Phylogenetic relationships of the New World Troidini swallowtails (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae) based on COI, COII, and EF-1α genes

Systematic Position, Immature Stages, and Geographic Distribution of Glennia pylotis (Godart, 1819) (Lepidoptera: Papilionoidea: Pieridae)

The biology, immature stages, geographic distribution, and systematic position of Glennia pylotis (Godart, 1819) are presented. This species is mostly restricted to the southeastern coastal Atlantic Forest, from the States of São Paulo to Bahia, with sparse records in the interior of Brazil, Argentina, and Bolivia (this locality is most probably spurious-see below). Data on immature stages are based on textual descriptions; pupal skins were illustrated and compared with those of other members of the subtribe Pierina. Based on molecular data, G. pylotis was recovered as a member of the "Leptophobia clade," as the sister group of all other genera in this clade except for Leptophobia. The immature stages are similar to, and host plants are the same, of several other related genera within Pierina, especially the "Leptophobia clade." By compiling all available data, searching for unpublished information in museums (including the finding of empty pupal cases) and adding molecular evidence for G. pylotis, not only its systematic position was elucidated, but its true conservation status could also be assessed.

Phylogenetic systematics of Yphthimoides Forster, 1964 and related taxa, with notes on the biogeographical history of Yphthimoides species

Species losses are increasing and may have an impact on our understanding of patterns of evolutionary pathways and phylogenetic relationships among the groups being lost. The knowledge of such patterns can contribute to preventing future losses by identifying which lineages have higher or lower diversification rates, thus informing conservation strategies. Recent years have seen a significant growth in studies of butterfly systematics, allowing a better understanding of evolutionary relationships among most groups and revealing significant taxonomic chaos in several groups. One of the latter groups is the nymphalid subtribe Euptychiina (Satyrinae), which has been shown to include a number of non-monophyletic genera based on recent molecular phylogenetic analyses. Among others, these genera include Yphthimoides, which is widespread throughout the Neotropical region but particularly diverse in the southeastern Neotropics, and a pair of related genera, Pharneuptychia Forster, 1964 and Moneuptychia Forster, 1964. Using molecular data, this study scope and aims was to provide a phylogenetic hypothesis that corroborates Yphthimoides as presently conceived being non-monophyletic, a result reinforced by a comparative study of the male genitalic morphology. Our results also show that Pharneuptychia and Moneuptychia, plus a species misplaced elsewhere in the Euptychiina, Euptychoides castrensis (Schaus, 1902), form a well supported clade, and that the latter 'species' is a complex of cryptic species. We therefore propose a number of taxonomic rearrangements in the present work to resolve these issues: Yphthimoides eriphule (A. Butler, 1867) will be moved to a new genus; Y. affinis (A. Butler, 1867), Y. maepius (Godart, [1824]), Y. mimula (Hayward, 1954), Y. neomaenas (Hayward, 1967) and Y. mythra (Weymer, 1911) are being transferred to Malaveria Viloria & Benmesbah, 2021; Pharneuptychia innocentia (Godart, [1824]) will be moved to another genus to be described; and Euptychoides castrensis, Pharneuptychia romanina (Bryk, 1953) and Yphthimoides viviana (Romieux, 1927) are being moved to Moneuptychia. The dating of divergences points to a split between the ancestral lineage of Yphthimoides and its sister group, Carminda Ebert and Dias, inDias 1998, during the last half of the Miocene, around 11.86 Mya, and to the diversification of the Pharneuptychia during the same time 11.35 (± 3.52) Mya. Biogeographic analysis showed that the most recent common ancestor of Yphthimoides started to diversify either in the the Brazilian Cerrado savannas or in a combined area of Cerrado and South Atlantic Forest, with a possible change in the ancestral habitat of Carminda. Furthermore, ancestral character mapping favors a savanna origin hypothesis over a forest origin hypothesis.

The Chemistry and Chemical Ecology of Lepidopterans as Investigated in Brazil

The interdisciplinary field of Chemical Ecology in Brazil is currently composed of groups that emerged through the pioneering studies of Keith Spalding Brown Jr. and José Tércio Barbosa Ferreira. Following Keith Brown 's steps, José Roberto Trigo continued investigating the role of plant natural products in mediating the association among insects and their host plants, mainly in the Order Lepidoptera. The role of pyrrolizidine alkaloids in those associations was investigated extensively by Brown and Trigo, and most of what is currently known on this subject is based on their studies. The present work acknowledges their contribution to the Brazilian chemical ecology field and on insect-plant communication studies mediated by different chemical compounds.

