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Githaka JM, Pirayeshfard L, Goping IS. Cancer invasion and metastasis: Insights from murine pubertal mammary gland morphogenesis. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2023; 1867:130375. [PMID: 37150225 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2023.130375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2022] [Revised: 04/20/2023] [Accepted: 05/02/2023] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Cancer invasion and metastasis accounts for the majority of cancer related mortality. A better understanding of the players that drive the aberrant invasion and migration of tumors cells will provide critical targets to inhibit metastasis. Postnatal pubertal mammary gland morphogenesis is characterized by highly proliferative, invasive, and migratory normal epithelial cells. Identifying the molecular regulators of pubertal gland development is a promising strategy since tumorigenesis and metastasis is postulated to be a consequence of aberrant reactivation of developmental stages. In this review, we summarize the pubertal morphogenesis regulators that are involved in cancer metastasis and revisit pubertal mammary gland transcriptome profiling to uncover both known and unknown metastasis genes. Our updated list of pubertal morphogenesis regulators shows that most are implicated in invasion and metastasis. This review highlights molecular linkages between development and metastasis and provides a guide for exploring novel metastatic drivers.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Maringa Githaka
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2H7, Canada.
| | - Leila Pirayeshfard
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2H7, Canada
| | - Ing Swie Goping
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2H7, Canada; Department of Oncology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2H7, Canada.
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2
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Gao Z, Shao D, Zhao C, Liu H, Zhao X, Wei Q, Ma B. The High Level of RANKL Improves IκB/p65/Cyclin D1 Expression and Decreases p-Stat5 Expression in Firm Udder of Dairy Goats. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24108841. [PMID: 37240191 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24108841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2023] [Revised: 05/05/2023] [Accepted: 05/14/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Udder traits, influencing udder health and function, are positively correlated with lactation performance. Among them, breast texture influences heritability and impacts on the milk yield of cattle; however, there is a lack of systematic research on its underlying mechanism in dairy goats in particular. Here, we showed the structure of firm udders with developed connective tissue and smaller acini per lobule during lactation and confirmed that there were lower serum levels of estradiol (E2) and progesterone (PROG), and higher mammary expression of estrogen nuclear receptor (ER) α and progesterone receptor (PR), in dairy goats with firm udders. The results of transcriptome sequencing of the mammary gland revealed that the downstream pathway of PR, the receptor activator of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) ligand (RANKL) signal, participated in the formation of firm mammary glands. During the culture of goat mammary epithelial cells (GMECs), high RANKL level additions promote the Inhibitor kappaB (IκB)/p65/Cyclin D1 expression related to cell proliferation and decrease the phosphorylated signal transduction and transcription activator 5 (Stat5) expression related to milk-protein synthesis of GMECs, which is consistent with electron microscope results showing that there are fewer lactoprotein particles in the acinar cavity of a firm mammary. Furthermore, co-culturing with adipocyte-like cells for 7 d is beneficial for the acinar structure formation of GMECs, while there is a slightly negative effect of high RANKL level on it. In conclusion, the results of this study revealed the structure of firm udders structure and confirmed the serum hormone levels and their receptor expression in the mammary glands of dairy goats with firm udders. The underlying mechanism leading to firm udders and a decrease in milk yield were explored preliminarily, which provided an important foundation for the prevention and amelioration of firm udders and improving udder health and milk yield.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhen Gao
- Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology of the Ministry of Agriculture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang 712100, China
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang 712100, China
| | - Dan Shao
- Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology of the Ministry of Agriculture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang 712100, China
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang 712100, China
| | - Chunrui Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology of the Ministry of Agriculture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang 712100, China
