Potential Environmental and Ecological Effects of Global Climate Change on Venomous Terrestrial Species in the Wilderness

Sting Stories: Firsthand Experiences of Fish Envenomation Through a Small-Scale Questionnaire

Stings from venomous bony and cartilaginous fishes are known to cause extreme pain in humans, and with changing migratory patterns and distributions due to climate change, human interactions with venomous fishes may increase. Therefore, developing a better understanding of venomous fish stings and the associated pain can provide better solutions for first aid and treatments, particularly in areas or within populations with a higher risk of being stung. Using the results from an online questionnaire, this study discusses the perspectives of 121 people with direct experience of fish stings, exploring the contexts in which fish stings occurred, their firsthand experiences of pain, sting pathophysiology, experiences with medical treatments, and the long-term consequences of fish stings. This small-scale survey has proved successful for the exploration of fish sting experiences, and as such, an approach of this nature should be considered to better understand victim's experiences with other painful animal stings.

Would global warming bring an increase of invertebrate-associated cutaneous invasive fungal infections?

Invasive mold-associated cutaneous disease is a rare but potentially catastrophic consequence of trauma. However, invertebrate bites are not well recognized as a mechanism for the inoculation of fungi into subcutaneous tissue that can also result in severe infections. Invertebrates often carry fungi with human pathogenic potential as part of their microbiome, and bites break the skin, providing a conduit for them to penetrate subcutaneous tissues where the establishment of infection can produce serious skin and soft tissue fungal diseases. In this essay, we review the existing data for invertebrate bite-associated cutaneous invasive fungal infections (IBA-cIFIs) and consider the potential consequences of global warming on their epidemiology. Climate changes will be associated with changes in the range of invertebrates and adaptation of their associated microbes to warmer temperatures. Fungal adaptation to higher temperatures can defeat the mammalian protective barrier and be associated with both more and different IBA-cIFIs.

Zootoxins and Domestic Animals: A European View

Zootoxins are produced by venomous and poisonous species and are an important cause of poisoning in companion animals and livestock in Europe. Little information about the incidence of zootoxin poisoning is available in Europe, with only a few case reports and review papers being published. This review presents the most important zootoxins produced by European venomous and poisonous animal species responsible for poisoning episodes in companion animals and livestock. The main zootoxin-producing animal species, components of the toxins/venoms and their clinical effects are presented. The most common zootoxicoses involve terrestrial zootoxins excreted by the common toad, the fire salamander, the pine processionary caterpillar, and vipers. The lack of a centralized reporting/poison control system in Europe makes the evaluation of the epidemiology of zootoxin-induced poisonings extremely difficult. Even if there are many anecdotal reports in the veterinary community about the exposure of domestic animals to terrestrial and marine zootoxins, the number of published papers regarding these toxicoses is low. Climate change and its consequences regarding species distribution and human-mediated transportation are responsible for the emerging nature of some intoxications in which zootoxins are involved. Although new venomous or poisonous animal species have emerged in regions where they were previously unreported, zootoxins produced by native species remain the main concern in Europe. The diversity of poisonous and venomous animal species and the emerging nature of certain poisonings warrant the continuous update to such knowledge by veterinary professionals and animal owners. This review offers an overview about zootoxin-related poisonings in domestic animals in Europe and also provides important information from a health perspective.

Identifying the geographic distribution pattern of venomous snakes and regions of high snakebite risk in Iran

We describe species richness patterns of venomous snakes in Iran in order to produce snakebite risk prediction maps and identify gaps in regional health care centers capable of managing snakebites. We digitized distribution maps from the literature, Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF), and the results of our own field studies of 24 terrestrial venomous snake species (including 4 endemic to Iran). Species richness patterns were associated with eight environmental factors. The variables have been extracted from the WorldClim dataset (bio12 = annual precipitation, bio15 = precipitation seasonality, bio17 = precipitation of the driest quarter, bio2 = mean diurnal range, bio3 = isothermality (bio2/bio7), bio4 = temperature seasonality, bio9 = mean temperature of the driest quarter and slope). Based on spatial analyses, species richness in Iran is highly affected by three environmental variables (bio12, 15, and 17) associated with precipitation. The relationship patterns among these predictors and species richness were strong and linear. The hotspot regions for venomous snakes species are concentrated on the western to southwestern and north to northeastern regions of Iran, which is partially consistent with the known Irano-Anatolian biodiversity hotspot. Because of the high number of endemic species and climatic conditions on the Iranian Plateau, the venoms of snakes distributed in those areas may contain novel properties and components.