Immature Stages, Natural History, Systematics and Conservation of an Endangered Neotropical Butterfly: the Case of Scada karschina delicata (Nymphalidae: Ithomiini)

The endangered butterfly Scada karschina delicata Talbot, 1932 (Nymphalidae: Danainae: Ithomiini) is endemic to northeastern Brazil, occurring in very few forest remnants of the 'Pernambuco Center of Endemism'. Larvae feed on Solanaceae and are very similar to those of other species in the subtribe Mechanitina, with lateral projections on body, one of the main synapomorphies of this subtribe. Based on molecular data, S. k. delicata clustered together with S. karschina karschina, as a monophyletic group sister to the amazon clade of S. reckia. Based on all available data, S. k. delicata is known from only five localities of mid- to high-altitude forests (from 500 to 1000 m of altitude) in northeastern Brazil. Grounded on available data, a new assessment of extinction risk is proposed, and S. k. delicata is now considered Vulnerable (VU) taxon.

Graphita gen. nov., a New Genus for Neonympha griphe C. Felder & R. Felder, 1867 (Lepidoptera, Nymphalidae, Satyrinae)

A new genus is described for Neonympha griphe C. Felder & R. Felder, 1867, to contribute toward a revision of the polyphyletic genus Euptychoides Forster, 1964. Based on DNA sequence data, Graphita Nakahara, Marín & Barbosa, gen. nov. is strongly supported as a member of a clade of predominantly southeastern Brazilian taxa, in which it is weakly supported as sister to a well-supported clade containing Pharneuptychia Forster, 1964, Moneuptychia Forster, 1964 and the E. castrensis (Schaus, 1902) species complex. The data show that Graphita griphe comb. nov. is not related to other Euptychoides and not very closely related to any other sampled euptychiines, and thus support the description of this new genus. In addition, we provide morphological illustrations and a distribution map for this taxon based on museum specimens.

Survey of the Genetic Diversity of Forensically Important Chrysomya (Diptera: Calliphoridae) from Egypt

Minimum postmortem interval estimations of a corpse using blow fly larvae in medicolegal investigations require correct identification and the application of appropriate developmental data of the identified fly species. Species identification of forensically relevant blow flies could be very difficult and time consuming when specimens are damaged or in the event of morphologically indistinguishable immature stages, which are most common at crime scenes. In response to this, an alternative, accurate determination of species may depend on sequencing and molecular techniques for identification. Chrysomyinae specimens (n = 158) belonging to three forensically important species [Chrysomya albiceps (Wiedemann), Chrysomya megacephala (F.), and Chrysomya marginalis (Wiedemann)] (Diptera: Calliphoridae) were collected from four locations in Egypt (Giza, Dayrout, Minya, and North Sinai) and sequenced across the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI) gene. Phylogenetic analyses using neighbor-joining, maximum likelihood and maximum parsimony methods resulted in the same topological structure and confirmed DNA based identification of all specimens. Interspecific divergence between pairs of species was 5.3% (C. marginalis-C. megacephala), 7% (C. albiceps-C. megacephala), and 8% (C. albiceps-C. marginalis). These divergences are sufficient to confirm the utility of cytochrome oxidase subunit I gene in the molecular identification of these flies in Egypt. Importantly, the maximum intraspecific divergence among individuals within a species was <1% and the least nucleotide divergence between species used for phylogenetic analysis was 3.6%. This study highlights the need for thorough and diverse sampling to capture all of the possible genetic diversity if DNA barcoding is to be used for molecular identification.

Pigmentary and photonic coloration mechanisms reveal taxonomic relationships of the Cattlehearts (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae: Parides)

BACKGROUND

The colorful wing patterns of butterflies, a prime example of biodiversity, can change dramatically within closely related species. Wing pattern diversity is specifically present among papilionid butterflies. Whether a correlation between color and the evolution of these butterflies exists so far remained unsolved.

RESULTS

We here investigate the Cattlehearts, Parides, a small Neotropical genus of papilionid butterflies with 36 members, the wings of which are marked by distinctly colored patches. By applying various physical techniques, we investigate the coloration toolkit of the wing scales. The wing scales contain two different, wavelength-selective absorbing pigments, causing pigmentary colorations. Scale ridges with multilayered lamellae, lumen multilayers or gyroid photonic crystals in the scale lumen create structural colors that are variously combined with these pigmentary colors.

CONCLUSIONS

The pigmentary and structural traits strongly correlate with the taxonomical distribution of Parides species. The experimental findings add crucial insight into the evolution of butterfly wing scales and show the importance of morphological parameter mapping for butterfly phylogenetics.

