Mouse but not zebrafish requires retinoic acid for control of neuromesodermal progenitors and body axis extension

Early retinoic acid signaling organizes the body axis and defines domains for the forelimb and eye

All-trans RA (ATRA) is a small molecule derived from retinol (vitamin A) that directly controls gene expression at the transcriptional level by serving as a ligand for nuclear ATRA receptors. ATRA is produced by ATRA-generating enzymes that convert retinol to retinaldehyde (retinol dehydrogenase; RDH10) followed by conversion of retinaldehyde to ATRA (retinaldehyde dehydrogenase; ALDH1A1, ALDH1A2, or ALDH1A3). Determining what ATRA normally does during vertebrate development has been challenging as studies employing ATRA gain-of-function (RA treatment) often do not agree with genetic loss-of-function studies that remove ATRA via knockouts of ATRA-generating enzymes. In mouse embryos, ATRA is first generated at stage E7.5 by ATRA-generating enzymes whose genes are first expressed at that stage. This article focuses upon what ATRA normally does at early stages based upon these knockout studies. It has been observed that early-generated ATRA performs three essential functions: (1) activation of genes that control hindbrain and spinal cord patterning; (2) repression of Fgf8 in the heart field and caudal progenitors to provide an FGF8-free region in the trunk essential for somitogenesis, heart morphogenesis, and initiation of forelimb fields; and (3) actions that stimulate invagination of the optic vesicle to form the optic cup.

The pathogenic role of retinoid nuclear receptor signaling in cancer and metabolic syndromes

The retinoid nuclear receptor pathway, activated by the vitamin A metabolite retinoic acid, has been extensively investigated for over a century. This study has resulted in conflicting hypotheses about how the pathway regulates health and how it should be pharmaceutically manipulated. These disagreements arise from a fundamental contradiction: retinoid agonists offer clear benefits to select patients with rare bone growth disorders, acute promyelocytic leukemia, and some dermatologic diseases, yet therapeutic retinoid pathway activation frequently causes more harm than good, both through acute metabolic dysregulation and a delayed cancer-promoting effect. In this review, we discuss controlled clinical, mechanistic, and genetic data to suggest several disease settings where inhibition of the retinoid pathway may be a compelling therapeutic strategy, such as solid cancers or metabolic syndromes, and also caution against continued testing of retinoid agonists in cancer patients. Considerable evidence suggests a central role for retinoid regulation of immunity and metabolism, with therapeutic opportunities to antagonize retinoid signaling proposed in cancer, diabetes, and obesity.

Rewiring of the epigenome and chromatin architecture by exogenously induced retinoic acid signaling during zebrafish embryonic development

Retinoic acid (RA) is the ligand of RA receptors (RARs), transcription factors that bind to RA response elements. RA signaling is required for multiple processes during embryonic development, including body axis extension, hindbrain antero-posterior patterning and forelimb bud initiation. Although some RA target genes have been identified, little is known about the genome-wide effects of RA signaling during in vivo embryonic development. Here, we stimulate the RA pathway by treating zebrafish embryos with all-trans-RA (atRA) and use a combination of RNA-seq, ATAC-seq, ChIP-seq and HiChIP to gain insight into the molecular mechanisms by which exogenously induced RA signaling controls gene expression. We find that RA signaling is involved in anterior/posterior patterning, central nervous system development, and the transition from pluripotency to differentiation. AtRA treatment also alters chromatin accessibility during early development and promotes chromatin binding of RARαa and the RA targets Hoxb1b, Meis2b and Sox3, which cooperate in central nervous system development. Finally, we show that exogenous RA induces a rewiring of chromatin architecture, with alterations in chromatin 3D interactions involving target genes. Altogether, our findings identify genome-wide targets of RA signaling and provide a molecular mechanism by which developmental signaling pathways regulate target gene expression by altering chromatin topology.

Spatiotemporal control of pattern formation during somitogenesis

Spatiotemporal patterns widely occur in biological, chemical, and physical systems. Particularly, embryonic development displays a diverse gamut of repetitive patterns established in many tissues and organs. Branching treelike structures in lungs, kidneys, livers, pancreases, and mammary glands as well as digits and bones in appendages, teeth, and palates are just a few examples. A fascinating instance of repetitive patterning is the sequential segmentation of the primary body axis, which is conserved in all vertebrates and many arthropods and annelids. In these species, the body axis elongates at the posterior end of the embryo containing an unsegmented tissue. Meanwhile, segments sequentially bud off from the anterior end of the unsegmented tissue, laying down an exquisite repetitive pattern and creating a segmented body plan. In vertebrates, the paraxial mesoderm is sequentially divided into somites. In this review, we will discuss the most prominent models, the most puzzling experimental data, and outstanding questions in vertebrate somite segmentation.