Pest categorisation of Solenopsis invicta

The EFSA Panel on Plant Health performed a pest categorisation of Solenopsis invicta Butler (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) the red imported fire ant, for the EU territory. S. invicta is native to central South America and has spread to North and Central America, East Asia and Australia where it is recognised as a major invasive species causing serious environmental impacts to biodiversity and harming horticultural crops such as cabbage, eggplant and potatoes. It can girdle and kill young citrus trees. S. invicta is not listed as a Union quarantine pest in Annex II of Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2019/2072. However, the European Scientific Forum on Invasive Alien Species lists S. invicta as a species of Union concern (Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2022/1203). Like other ant species, S. invicta is a social insect commonly creating colonies in the soil. Long-distance spread in the Americas has been attributed to nests being carried in soil accompanying plants for planting, or simply in soil alone. S. invicta could enter the EU via conveyances carrying a wide range of goods if the conveyance is contaminated with soil or has been in close contact with soil, and with plants for planting in soil or growing media. Climatic conditions in large parts of the southern EU are suitable for establishment and spread would occur when mated females disperse to form new colonies. If S. invicta established in the EU, losses to horticultural crops would be expected in addition to losses to biodiversity. The impacts of S. invicta go beyond plant health with the ant attacking new-born, hatching, weak or sick animals. Stings can cause allergic reactions in humans and are a public health issue. However, such factors are outside the scope of a pest categorisation. S. invicta satisfies the criteria that are within the remit of EFSA to assess for it to be regarded as a potential Union quarantine pest.

Scorpion envenomation in Brazil: Current scenario and perspectives for containing an increasing health problem

Opportunistic scorpion species can colonize urban environments, establishing high-density communities that enhance the chances of human accidents. This scenario has been taking place in Brazil, in which some Tityus species have taken city centers, causing an explosion in the number of scorpion envenoming cases. The characteristics of this scorpionism epidemic in Brazil is discussed in the present work. The number of Brazilian scorpion stings has surpassed 120,000 cases in 2017, and has been maintained above this number ever since, representing a more than 3-fold increase in 10 years, which was higher than the number of cases for most of the neglected tropical diseases in the country. The escalation in scorpionism cases is even higher in some regions of Brazil. Fortunately, the proportion of mild cases has also increased in the analyzed period, as well as the number of victims seeking for medical attention within the first hour after the accident. The species Tityus serrulatus, Tityus stigmurus, Tityus bahiensis, and Tityus obscurus are traditionally accountable for most of the scorpion accidents in different regions of Brazil, but other species deserve to be closely watched. Despite scorpionism being a notable health problem in Brazil, accident prevention and pest control regarding this venomous animal have not been properly addressed by the scientific community nor by policy makers. Therefore, this review also aims to point possible fields of research that could help to contain the aggravation of the current scorpionism landscape in Brazil.

Current situation of snakebites envenomation in the Neotropics: Biotechnology, a versatile tool in the production of antivenoms

Snakebite envenomation is a neglected tropical disease that affects millions of people around the world with a great impact on health and the economy. Unfortunately, public health programs do not include this kind of disease as a priority in their social programs. Cases of snakebite envenomations in the Neotropics are inaccurate due to inadequate disease management from medical records to the choice of treatments. Victims of snakebite envenomation are primarily found in impoverished agricultural areas where remote conditions limit the availability of antivenom. Antivenom serum is the only Food and Drug Administration-approved treatment used up to date. However, it has several disadvantages in terms of safety and effectiveness. This review provides a comprehensive insight dealing with the current epidemiological status of snakebites in the Neotropics and technologies employed in antivenom production. Also, modern biotechnological tools such as transcriptomic, proteomic, immunogenic, high-density peptide microarray and epitope mapping are highlighted for producing new-generation antivenom sera. These results allow us to propose strategic solutions in the Public Health Sector for managing this disease. Keywords: antivenom, biotechnology, neglected tropical disease, omics, recombinant antibody.

The evolutionary outcomes of climate-change-induced hybridization in insect populations

Rapid range shifts are one of the most frequent responses to climate change in insect populations. Climate-induced range shifts can lead to the breakdown of isolation barriers, and thus, to an increase in hybridization and introgression. Long-term evolutionary consequences such as the formation of hybrid zones, introgression, speciation, and extinction have been predicted as a result of climate-induced hybridization. Our review shows that there has been an increase in the number of published cases of climate-induced hybridization in insects, and that the formation of hybrid zones and introgression seems to be, at the moment, the most frequent outcomes. Although introgression is considered positive, since it increases species' genetic diversity, in the long term, it could lead to negative outcomes such as species fusion or genetic swamping.

Epidemiology of ticks submitted from human hosts in Alberta, Canada (2000-2019)

ABSTRACTThe geographic range and occurrence of tick species is dynamic. This has important public health implications due to important tick species that can transmit pathogens. This study presents a retrospective review of tick genera recovered from humans and submitted for identification in Alberta, Canada, over a 19-year period. The total number of ticks and proportion of genera were analyzed over time. Molecular testing for a number of pathogens associated with Ixodes scapularis and I. pacificus was conducted. A total of 2,358 ticks were submitted between 2000 and 2019, with 98.6% being acquired in Alberta. The number of ticks submitted increased significantly over time (p < 0.0001). Dermacentor ticks were the most abundant genus, followed by Ixodes and Amblyomma. There was a significant decrease in the proportion of Dermacentor ticks between 2013 and 2019 (p = 0.02), with a corresponding increase in the proportion of Ixodes ticks over the same time (p = 0.04). No statistically significant change in seasonality was identified. Borrelia burgdorferi was detected in 8/76 (10.5%; 95% CI 5.4-19.4%) of all I. scapularis and I. pacificus ticks submitted. This translated to a B. burgdorferi positivity of 0.35% (95% CI 0.15-0.68%) among all ticks received. Dermacentor species (especially D. andersoni) remains the most common tick feeding on humans in Alberta. Small numbers of vector species (including I. scapularis/pacificus) are encountered annually over widely separated geographic areas in the province. The risk of exposure to tick-borne pathogens (e.g. Lyme disease) in Alberta remains low.