Molecular systematics of the Simulium jenningsi species group (Diptera: Simuliidae), with three new fast-evolving nuclear genes for phylogenetic inference

A molecular phylogeny was inferred for the 22 nominal species of black flies in the Simulium jenningsi species group, which includes major pests of humans and livestock in North America. Females are structurally monomorphic, presenting a problem for identification of the pests. For each species, we sequenced approximately two kilobases from the mitochondrial genome (ND2, Cox I, proximal one-half of Cox II) and about six kilobases from the nuclear genome (ca. 2 kilobases each from 3 rapidly evolving nuclear genes: big zinc finger [BZF], "5-intron gene" [5intG], and elongation complex protein 1 [ECP1]) and analyzed them phylogenetically using maximum likelihood and Bayesian methods. The three nuclear loci have not previously been used in phylogenetic studies. The mitochondrial region recovered 6 group members as monophyletic. BZF, 5intG, and ECP1 sequences each permitted identification of 13 species and recovered the S. fibrinflatum and S. taxodium subgroups. Simulium aranti Stone and Snoddy and S. luggeri Nicholson and Mickel were consistently recovered at the base of the group. Simulium ozarkense Moulton and Adler, S. dixiense Stone and Snoddy, S. krebsorum Moulton and Adler, and S. haysi Stone and Snoddy branched off before two well-supported sister groups of the remaining species. This remainder consisted of species occupying slow, sandy lowland streams-S. definitum Moulton and Adler, S. jonesi Stone and Snoddy, and the S. taxodium subgroup (S. taxodium Snoddy and Beshear, S. chlorum Moulton and Adler, S. confusum Moulton and Adler, and S. lakei Snoddy)-as sister to two clades of species inhabiting swift, rocky upland streams-the S. fibrinflatum subgroup (S. fibrinflatum Twinn, S. notiale Stone and Snoddy, and S. snowi Stone and Snoddy) and a clade comprised of S. anchistinum Moulton and Adler, S. jenningsi Malloch, and S. nyssa Stone and Snoddy, plus species having cocoons without anterolateral apertures (S. infenestrum Moulton and Adler, S. podostemi Snoddy, S. penobscotense Snoddy and Bauer, and S. remissum Moulton and Adler). Simulium snowi Stone and Snoddy is here considered a synonym of S. notiale Stone and Snoddy. Trees inferred from BZF and 5intG were largely concordant with those from ECP1, but slightly less resolved. Combining mitochondrial and nuclear data sets did not greatly improve the performance of the ECP1 data set alone. We, therefore, propose ECP1 as the gold standard for identification of members of the S. jenningsi group. Maximum likelihood analysis of combined sequences from all three nuclear genes, with three morphological constraints imposed, yielded a tree proposed as the best hypothesis of relationships among group members, based on all available data.

Fate of Ingested Aristolactams from Aristolochia chilensis in Battus polydamas archidamas (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae)

We performed a sequestration study of aristolactams (ALs) from Aristolochia chilensis in Battus polydamas archidamas (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae) by examining the AL content of the plant, fifth instar larvae, osmeterial secretion, pupae, exuviae and feces. Aristolactam-I (AL-I) and aristolactam-II (AL-II) present in A. chilensis are sequestered by fifth instar larvae of B. polydamas archidamas. There is a preferential sequestration of AL-II, or a more efficient metabolization and excretion of AL-I, by the larva. No ALs were found in the osmeterial secretion, pupae and exuviae; in addition, little AL-I and no AL-II were found in larval frass. The two lactams, particularly AL-I, are extensively metabolized to other products in the larva. A reasonable hypothesis is that the ingested ALs are oxidized to their respective aristolochic acids.

Using population genetic methods to identify the origin of an invasive population and to diagnose cryptic subspecies of Telchin licus (Lepidoptera: Castniidae)

Telchin licus, the giant sugarcane borer, is an important pest species of sugarcane in northeast Brazil. Four subspecies of Telchin licus are recognized in Brazil based on their geographic distribution and subtle differences in wing colour pattern. Some taxa are morphologically indistinguishable, and their accurate identification is key to their efficient control. Mitochondrial genes sequences (cytochrome oxidase I and subunit 6 of the nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide dehydrogenase) were applied to delimit taxonomic entities of T. licus, and to infer the origin of a newly established population in the state of São Paulo. The molecular data indicated that specimens sampled at different regions in Brazil are morphologically cryptic but genetically isolated entities, and at least three subspecies were assigned to the sampled localities. These data also suggested that the population collected from the state of São Paulo must have a common origin with populations from northeast Brazil, which corroborate the hypothesis that ornamental plants infested with larvae of T. licus might have been transported from the northeast to the southeast regions.