Retinoic acid, RARs and early development

Vitamin A (retinol) is an important nutrient for embryonic development and adult health. Early studies identified retinoic acid (RA) as a metabolite of retinol, however, its importance was not apparent. Later, it was observed that RA treatment of vertebrate embryos had teratogenic effects on limb development. Subsequently, the discovery of nuclear RA receptors (RARs) revealed that RA controls gene expression directly at the transcriptional level through a process referred to as RA signaling. This important discovery led to further studies demonstrating that RA and RARs are required for normal embryonic development. The determination of RA function during normal development has been challenging as RA gain-of-function studies often lead to conclusions about normal development that conflict with RAR or RA loss-of-function studies. However, genetic loss-of-function studies have identified direct target genes of endogenous RA/RAR that are required for normal development of specific tissues. Thus, genetic loss-of-function studies that eliminate RARs or RA-generating enzymes have been instrumental in revealing that RA signaling is required for normal early development of many organs and tissues, including the hindbrain, posterior body axis, somites, spinal cord, forelimbs, heart, and eye.

Mesoderm induction and patterning: Insights from neuromesodermal progenitors

The discovery of mesoderm inducing signals helped usher in the era of molecular developmental biology, and today the mechanisms of mesoderm induction and patterning are still intensely studied. Mesoderm induction begins during gastrulation, but recent evidence in vertebrates shows that this process continues after gastrulation in a group of posteriorly localized cells called neuromesodermal progenitors (NMPs). NMPs reside within the post-gastrulation embryonic structure called the tailbud, where they make a lineage decision between ectoderm (spinal cord) and mesoderm. The majority of NMP-derived mesoderm generates somites, but also contributes to lateral mesoderm fates such as endothelium. The discovery of NMPs provides a new paradigm in which to study vertebrate mesoderm induction. This review will discuss mechanisms of mesoderm induction within NMPs, and how they have informed our understanding of mesoderm induction more broadly within vertebrates as well as animal species outside of the vertebrate lineage. Special focus will be given to the signaling networks underlying NMP-derived mesoderm induction and patterning, as well as emerging work on the significance of partial epithelial-mesenchymal states in coordinating cell fate and morphogenesis.

Somite morphogenesis is required for axial blood vessel formation during zebrafish embryogenesis

Angioblasts that form the major axial blood vessels of the dorsal aorta and cardinal vein migrate toward the embryonic midline from distant lateral positions. Little is known about what controls the precise timing of angioblast migration and their final destination at the midline. Using zebrafish, we found that midline angioblast migration requires neighboring tissue rearrangements generated by somite morphogenesis. The somitic shape changes cause the adjacent notochord to separate from the underlying endoderm, creating a ventral midline cavity that provides a physical space for the angioblasts to migrate into. The anterior to posterior progression of midline angioblast migration is facilitated by retinoic acid-induced anterior to posterior somite maturation and the subsequent progressive opening of the ventral midline cavity. Our work demonstrates a critical role for somite morphogenesis in organizing surrounding tissues to facilitate notochord positioning and angioblast migration, which is ultimately responsible for creating a functional cardiovascular system.

Molecular and Mechanical Cues for Somite Periodicity

Somitogenesis refers to the segmentation of the paraxial mesoderm, a tissue located on the back of the embryo, into regularly spaced and sized pieces, i.e., the somites. This periodicity is important to assure, for example, the formation of a functional vertebral column. Prevailing models of somitogenesis are based on the existence of a gene regulatory network capable of generating a striped pattern of gene expression, which is subsequently translated into periodic tissue boundaries. An alternative view is that the pre-pattern that guides somitogenesis is not chemical, but of a mechanical origin. A striped pattern of mechanical strain can be formed in physically connected tissues expanding at different rates, as it occurs in the embryo. Here we argue that both molecular and mechanical cues could drive somite periodicity and suggest how they could be integrated.