Early Adverse Reactions to Snake Antivenom: Poison Center Data Analysis

Antivenom is an essential treatment for snake envenomation; however, early adverse reactions (EARs) are major limitations to its use. We performed a retrospective cross-sectional study using Ramathibodi Poison Center data (January 2016 to December 2017) to clarify the incidence and severity of EARs following different F(ab’)2 antivenoms. Among 1006 envenomed patients, 684 (68%) received antivenom therapy with a total of 1157 doses, mostly green pit viper antivenom. The overall EAR incidence and rate were 22. 5% (154/684) and 15% (173/1157), respectively. The EAR rate following each type of antivenom was >10%, except for Russell’s viper antivenom (2.9%); the severe reaction rate was 2.6% (30/1157). Malayan pit viper bites caused a high incidence of EARs (37.8%) and the highest EAR rate (22.3%). Fifty-two cases developed anaphylaxis. All EARs occurred within 2 h after treatment initiation. No deaths were attributed to EARs. The duration of administration was significantly different between doses of antivenom that induced EARs and those that did not. In conclusion, all types and every dose of antivenom should be infused for 30−60 min. Preparation of resuscitation equipment and continuous clinical observation are crucial for at least 2 h after administration, and prompt treatment should be provided when EARs occur.

Favourable climatic niche in low elevations outside the flood zone characterises the distribution pattern of venomous snakes in Bangladesh

Snakes are sensitive to both environmental and climate gradients. To design conservation plans, a scientific understanding of snake habitats in light of environmental and climatic variables is an essential prerequisite. For venomous snakes, denoting favourable habitats should also be relevant for snakebite management. We have considered 18 spatial variables to portray the range of terrestrial venomous snake distribution in Bangladesh. Our results indicate that the distribution of 29 studied venomous snakes in this country is primarily driven by climatic and environmental variables. We found that especially low elevation and flood risk constrain the distribution of those terrestrial snakes, i.e. regular floods in central Bangladesh push venomous snakes towards the edges of the country. Moreover, none of these species occupies the whole of its anticipated climatically favourable area. Projections into the future indicated that 11 studied species, Amphiesma platyceps, Boiga siamensis, Chrysopelea ornata, Pseudoxenodon macrops, Rhabdophis himalayanus, Rhabdophis subminiatus, Bungarus lividus, Ophiophagus hannah, Daboia russelii, Ovophis monticola and Trimeresurus popeiorum will lose their entire climatically suitable area within the country. Therefore, we suggest establishing more protected areas in the hilly ecosystems in the eastern part and in the mangrove forests in the south-western corner of Bangladesh to mitigate future extinction risks, such as climate change, sea-level rise and increase in flood severity. Conserving village forests and croplands, which are subject to rapid change, will also need to be addressed equally, as these are inhabited by almost one-third of the studied species. The occurrence of the cobras and kraits in village forests and cropland dominant habitats demands more attention to minimise snakebite related mortality and morbidity.

Antimicrobial Effectiveness of Innovative Photocatalysts: A Review

Waterborne pathogens represent one of the most widespread environmental concerns. Conventional disinfection methods, including chlorination and UV, pose several operational and environmental problems; namely, formation of potentially hazardous disinfection by-products (DBPs) and high energy consumption. Therefore, there is high demand for effective, low-cost disinfection treatments. Among advanced oxidation processes, the photocatalytic process, a form of green technology, is becoming increasingly attractive. A systematic review was carried out on the synthesis, characterization, toxicity, and antimicrobial performance of innovative engineered photocatalysts. In recent decades, various engineered photocatalysts have been developed to overcome the limits of conventional photocatalysts using different synthesis methods, and these are discussed together with the main parameters influencing the process behaviors. The potential environmental risks of engineered photocatalysts are also addressed, considering the toxicity effects presented in the literature.

Modern venomics-Current insights, novel methods, and future perspectives in biological and applied animal venom research

Venoms have evolved >100 times in all major animal groups, and their components, known as toxins, have been fine-tuned over millions of years into highly effective biochemical weapons. There are many outstanding questions on the evolution of toxin arsenals, such as how venom genes originate, how venom contributes to the fitness of venomous species, and which modifications at the genomic, transcriptomic, and protein level drive their evolution. These questions have received particularly little attention outside of snakes, cone snails, spiders, and scorpions. Venom compounds have further become a source of inspiration for translational research using their diverse bioactivities for various applications. We highlight here recent advances and new strategies in modern venomics and discuss how recent technological innovations and multi-omic methods dramatically improve research on venomous animals. The study of genomes and their modifications through CRISPR and knockdown technologies will increase our understanding of how toxins evolve and which functions they have in the different ontogenetic stages during the development of venomous animals. Mass spectrometry imaging combined with spatial transcriptomics, in situ hybridization techniques, and modern computer tomography gives us further insights into the spatial distribution of toxins in the venom system and the function of the venom apparatus. All these evolutionary and biological insights contribute to more efficiently identify venom compounds, which can then be synthesized or produced in adapted expression systems to test their bioactivity. Finally, we critically discuss recent agrochemical, pharmaceutical, therapeutic, and diagnostic (so-called translational) aspects of venoms from which humans benefit.