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang 712100, China
| | - Haokun Liu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology of the Ministry of Agriculture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang 712100, China
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang 712100, China
| | - Xiaoe Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology of the Ministry of Agriculture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang 712100, China
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang 712100, China
| | - Qiang Wei
- Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology of the Ministry of Agriculture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang 712100, China
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang 712100, China
| | - Baohua Ma
- Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology of the Ministry of Agriculture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang 712100, China
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang 712100, China
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3
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Dahiya NR, Leibovitch BA, Kadamb R, Bansal N, Waxman S. The Sin3A/MAD1 Complex, through Its PAH2 Domain, Acts as a Second Repressor of Retinoic Acid Receptor Beta Expression in Breast Cancer Cells. Cells 2022; 11:cells11071179. [PMID: 35406744 PMCID: PMC8997856 DOI: 10.3390/cells11071179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2022] [Revised: 03/24/2022] [Accepted: 03/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Retinoids are essential in balancing proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis, and they exert their effects through retinoic acid receptors (RARs) and retinoid X receptors (RXRs). RARβ is a tumor-suppressor gene silenced by epigenetic mechanisms such as DNA methylation in breast, cervical and non-small cell lung cancers. An increased expression of RARβ has been associated with improved breast cancer-specific survival. The PAH2 domain of the scaffold protein SIN3A interacts with the specific Sin3 Interaction Domain (SID) of several transcription factors, such as MAD1, bringing chromatin-modifying proteins such as histone deacetylases, and it targets chromatin for specific modifications. Previously, we have established that blocking the PAH2-mediated Sin3A interaction with SID-containing proteins using SID peptides or small molecule inhibitors (SMI) increased RARβ expression and induced retinoic acid metabolism in breast cancer cells, both in in vitro and in vivo models. Here, we report studies designed to understand the mechanistic basis of RARβ induction and function. Using human breast cancer cells transfected with MAD1 SID or treated with the MAD SID peptide, we observed a dissociation of MAD1, RARα and RARβ from Sin3A in a coimmunoprecipitation assay. This was associated with increased RARα and RARβ expression and function by a luciferase assay, which was enhanced by the addition of AM580, a specific RARα agonist; EMSA showed that MAD1 binds to E-Box, similar to MYC, on the RARβ promoter, which showed a reduced enrichment of Sin3A and HDAC1 by ChIP and was required for the AM580-enhanced RARβ activation in MAD1/SID cells. These data suggest that the Sin3A/HDAC1/2 complex co-operates with the classical repressors in regulating RARβ expression. These data suggest that SIN3A/MAD1 acts as a second RARβ repressor and may be involved in fine-tuning retinoid sensitivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nisha Rani Dahiya
- The Tisch Cancer Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA; (N.R.D.); (N.B.)
| | - Boris A. Leibovitch
- Department of Pathology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY 10029, USA;
| | - Rama Kadamb
- Department of Cell Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA;
| | - Nidhi Bansal
- The Tisch Cancer Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA; (N.R.D.); (N.B.)
| | - Samuel Waxman
- The Tisch Cancer Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA; (N.R.D.); (N.B.)
- Correspondence:
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Abstract
Pleiotrophin (PTN) is a potent mitogenic cytokine with a high affinity for the polysaccharide glycosaminoglycan (GAG). Although it is most strongly associated with neural development during embryogenesis and the neonatal period, its expression has also been linked to a plethora of other physiological events including cancer metastasis, angiogenesis, bone development, and inflammation. A considerable amount of research has been carried out to understand the mechanisms by which PTN regulates these events. In particular, PTN has now been shown to bind a diverse collection of receptors including many GAG-containing proteoglycans. These interactions lead to the activation of many intracellular kinases and, ultimately, activation and transformation of cells. Structural studies of PTN in complex with both GAG and domains from its non-proteoglycan receptors reveal a binding mechanism that relies on electrostatic interactions and points to PTN-induced receptor oligomerization as one of the possible ways PTN uses to control cellular functions.
