Within one week, higher levels of haloacetic acids (HAAs) were identified on weekdays than those on weekends. Diurnally, trihalomethanes, HAAs, and haloacetaldehydes were found to be higher at noon but lower in the evening. Consistent with other studies, the variations of most DBPs were somewhat positively related to the changes of temperature and organic matter, but negatively related to the quantity of free chlorine. With the use of a POU facility, which equips with two activated carbon cartridges and a boiler in sequence, most of DBPs were dramatically reduced, leading to 62-100% lower cytotoxicity for the measured DBPs. The study hence provides a real-water evidence about the DBP occurrences in a typical distribution system endpoint and the efficiency of a typical POU on mitigating DBP risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Wang
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Organic Pollution Prevention and Control, State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), 518055, China
| | - Yi Chen
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Organic Pollution Prevention and Control, State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), 518055, China
| | - Shuwei Chen
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Organic Pollution Prevention and Control, State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), 518055, China
| | - Liangchen Long
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Organic Pollution Prevention and Control, State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), 518055, China
| | - Yinan Bu
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Organic Pollution Prevention and Control, State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), 518055, China
| | - Haoyu Xu
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Organic Pollution Prevention and Control, State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), 518055, China
| | - Baiyang Chen
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Organic Pollution Prevention and Control, State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), 518055, China.
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