Scorpion envenomation in the state of São Paulo, Brazil: Spatiotemporal analysis of a growing public health concern

Scorpion envenomation is a significant public health concern in São Paulo, Brazil, and its incidence and mortality have increased in recent decades. The present study analyzed documented scorpion envenomation notifications from 2008 to 2018 throughout the 645 municipalities of São Paulo. Annual incidence and mortality rates were calculated and stratified according to sex and age. The local empirical Bayesian method and Getis-Ord Gi* statistic were used to represent standardized incidence rates in the municipalities and to identify high- and low-risk agglomerates. The incidence rate of scorpion envenomation quintupled between 2008 and 2018. Overall, the risk was higher for man, and increased with age. Deaths due to envenomation, however, were concentrated almost entirely in children 0–9 years of age. Incidence maps showed that the risk of envenomation increased in almost all regions and municipalities of São Paulo throughout the study period. The highest incidence rates were found in the western, northwestern and northern regions of the state, in contrast to the São Paulo metropolitan area and southern and coastal regions. Hot spots were identified in the Presidente Prudente, Barretos, São José do Rio Preto, and Araçatuba regional health districts, which over time formed a single high-risk cluster. In spatial terms, however, deaths were randomly distributed. In this study, we identified areas and populations at risk of scorpion envenomation and associated–fatalities, which can be used to support decision-making by health services to reduce human contact with these arachnids and avoid fatalities, especially in children.

Modeling potential distribution of newly recorded ant, Brachyponera nigrita using Maxent under climate change in Pothwar region, Pakistan

Climate change has been discussed as to exert shifts in geographical range of plants, animals or insect species by increasing, reducing or shifting its appropriate climatic habitat. Globally, Pakistan has been ranked at 5^th position on the list of countries most vulnerable to climate change in 2020. Climate change has resulted in the losses of biodiversity and alteration in ecosystem as a result of depletion of natural habitats of species in Pakistan as well as in the world. Ants have been regarded as indicators of environmental change and ecosystem processes. Brachyponera nigrita (Emery, 1895) was reported for the first time from Pakistan (Pothwar region). Objective of our studies was to model geographic distribution of newly recorded ant species, B. nigrita based on two representative concentration pathways (RCP) (RCP4.5 and RCP8.5) for 2050s using maximum entropy model (Maxent) in Pakistan. In modeling procedure, 21occurrence records and 8 variables namely Bio4 (Temperature seasonality), Bio8 (Mean temperature of wettest quarter), Bio10 (Mean temperature of warmest quarter), Bio12 (Annual precipitation), Bio13 (Precipitation of wettest month), Bio15 (Precipitation seasonality), Bio17 (Precipitation of driest quarter) and Bio18 (Precipitation of warmest quarter) were used to determine the current and future distributions. Performance of the model was evaluated using AUC (area under curves) values, partial ROC, omission rates (E = 5%) and AICc (Model complexity).The results showed the average AUC value of the model was 0.930, which indicated that the accuracy of the model was excellent. The jackknife test also showed that Bio4, Bio18, Bio17 and Bio15 contributed 98% for the prediction of potential distribution of the species as compared to all other variables. Maxent results indicated that distribution area of B. nigrita under future predicted bioclimatics 2050 (RCP 4.5 and RCP8.5) would be increased in various localities of Pakistan as compared to its current distribution. In Pothwar region, moderately suitable and highly suitable areas of this species would increase by 505.932321km²and 572.118421km²as compared to current distribution under 2050 (RCP 4.5), while under 2050 (RCP 8.5), there would be an increase of 6427.2576km²and 3765.140493km² respectively in moderately suitable and highly suitable areas of B. nigrita. This species was associated with termites, collembolans and larval stages of different insects. White eggs, creamy white pupae and many workers of this species were observed in a variety of habitats. Unknown nesting ecology, species identification characters supported with micrographs has been given which will help researchers for further ecological studies.

Climate change and the increase of human population will threaten conservation of Asian cobras

Asian cobras (genus Naja) are venomous snakes distributed from the Middle East to Southeast Asia. Because cobras often live near humans settlements, they are responsible for a large part of snakebite incidents and as such pose a challenge for public health systems. In the light of growing human populations, correctly mapping the present and future ranges of Asian cobras is therefore important for both biological conservation and public health management. Here, we mapped the potential climatic niches of ten Asian cobra species for both the present and the future, with the aim to quantify changes in climate and human population densities relative to their current and future ranges. Our analyses reveal that cobras that are adapted to dry climates and inhabit islands have narrow climatic niches, while those of mainland species with larger geographic ranges are much wider. We also found a higher degree of fragmentation of future cobra distributions; within the next 50 years, Asian cobras will lose an average of around 60% of their current suitable climatic range. In the near future, Naja mandalayensis, N. sputatrix, N. samarensis, and N. philippinensis are likely to have no accessible suitable climate space left. Besides, a further increase of human populations in this region may also exponentially accelerate the effects of anthropogenic impacts. Solutions for conservation may involve awareness and appropriate use of law to overcome the rate of habitat degradation and the increase of animal trade of Asian cobras, while promoting investment on health systems to avoid snakebite fatalities.