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Guo H, Foncea R, O'Byrne SM, Jiang H, Zhang Y, Deis JA, Blaner WS, Bernlohr DA, Chen X. Lipocalin 2, a Regulator of Retinoid Homeostasis and Retinoid-mediated Thermogenic Activation in Adipose Tissue. J Biol Chem 2016; 291:11216-29. [PMID: 27008859 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m115.711556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
We have recently characterized the role of lipocalin 2 (Lcn2) as a new adipose-derived cytokine in the regulation of adaptive thermogenesis via a non-adrenergic pathway. Herein, we explored a potential non-adrenergic mechanism by which Lcn2 regulates thermogenesis and lipid metabolism. We found that Lcn2 is a retinoic acid target gene, and retinoic acid concurrently stimulated UCP1 and Lcn2 expression in adipocytes. Lcn2 KO mice exhibited a blunted effect of all-trans-retinoic acid (ATRA) on body weight and fat mass, lipid metabolism, and retinoic acid signaling pathway activation in adipose tissue under the high fat diet-induced obese condition. We further demonstrated that Lcn2 is required for the full action of ATRA on the induction of UCP1 and PGC-1α expression in brown adipocytes and the restoration of cold intolerance in Lcn2 KO mice. Interestingly, we discovered that Lcn2 KO mice have decreased levels of retinoic acid and retinol in adipose tissue. The protein levels of STRA6 responsible for retinol uptake were significantly decreased in adipose tissue. The retinol transporter RBP4 was increased in adipose tissue but decreased in the circulation, suggesting the impairment of RBP4 secretion in Lcn2 KO adipose tissue. Moreover, Lcn2 deficiency abolished the ATRA effect on RBP4 expression in adipocytes. All the data suggest that the decreased retinoid level and action are associated with impaired retinol transport and storage in adipose tissue in Lcn2 KO mice. We conclude that Lcn2 plays a critical role in regulating metabolic homeostasis of retinoids and retinoid-mediated thermogenesis in adipose tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Guo
- From the Departments of Food Science and Nutrition and
| | - Rocio Foncea
- Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Biophysics, University of Minnesota, Twin Cities, Minnesota 55108 and
| | - Sheila M O'Byrne
- the Department of Medicine, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, New York 10032
| | - Hongfeng Jiang
- the Department of Medicine, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, New York 10032
| | | | | | - William S Blaner
- the Department of Medicine, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, New York 10032
| | - David A Bernlohr
- Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Biophysics, University of Minnesota, Twin Cities, Minnesota 55108 and
| | - Xiaoli Chen
- From the Departments of Food Science and Nutrition and
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Volden PA, Skor MN, Johnson MB, Singh P, Patel FN, McClintock MK, Brady MJ, Conzen SD. Mammary Adipose Tissue-Derived Lysophospholipids Promote Estrogen Receptor-Negative Mammary Epithelial Cell Proliferation. Cancer Prev Res (Phila) 2016; 9:367-78. [PMID: 26862086 DOI: 10.1158/1940-6207.capr-15-0107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2015] [Accepted: 01/27/2016] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Lysophosphatidic acid (LPA), acting in an autocrine or paracrine fashion through G protein-coupled receptors, has been implicated in many physiologic and pathologic processes, including cancer. LPA is converted from lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC) by the secreted phospholipase autotaxin (ATX). Although various cell types can produce ATX, adipocyte-derived ATX is believed to be the major source of circulating ATX and also to be the major regulator of plasma LPA levels. In addition to ATX, adipocytes secrete numerous other factors (adipokines); although several adipokines have been implicated in breast cancer biology, the contribution of mammary adipose tissue-derived LPC/ATX/LPA (LPA axis) signaling to breast cancer is poorly understood. Using murine mammary fat-conditioned medium, we investigated the contribution of LPA signaling to mammary epithelial cancer cell biology and identified LPA signaling as a significant contributor to the oncogenic effects of the mammary adipose tissue secretome. To interrogate the role of mammary fat in the LPA axis during breast cancer progression, we exposed mammary adipose tissue to secreted factors from estrogen receptor-negative mammary epithelial cell lines and monitored changes in the mammary fat pad LPA axis. Our data indicate that bidirectional interactions between mammary cancer cells and mammary adipocytes alter the local LPA axis and increase ATX expression in the mammary fat pad during breast cancer progression. Thus, the LPC/ATX/LPA axis may be a useful target for prevention in patients at risk of ER-negative breast cancer. Cancer Prev Res; 9(5); 367-78. ©2016 AACR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul A Volden
- Department of Medicine, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Maxwell N Skor
- Department of Medicine, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois. Committee on Molecular Metabolism and Nutrition, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
| | | | | | | | - Martha K McClintock
- Department of Psychology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois. Institute for Mind and Biology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Matthew J Brady
- Department of Medicine, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois. Committee on Molecular Metabolism and Nutrition, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois.
| | - Suzanne D Conzen
- Department of Medicine, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois. Committee on Molecular Metabolism and Nutrition, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois. Institute for Mind and Biology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois. Ben May Department of Cancer Research, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois.