Embryonal Neuromesodermal Progenitors for Caudal Central Nervous System and Tissue Development

Neuromesodermal progenitors (NMPs) constitute a bipotent cell population that generates a wide variety of trunk cell and tissue types during embryonic development. Derivatives of NMPs include both mesodermal lineage cells such as muscles and vertebral bones, and neural lineage cells such as neural crests and central nervous system neurons. Such diverse lineage potential combined with a limited capacity for self-renewal, which persists during axial elongation, demonstrates that NMPs are a major source of trunk tissues. This review describes the identification and characterization of NMPs across multiple species. We also discuss key cellular and molecular steps for generating neural and mesodermal cells for building up the elongating trunk tissue.

Hox13 genes are required for mesoderm formation and axis elongation during early zebrafish development

The early vertebrate embryo extends from anterior to posterior due to the addition of neural and mesodermal cells from a neuromesodermal progenitor (NMp) population located at the most posterior end of the embryo. In order to produce mesoderm throughout this time, the NMps produce their own niche, which is high in Wnt and low in retinoic acid. Using a loss-of-function approach, we demonstrate here that the two most abundant Hox13 genes in zebrafish have a novel role in providing robustness to the NMp niche by working in concert with the niche-establishing factor Brachyury to allow mesoderm formation. Mutants lacking both hoxa13b and hoxd13a in combination with reduced Brachyury activity have synergistic posterior body defects, in the strongest case producing embryos with severe mesodermal defects that phenocopy brachyury null mutants. Our results provide a new way of understanding the essential role of the Hox13 genes in early vertebrate development.This article has an associated 'The people behind the papers' interview.

The Cdx transcription factors and retinoic acid play parallel roles in antero-posterior position of the pectoral fin field during gastrulation

The molecular regulators that determine the precise position of the vertebrate limb along the anterio-posterior axis have not been identified. One model suggests that a combination of hox genes in the lateral plate mesoderm (LPM) promotes formation of the limb field, however redundancy among duplicated paralogs has made this model difficult to confirm. In this study, we identify an optimal window during mid-gastrulation stages when transient mis-regulation of retinoic acid signaling or the caudal related transcription factor, Cdx4, both known regulators of hox genes, can alter the position of the pectoral fin field. We show that increased levels of either RA or Cdx4 during mid-gastrulation are sufficient to rostrally shift the position of the pectoral fin field at the expense of surrounding gene expression in the anterior lateral plate mesoderm (aLPM). Alternatively, embryos deficient for both Cdx4 and Cdx1a (Cdx-deficient) form pectoral fins that are shifted towards the posterior and reveal an additional effect on size of the pectoral fin buds. Prior to formation of the pectoral fin buds, the fin field in Cdx-deficient embryos is visibly expanded into the posterior LPM (pLPM) region at the expense of surrounding gene expression. The effects on gene expression immediately post-gastrulation and during somitogenesis support a model where RA and Cdx4 act in parallel to regulate the position of the pectoral fin. Our transient method is a potentially useful model for studying the mechanisms of limb positioning along the AP axis.

Discovery of genes required for body axis and limb formation by global identification of retinoic acid-regulated epigenetic marks

Identification of target genes that mediate required functions downstream of transcription factors is hampered by the large number of genes whose expression changes when the factor is removed from a specific tissue and the numerous binding sites for the factor in the genome. Retinoic acid (RA) regulates transcription via RA receptors bound to RA response elements (RAREs) of which there are thousands in vertebrate genomes. Here, we combined chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing (ChIP-seq) for epigenetic marks and RNA-seq on trunk tissue from wild-type and Aldh1a2-/- embryos lacking RA synthesis that exhibit body axis and forelimb defects. We identified a relatively small number of genes with altered expression when RA is missing that also have nearby RA-regulated deposition of histone H3 K27 acetylation (H3K27ac) (gene activation mark) or histone H3 K27 trimethylation (H3K27me3) (gene repression mark) associated with conserved RAREs, suggesting these genes function downstream of RA. RA-regulated epigenetic marks were identified near RA target genes already known to be required for body axis and limb formation, thus validating our approach; plus, many other candidate RA target genes were found. Nuclear receptor 2f1 (Nr2f1) and nuclear receptor 2f2 (Nr2f2) in addition to Meis homeobox 1 (Meis1) and Meis homeobox 2 (Meis2) gene family members were identified by our approach, and double knockouts of each family demonstrated previously unknown requirements for body axis and/or limb formation. A similar epigenetic approach can be used to determine the target genes for any transcriptional regulator for which a knockout is available.