Expected and Unexpected Risks for Canoe Travel in Flood Conditions

Flood conditions present dangers for canoe camping, with the highest risk for injury or death related to water submersion of paddlers. Other hazards can exist at high water stages as well. This essay discusses preparation for risks associated with canoe travel during record flood conditions in Alabama's Mobile-Tensaw River Delta. It examines the unique aspects of paddling through submerged forests, route detours necessitated by flooding, potential encounters with dangerous wildlife, and the case of a stinging ant attack on a paddler who unexpectedly comes in contact with a displaced ant colony.

Integrating lay knowledge and practice into snakebite prevention and care in central Africa, a hotspot for envenomation

The WHO has identified the goal of halving deaths and disability from snakebite envenomation (SBE) by 2030 through a four-pillar program that promotes accessible and affordable treatments, strengthens health systems, promotes community and multi-level engagement, and mobilizes partnerships, coordination and resources to advocate for global action. This initiative could accelerate multi-disciplinary research and action in central Africa, a “hotspot” for SBE, but it offers little specific guidance about anthropological research to be conducted. This commentary develops that research agenda. It surveys anthropological, ethnohistorical investigations in the central African forest to elaborate the socio-cultural and historical significance and practices around snakes and snakebites. It draws from south and southeast Asian and Latin American literatures to illustrate anthropological contributions to SBE research. It then outlines a Central African research agenda employing ethnobiological investigation of snake ecologies, participatory evaluations of humans-snake contacts, and interviews and participant-observation of local prevention and treatment practices and knowledge. This research will co-develop policies and practices with forest communities and leaders and regional and national authorities to reduce the burden of SBE.

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Central African forests are a hotspot for snakebite envenomation.

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SBE research in central Africa has not mobilized anthropological literatures or methodologies.

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Policies to reduce SBE burden in central Africa should build on participatory research.

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Policies to reduce SBE burden should be co-developed with local and national stakeholders.

Plants and zootoxins: Toxico-epidemiological investigation in domestic animals

An epidemiological study on animal poisoning due to plants and zootoxins has been carried out by the Poison Control Centre of Milan (CAV) in collaboration with the University of Milan (Italy). During the period January 2015-March 2019, the CAV received 932 calls on animal poisonings, 12.66% (n = 118) of which were related to plants and zootoxins. Among these, 95 enquiries (80.51%) concerned exposures to plants and 23 (19.49%) to zootoxins. The dog was the species most frequently involved (67.80% of the calls, n = 80), followed by the cat (26.27%, n = 31). As for the plants, several poisoning episodes were related to glycoside-, alkaloid-, oxalate- and diterpenoid-containing species. Cycas revoluta, Euphorbia pulcherrima and Hydrangea macrophylla were the most often reported plants. The outcome has been reported for half of the episodes (51.58%, n = 49) and it was fatal for 3 animals (6.12%). Regarding the zootoxins, the majority of the enquiries were related to asp viper (Vipera aspis), but exposures to pine processionary moth (Thaumetopoea pityocampa), common toad (Bufo), fire salamander (Salamandra), and jellyfish (phylum Cnidaria) were also reported. The outcome was known in 65.22% of the cases with just one fatal episode. This epidemiological investigation depicts an interesting overview on the issue of plant and zootoxin exposures in domestic animals, highlighting the relevance of these agents as causes of animal poisoning and providing useful information for prevention and diagnosis.

Mortality caused by venomous animals in Venezuela (2000-2009): A new epidemiological pattern

Introducción

Los accidentes causados por animales venenosos ocurren con mucha frecuencia en comunidades pobres con acceso limitado a los servicios de salud. Se les consideran enfermedades desatendidas y son una de las causas importantes de morbimortalidad en varias naciones del mundo, incluida Venezuela.

Objetivo

Evaluar la mortalidad por contacto traumático con animales venenosos (serie X20-X29) en Venezuela en el periodo de 2000 a 2009.

Materiales y métodos

Los datos se obtuvieron de los anuarios de mortalidad del Ministerio de Salud.

Resultados

Se registraron 759 decesos, la mayoría de ellos en el 2009. La primera causa fue la mordedura de serpientes (n=323; 42,6%), seguida por la picadura de himenópteros (n=170; 22,4%), la mordedura de centípedos (n=106; 14,0%) y la picadura de escorpiones (n=76; 10,0%). La mediana de la tasa de mortalidad general para el periodo fue de 0,285 fallecidos por 100.000 habitantes, en tanto que, por grupo específico, fue de 0,120 para ofidios, de 0,065 para himenópteros, de 0,035 para centípedos y de 0,025 para escorpiones.

Conclusión

Al comparar estos datos con los antecedentes históricos, se evidenció la modificación del patrón de mortalidad en el país caracterizada por un aumento significativo de los decesos por centípedos, tercera causa de muerte, lo que reubica la picadura de escorpiones como la cuarta causa de mortalidad.