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di Masi A, Leboffe L, De Marinis E, Pagano F, Cicconi L, Rochette-Egly C, Lo-Coco F, Ascenzi P, Nervi C. Retinoic acid receptors: from molecular mechanisms to cancer therapy. Mol Aspects Med 2015; 41:1-115. [PMID: 25543955 DOI: 10.1016/j.mam.2014.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 256] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2014] [Accepted: 12/15/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Retinoic acid (RA), the major bioactive metabolite of retinol or vitamin A, induces a spectrum of pleiotropic effects in cell growth and differentiation that are relevant for embryonic development and adult physiology. The RA activity is mediated primarily by members of the retinoic acid receptor (RAR) subfamily, namely RARα, RARβ and RARγ, which belong to the nuclear receptor (NR) superfamily of transcription factors. RARs form heterodimers with members of the retinoid X receptor (RXR) subfamily and act as ligand-regulated transcription factors through binding specific RA response elements (RAREs) located in target genes promoters. RARs also have non-genomic effects and activate kinase signaling pathways, which fine-tune the transcription of the RA target genes. The disruption of RA signaling pathways is thought to underlie the etiology of a number of hematological and non-hematological malignancies, including leukemias, skin cancer, head/neck cancer, lung cancer, breast cancer, ovarian cancer, prostate cancer, renal cell carcinoma, pancreatic cancer, liver cancer, glioblastoma and neuroblastoma. Of note, RA and its derivatives (retinoids) are employed as potential chemotherapeutic or chemopreventive agents because of their differentiation, anti-proliferative, pro-apoptotic, and anti-oxidant effects. In humans, retinoids reverse premalignant epithelial lesions, induce the differentiation of myeloid normal and leukemic cells, and prevent lung, liver, and breast cancer. Here, we provide an overview of the biochemical and molecular mechanisms that regulate the RA and retinoid signaling pathways. Moreover, mechanisms through which deregulation of RA signaling pathways ultimately impact on cancer are examined. Finally, the therapeutic effects of retinoids are reported.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra di Masi
- Department of Science, Roma Tre University, Viale Guglielmo Marconi 446, Roma I-00146, Italy
| | - Loris Leboffe
- Department of Science, Roma Tre University, Viale Guglielmo Marconi 446, Roma I-00146, Italy
| | - Elisabetta De Marinis
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences and Biotechnologies, University of Roma "La Sapienza", Corso della Repubblica 79, Latina I-04100
| | - Francesca Pagano
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences and Biotechnologies, University of Roma "La Sapienza", Corso della Repubblica 79, Latina I-04100
| | - Laura Cicconi
- Department of Biomedicine and Prevention, University of Roma "Tor Vergata", Via Montpellier 1, Roma I-00133, Italy; Laboratory of Neuro-Oncohematology, Santa Lucia Foundation, Via Ardeatina, 306, Roma I-00142, Italy
| | - Cécile Rochette-Egly
- Department of Functional Genomics and Cancer, IGBMC, CNRS UMR 7104 - Inserm U 964, University of Strasbourg, 1 rue Laurent Fries, BP10142, Illkirch Cedex F-67404, France.
| | - Francesco Lo-Coco
- Department of Biomedicine and Prevention, University of Roma "Tor Vergata", Via Montpellier 1, Roma I-00133, Italy; Laboratory of Neuro-Oncohematology, Santa Lucia Foundation, Via Ardeatina, 306, Roma I-00142, Italy.
| | - Paolo Ascenzi
- Interdepartmental Laboratory for Electron Microscopy, Roma Tre University, Via della Vasca Navale 79, Roma I-00146, Italy.
| | - Clara Nervi
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences and Biotechnologies, University of Roma "La Sapienza", Corso della Repubblica 79, Latina I-04100.