Sall4 regulates neuromesodermal progenitors and their descendants during body elongation in mouse embryos

Bi-potential neuromesodermal progenitors (NMPs) produce both neural and paraxial mesodermal progenitors in the trunk and tail during vertebrate body elongation. We show that Sall4, a pluripotency-related transcription factor gene, has multiple roles in regulating NMPs and their descendants in post-gastrulation mouse embryos. Sall4 deletion using TCre caused body/tail truncation, reminiscent of early depletion of NMPs, suggesting a role of Sall4 in NMP maintenance. This phenotype became significant at the time of the trunk-to-tail transition, suggesting that Sall4 maintenance of NMPs enables tail formation. Sall4 mutants exhibit expanded neural and reduced mesodermal tissues, indicating a role of Sall4 in NMP differentiation balance. Mechanistically, we show that Sall4 promotion of WNT/β-catenin signaling contributes to NMP maintenance and differentiation balance. RNA-Seq and SALL4 ChIP-Seq analyses support the notion that Sall4 regulates both mesodermal and neural development. Furthermore, in the mesodermal compartment, genes regulating presomitic mesoderm differentiation are downregulated in Sall4 mutants. In the neural compartment, we show that differentiation of NMPs towards post-mitotic neuron is accelerated in Sall4 mutants. Our results collectively provide evidence supporting the role of Sall4 in regulating NMPs and their descendants.

Retinoic acid signaling pathways

Retinoic acid (RA), a metabolite of retinol (vitamin A), functions as a ligand for nuclear RA receptors (RARs) that regulate development of chordate animals. RA-RARs can activate or repress transcription of key developmental genes. Genetic studies in mouse and zebrafish embryos that are deficient in RA-generating enzymes or RARs have been instrumental in identifying RA functions, revealing that RA signaling regulates development of many organs and tissues, including the body axis, spinal cord, forelimbs, heart, eye and reproductive tract. An understanding of the normal functions of RA signaling during development will guide efforts for use of RA as a therapeutic agent to improve human health. Here, we provide an overview of RA signaling and highlight its key functions during development.

Melatonin protected against the detrimental effects of microRNA-363 in a rat model of vitamin A-associated congenital spinal deformities: Involvement of Notch signaling

Congenital spinal deformities are a result of defective somitogenesis and are associated with vitamin A deficiency (VAD). However, the molecular mechanisms of VAD-associated congenital spinal deformities remain largely unknown. Increasing number of studies suggested that microRNAs and melatonin played important roles in the development of congenital spinal deformities. In this study, we showed that the whole-embryo expression of miR-363 was upregulated in VAD rats. Furthermore, we demonstrated that miR-363 inhibited the proliferation and neuronal differentiation of primary cultured NSCs, accompanied by downregulation of Notch1. To this end, melatonin suppressed miR-363 expression and rescued the effects of miR-363 on NSC proliferation and neuronal differentiation together with restoration of Notch signaling. The present study provided new insights into the mechanism of VAD-associated spinal deformities and the therapeutic effect of melatonin that may lead to novel understanding of the molecular mechanisms of congenital spinal deformities.

Derivation of Specific Neural Populations From Pluripotent Cells for Understanding and Treatment of Spinal Cord Injury

Due to the nature of the biological response to traumatic spinal cord injury, there are very limited therapeutic options available to patients. Recent advances in cell transplantation have demonstrated the therapeutic potential of transplanting supportive cell types following spinal cord injury. In particular, pluripotent stem cell derived neural cells are of interest for future investigation. Use of pluripotent stem cells as the source allows many cell types to be produced from a population that can be expanded in vitro. In this review, we will discuss the signaling pathways that have been used to differentiate spinal neural phenotypes from pluripotent stem cells. Additionally, we will highlight methods that have been developed to direct the differentiation of pluripotent stem cells to specific neural fates. Further refinement and elaboration of these techniques might aid in elucidating the multitude of neuronal subtypes endogenous to the spinal cord, as well as produce further therapeutic options for spinal cord injury recovery. Developmental Dynamics 248:78-87, 2019. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.