Insect Migration and Changes in Venom Allergy due to Climate Change

Insects are highly successful animals. They have limited ability to regulate their temperature and therefore will expand range in response to warming temperatures. Climate change and associated rising global temperature is impacting the range and distribution of stinging insects. There is evidence that many species are expanding range toward the poles, primarily in response to warming. With expanded distribution of stinging insects, increased interaction with humans is anticipated with consequently increased rates of sting-related reactions and need for intervention. This article focuses on evidence that insects are expanding their range in response to warming temperature, increasing likelihood of human interaction.

King Cobra and snakebite envenomation: on the natural history, human-snake relationship and medical importance of Ophiophagus hannah

King Cobra (Ophiophagus hannah) has a significant place in many cultures, and is a medically important venomous snake in the world. Envenomation by this snake is highly lethal, manifested mainly by neurotoxicity and local tissue damage. King Cobra may be part of a larger species complex, and is widely distributed across Southeast Asia, southern China, northern and eastern regions as well as the Western Ghats of India, indicating potential geographical variation in venom composition. There is, however, only one species-specific King Cobra antivenom available worldwide that is produced in Thailand, using venom from the snake of Thai origin. Issues relating to the management of King Cobra envenomation (e.g., variation in the composition and toxicity of the venom, limited availability and efficacy of antivenom), and challenges faced in the research of venom (in particular proteomics), are rarely addressed. This article reviews the natural history and sociocultural importance of King Cobra, cases of snakebite envenomation caused by this species, current practice of management (preclinical and clinical), and major toxinological studies of the venom with a focus on venom proteomics, toxicity and neutralization. Unfortunately, epidemiological data of King Cobra bite is scarce, and venom proteomes reported in various studies revealed marked discrepancies in details. Challenges, such as inconsistency in snake venom sampling, varying methodology of proteomic analysis, lack of mechanistic and antivenomic studies, and controversy surrounding antivenom use in treating King Cobra envenomation are herein discussed. Future directions are proposed, including the effort to establish a standard, comprehensive Pan-Asian proteomic database of King Cobra venom, from which the venom variation can be determined. Research should be undertaken to characterize the toxin antigenicity, and to develop an antivenom with improved efficacy and wider geographical utility. The endeavors are aligned with the WHO´s roadmap that aims to reduce the disease burden of snakebite by 50% before 2030.

Hymenoptera allergy and anaphylaxis: are warmer temperatures changing the impact?

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Climate change has brought about many changes in our ecosystem. Prolongation of pollen seasons has been reported, related to earlier frost off in the spring and later onset of frost on in the fall. This review considers recent global evidence that stinging insects are redistributing toward the poles, thereby potentially increasing human exposure and risk of sting events.

RECENT FINDINGS

With changing climate, particularly climate warming, range expansion of insects is occurring in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. Likewise, stinging insects, such as Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera, are also expanding range. Though there is scant data on associated increase of insect-related anaphylaxis, increased insect-human interaction is certain.

SUMMARY

It is likely that climate change will continue to alter the distribution and population of Hymenoptera and other insects. As temperatures warm and regions become suitable for nesting and establishment of colonies, many insects will expand their territory. As already reported in Alaska, one would anticipate expansion of range, especially toward the poles, thereby increasing the probability of human encounters and likewise anaphylaxis.

Ocean Acidification and Human Health

The ocean provides resources key to human health and well-being, including food, oxygen, livelihoods, blue spaces, and medicines. The global threat to these resources posed by accelerating ocean acidification is becoming increasingly evident as the world's oceans absorb carbon dioxide emissions. While ocean acidification was initially perceived as a threat only to the marine realm, here we argue that it is also an emerging human health issue. Specifically, we explore how ocean acidification affects the quantity and quality of resources key to human health and well-being in the context of: (1) malnutrition and poisoning, (2) respiratory issues, (3) mental health impacts, and (4) development of medical resources. We explore mitigation and adaptation management strategies that can be implemented to strengthen the capacity of acidifying oceans to continue providing human health benefits. Importantly, we emphasize that the cost of such actions will be dependent upon the socioeconomic context; specifically, costs will likely be greater for socioeconomically disadvantaged populations, exacerbating the current inequitable distribution of environmental and human health challenges. Given the scale of ocean acidification impacts on human health and well-being, recognizing and researching these complexities may allow the adaptation of management such that not only are the harms to human health reduced but the benefits enhanced.

A dynamic relationship between two regional causes of IgE-mediated anaphylaxis: α-Gal syndrome and imported fire ant

BACKGROUND

A syndrome of mammalian meat allergy relating to IgE specific for galactose-α-1,3-galactose (α-Gal) was first reported 10 years ago in the southeastern United States and has been related to bites of the lone star tick (Amblyomma americanum).

OBJECTIVE

Here we investigated the epidemiology of the "α-Gal syndrome" in the United States and sought additional evidence for the connection to tick bites.

METHODS

A survey of allergists was conducted by using a snowball approach. A second tier of the survey included questions about anaphylaxis to imported fire ants (IFAs). History of tick bites and tick-related febrile illness were assessed as part of a case-control study in Virginia. Antibody assays were conducted on sera from subjects reporting allergic reactions to mammalian meat or IFA.