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8
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Rosenfield SM, Bowden ET, Cohen-Missner S, Gibby KA, Ory V, Henke RT, Riegel AT, Wellstein A. Pleiotrophin (PTN) expression and function and in the mouse mammary gland and mammary epithelial cells. PLoS One 2012; 7:e47876. [PMID: 23077670 PMCID: PMC3471873 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0047876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2012] [Accepted: 09/24/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Expression of the heparin-binding growth factor, pleiotrophin (PTN) in the mammary gland has been reported but its function during mammary gland development is not known. We examined the expression of PTN and its receptor ALK (Anaplastic Lymphoma Kinase) at various stages of mouse mammary gland development and found that their expression in epithelial cells is regulated in parallel during pregnancy. A 30-fold downregulation of PTN mRNA expression was observed during mid-pregnancy when the mammary gland undergoes lobular-alveolar differentiation. After weaning of pups, PTN expression was restored although baseline expression of PTN was reduced significantly in mammary glands of mice that had undergone multiple pregnancies. We found PTN expressed in epithelial cells of the mammary gland and thus used a monoclonal anti-PTN blocking antibody to elucidate its function in cultured mammary epithelial cells (MECs) as well as during gland development. Real-time impedance monitoring of MECs growth, migration and invasion during anti-PTN blocking antibody treatment showed that MECs motility and invasion but not proliferation depend on the activity of endogenous PTN. Increased number of mammospheres with laminin deposition after anti-PTN blocking antibody treatment of MECs in 3D culture and expression of progenitor markers suggest that the endogenously expressed PTN inhibits the expansion and differentiation of epithelial progenitor cells by disrupting cell-matrix adhesion. In vivo, PTN activity was found to inhibit ductal outgrowth and branching via the inhibition of phospho ERK1/2 signaling in the mammary epithelial cells. We conclude that PTN delays the maturation of the mammary gland by maintaining mammary epithelial cells in a progenitor phenotype and by inhibiting their differentiation during mammary gland development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia M. Rosenfield
- Lombardi Cancer Center, Georgetown University, Washington, District of Columbia, United States of America
| | - Emma T. Bowden
- MedImmune, Gaithersburg, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Shani Cohen-Missner
- Lombardi Cancer Center, Georgetown University, Washington, District of Columbia, United States of America
| | - Krissa A. Gibby
- Lombardi Cancer Center, Georgetown University, Washington, District of Columbia, United States of America
| | - Virginie Ory
- Lombardi Cancer Center, Georgetown University, Washington, District of Columbia, United States of America
| | - Ralf T. Henke
- Lombardi Cancer Center, Georgetown University, Washington, District of Columbia, United States of America
| | - Anna T. Riegel
- Lombardi Cancer Center, Georgetown University, Washington, District of Columbia, United States of America
| | - Anton Wellstein
- Lombardi Cancer Center, Georgetown University, Washington, District of Columbia, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Zhou TB, Qin YH. The potential mechanism for the different expressions of gelatinases induced by all-trans retinoic acid in different cells. J Recept Signal Transduct Res 2012; 32:129-133. [PMID: 22475041 DOI: 10.3109/10799893.2012.672992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Gelatinases include matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) and matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9). The increased expressions of gelatinases are implicated in the pathogenesis of cell injury and cell death. All-trans retinoic acid (ATRA) is an import biological agent which can regulate the expressions of gelatinases and take part in cell injury and cell death. ATRA exerts its biological effect by the high-affinity binding to retinoic acid receptors (RARs). The RARs consist of three isoforms: RAR-α, RAR-β and RAR-γ. However, it is interesting that the effect of ATRA on the expressions of gelatinases is different in different cells. There is no report to explore the possible mechanism for it at present. In this context, we review the published reports and draw a hypothesis that: (i) The distributions of RARs isoforms are different in different cells; (ii) ATRA activates the different RARs isoforms in different cells; (iii) The roles of different RARs isoforms for regulating the expression of MMP-2 or MMP-9 are different in different cells. So, ATRA takes a different function on the expressions of MMP-2 and MMP-9 in different cells. Once the potential strategy can be successfully confirmed, it would be prone to comprehend why the ATRA regulates the different expressions of gelatinases in different cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tian-Biao Zhou
- Department of Pediatrics, The First Affiliated Hospital of GuangXi Medical University, Nan Ning, China.
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