RESULTS

In North America the α-Gal syndrome is recognized across the Southeast, Midwest, and Atlantic Coast, with many providers in this area managing more than 100 patients each. The distribution of cases generally conformed to the reported range of A americanum, although within this range there was an inverse relationship between α-Gal cases and cases of IFA anaphylaxis that were closely related to the territory of IFA. The connection between tick bites and α-Gal sensitization was further supported by patients' responses to a questionnaire and the results of serologic tests.

CONCLUSIONS

The α-Gal syndrome is commonly acquired in adulthood as a consequence of tick bites and has a regional distribution that largely conforms to the territory of the lone star tick. The epidemiology of the syndrome is expected to be dynamic and shifting north because of climate change and ecologic competition from IFA.

Geographical variations in king cobra (Ophiophagus hannah) venom from Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia and China: On venom lethality, antivenom immunoreactivity and in vivo neutralization

The wide distribution of king cobra (Ophiophagus hannah), a medically important venomous snake in Asia could be associated with geographical variation in the toxicity and antigenicity of the venom. This study investigated the lethality of king cobra venoms (KCV) from four geographical locales (Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, China), and the immunological binding as well as in vivo neutralization activities of three antivenom products (Thai Ophiophagus hannah monovalent antivenom, OHMAV; Indonesian Serum Anti Bisa Ular, SABU; Chinese Naja atra monovalent antivenom, NAMAV) toward the venoms. The Indonesian and Chinese KCV were more lethal (median lethal dose, LD₅₀ ~0.5 μg/g) than those from Malaysia and Thailand (LD₅₀ ~1.0 μg/g). The antivenoms, composed of F(ab)'₂, were variably immunoreactive toward the KCV from all locales, with OHMAV exhibited the highest immunological binding activity. In mice, OHMAV neutralized the neurotoxic lethality of Thai KCV most effectively (normalized potency = 118 mg venom neutralized per g antivenom) followed by Malaysian, Indonesian and Chinese KCV. In comparison, the hetero-specific SABU was remarkably less potent by at least 6 to10 folds, whereas NAMAV appeared to be non-effective. The finding supports that a specific king cobra antivenom is needed for the effective treatment of king cobra envenomation in each region.

The "T's" of snakebite injury in the USA: fact or fiction?

Background

Venomous snakebites can result in serious morbidity and mortality. In the USA, the "T's of snakebites" (testosterone, teasing, touching, trucks, tattoos & toothless (poverTy), Texas, tequila, teenagers, and tanks) originate from anecdotes used to colloquially highlight venomous snakebite risk factors. We performed an epidemiologic assessment of venomous snakebites in the USA with the objective of evaluating the validity of the "T's of snakebites" at a national level.

Methods

We performed a retrospective analysis of the National Emergency Department Sample. Data from January 1, 2016 to December 31, 2016 were obtained. All emergency department (ED) encounters corresponding to a venomous snakebite injury were identified using the International Classification of Diseases, 10th Revision, Clinical Modification (ICD-10-CM) codes. Primary outcomes were mortality and inpatient admission. Demographic, injury, and hospital characteristics were assessed. Data were analyzed according to survey methodology. Weighted values are reported.

Results

In 2016, 11 138 patients presented to an ED with a venomous snakebite. There were 4173 (37%) persons aged 18 to 44, and 7213 (65%) were male. Most snakebites were reported from the South (n=9079; 82%), although snakebites were reported from every region in the USA. Only 3792 (34%) snakebites occurred in rural counties. Persons in the lowest income quartile by zip code were the most heavily represented (n=4337; 39%). The most common site of injury was the distal upper extremity (n=4884; 44%). Multivariate analysis revealed that species of snake (OR=0.81; 95% CI 0.73 to 0.88) and older age (OR=1.42; 95% CI 1.08 to 1.87) were associated with hospital admission. There were <10 inpatient deaths identified, and no variables were predictive of death.

Discussion

Some of the "T's of snakebites" may be valid colloquial predictors of the risk for venomous snakebites. Based on national data, common demographics of venomous snakebite victims include lower income, Caucasian, and adult men in the South who are bit on the upper extremity. Understanding common demographics of venomous snakebite victims can effectuate targeted public health prevention messaging.

Level of evidence

IV.

Physiological effects of gamma irradiation in the honeybee, Apis mellifera

Terrestrial ecosystems are exposed to various kinds of pollutants, including radionuclides. The honeybee, Apis mellifera, is commonly used in ecotoxicology as a model species for evaluating the effects of pollutants. In the present study, honeybees were irradiated right after birth for 14 days with gamma rays at dose rates ranging between 4.38 × 10^-3 and 588 mGy/d. Biological tissues (head, intestine and abdomen) were sampled at D3, D10 and D14. Ten different physiological markers involved in nervous (acetylcholinesterase (AChE)), antioxidative (catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and glutathione-S-transferase (GST)), immune system (phenoloxidase (PO)) and metabolism (carboxylesterases (CaEs) and alkaline phosphatase (ALP)) were measured. Univariate analyses were conducted to determine whether each individual biomarker response was positively or negatively correlated with the dose rate. Then, multivariate analyses were applied to investigate the relationships between all the biomarker responses. Although no mortality occurred during the experiment, several biomarkers varied significantly in relation to the dose rate. Globally, the biomarkers of antioxidant and immune systems decreased as the dose rate increased. Reversible effects on the indicator of the neural system were found. Concerning indicators of metabolism (carboxylesterases), variations occurred but no clear pattern was found. Taken altogether, these results help better understand the effects of ionizing radiation on bees by identifying relevant physiological markers of effects. These results could improve the assessment of the environmental risk due to ionizing radiation in terrestrial ecosystems.

Southern expansion of the invasive ant Wasmannia auropunctata within its native range and its relation with clonality and human activity

The little fire ant Wasmannia auropunctata, native to the Neotropics, has become a serious pest worldwide over the past 100 years. It was originally distributed from Mexico to northern Argentina and new evidence suggests a recent southern range expansion during the last 60 years reaching central Argentina. This supercolonial ant species has a polymorphic reproductive system. Some populations, mostly found in undisturbed natural environments, are characterised by a classical sexual haplodiploid reproductive system. In other populations, which mainly occur in human-modified habitats, diploid queens and haploid males are produced clonally while workers are produced sexually. Here we studied the association between the recent southern range expansion of W. auropunctata in relation to human activity and clonality. We carried out an extensive survey within the southern limit of the species’ native distribution and characterised the type of habitat where populations were found. Moreover, we genetically determined the type of reproductive system in 35 populations by genotyping at 12 microsatellite loci a total of 191 reproductive individuals (i.e. queens and/or males). Clonality was the most common reproductive system, occurring in 31 out of 35 populations analysed. All the populations found in the recently colonised area in central Argentina were clonal and established in human-modified habitats, suggesting that clonality together with human activity might have facilitated the southwards expansion of W. auropunctata.

Snakebites and climate change in California, 1997-2017

BACKGROUND

Climate change effect on flora and fauna has been scientifically documented, but the effect on North American venomous snakebites is unknown. The objectives were to examine Californian snakebite incidence and correlate with weather patterns and climate changes.

METHODS

A retrospective analysis of snakebites reported to the Californian Poison Control System from 1 September 1997 to 30 September 2017. Venomous snakebite reports were aggregated by caller zip code, and correlated per county with weather data, air temperature, precipitation, population data, eco-regions, and land characteristics. Time series decomposition by seasonality and trend, regression, and autocorrelation were used to assess association between climate variables and incidence.

RESULTS

There were 5365 reported venomous snakebites during the study period, with a median age of 37 years (22-51) with 76% male (p < .001, 95% CI 75.6-77.9%). Most snakebite outcomes were coded as minor (1363, 25%) or moderate (2607, 49%), with three deaths. Adjusted for population, the annualized incidence of snakebites statewide slightly decreased (rho = -0.11, p = .65). The snakebite incidence per million people rose after a period of no drought and declined during drought (r = -0.41, p ≪ .01). Snakebite incidence decreased by 6-month prior drought (-3.8% for each 10% increase in drought), and increased by 18-month prior precipitation (+3.9% for each 10% increase in precipitation).

CONCLUSIONS

Patterns of precipitation and drought had a significant and predictive effect on snakebites in California over a 20-year period. Snakebite incidence decreased following drought, and increased after precipitation.

Snakebite: When the Human Touch Becomes a Bad Touch

Many issues and complications in treating snakebite are a result of poor human social, economic and clinical intervention and management. As such, there is scope for significant improvements for reducing incidence and increasing patient outcomes. Snakes do not target humans as prey, but as our dwellings and farms expand ever farther and climate change increases snake activity periods, accidental encounters with snakes seeking water and prey increase drastically. Despite its long history, the snakebite crisis is neglected, ignored, underestimated and fundamentally misunderstood. Tens of thousands of lives are lost to snakebites each year and hundreds of thousands of people will survive with some form of permanent damage and reduced work capacity. These numbers are well recognized as being gross underestimations due to poor to non-existent record keeping in some of the most affected areas. These underestimations complicate achieving the proper recognition of snakebite’s socioeconomic impact and thus securing foreign aid to help alleviate this global crisis. Antivenoms are expensive and hospitals are few and far between, leaving people to seek help from traditional healers or use other forms of ineffective treatment. In some cases, cheaper, inappropriately manufactured antivenom from other regions is used despite no evidence for their efficacy, with often robust data demonstrating they are woefully ineffective in neutralizing many venoms for which they are marketed for. Inappropriate first-aid and treatments include cutting the wound, tourniquets, electrical shock, immersion in ice water, and use of ineffective herbal remedies by traditional healers. Even in the developed world, there are fundamental controversies including fasciotomy, pressure bandages, antivenom dosage, premedication such as adrenalin, and lack of antivenom for exotic snakebites in the pet trade. This review explores the myriad of human-origin factors that influence the trajectory of global snakebite causes and treatment failures and illustrate that snakebite is as much a sociological and economic problem as it is a medical one. Reducing the incidence and frequency of such controllable factors are therefore realistic targets to help alleviate the global snakebite burden as incremental improvements across several areas will have a strong cumulative effect.