Biogeographic and diversification patterns of Neotropical Troidini butterflies (Papilionidae) support a museum model of diversity dynamics for Amazonia

BACKGROUND

The temporal and geographical diversification of Neotropical insects remains poorly understood because of the complex changes in geological and climatic conditions that occurred during the Cenozoic. To better understand extant patterns in Neotropical biodiversity, we investigated the evolutionary history of three Neotropical swallowtail Troidini genera (Papilionidae). First, DNA-based species delimitation analyses were conducted to assess species boundaries within Neotropical Troidini using an enlarged fragment of the standard barcode gene. Molecularly delineated species were then used to infer a time-calibrated species-level phylogeny based on a three-gene dataset and Bayesian dating analyses. The corresponding chronogram was used to explore their temporal and geographical diversification through distinct likelihood-based methods.

RESULTS

The phylogeny for Neotropical Troidini was well resolved and strongly supported. Molecular dating and biogeographic analyses indicate that the extant lineages of Neotropical Troidini have a late Eocene (33-42 Ma) origin in North America. Two independent lineages (Battus and Euryades+Parides) reached South America via the GAARlandia temporary connection, and later became extinct in North America. They only began substantive diversification during the early Miocene in Amazonia. Macroevolutionary analysis supports the "museum model" of diversification, rather than Pleistocene refugia, as the best explanation for the diversification of these lineages.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrates that: (i) current Neotropical biodiversity may have originated ex situ; (ii) the GAARlandia bridge was important in facilitating invasions of South America; (iii) colonization of Amazonia initiated the crown diversification of these swallowtails; and (iv) Amazonia is not only a species-rich region but also acted as a sanctuary for the dynamics of this diversity. In particular, Amazonia probably allowed the persistence of old lineages and contributed to the steady accumulation of diversity over time with constant net diversification rates, a result that contrasts with previous studies on other South American butterflies.

Genetic variability and demographic history of Heliothis virescens (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) populations from Brazil inferred by mtDNA sequences

Intra- and inter-population genetic variability and the demographic history of Heliothis virescens (F.) populations were evaluated by using mtDNA markers (coxI, coxII and nad6) with samples from the major cotton- and soybean-producing regions in Brazil in the growing seasons 2007/08, 2008/09 and 2009/10. AMOVA indicated low and non-significant genetic structure, regardless of geographical scale, growing season or crop, with most of genetic variation occurring within populations. Clustering analyzes also indicated low genetic differentiation. The haplotype network obtained with combined datasets resulted in 35 haplotypes, with 28 exclusive occurrences, four of them sampled only from soybean fields. The minimum spanning network showed star-shaped structures typical of populations that underwent a recent demographic expansion. The recent expansion was supported by other demographic analyzes, such as the Bayesian skyline plot, the unimodal distribution of paired differences among mitochondrial sequences, and negative and significant values of neutrality tests for the Tajima's D and Fu's F(S) parameters. In addition, high values of haplotype diversity (Ĥ) and low values of nucleotide diversity (π), combined with a high number of low frequency haplotypes and values of θ(π)<θ(W), suggested a recent demographic expansion of H. virescens populations in Brazil. This demographic event could be responsible for the low genetic structure currently found; however, haplotypes present uniquely at the same geographic regions and from one specific host plant suggest an initial differentiation among H. virescens populations within Brazil.

What causes latitudinal gradients in species diversity? Evolutionary processes and ecological constraints on swallowtail biodiversity

The latitudinal diversity gradient (LDG) is one of the most striking ecological patterns on our planet. Determining the evolutionary causes of this pattern remains a challenging task. To address this issue, previous LDG studies have usually relied on correlations between environmental variables and species richness, only considering evolutionary processes indirectly. Instead, we use a phylogenetically integrated approach to investigate the ecological and evolutionary processes responsible for the global LDG observed in swallowtail butterflies (Papilionidae). We find evidence for the 'diversification rate hypothesis' with different diversification rates between two similarly aged tropical and temperate clades. We conclude that the LDG is caused by (1) climatically driven changes in both clades based on evidence of responses to cooling and warming events, and (2) distinct biogeographical histories constrained by tropical niche conservatism and niche evolution. This multidisciplinary approach provides new findings that allow better understanding of the factors that shape LDGs.

Host shifts and evolutionary radiations of butterflies

Ehrlich and Raven proposed a model of coevolution where major host plant shifts of butterflies facilitate a burst of diversification driven by their arrival to a new adaptive zone. One prediction of this model is that reconstructions of historical diversification of butterflies should indicate an increase in diversification rate following major host shifts. Using reconstructed histories of 15 butterfly groups, I tested this prediction and found general agreement with Ehrlich and Raven's model. Butterfly lineages with an inferred major historical host shift showed evidence of diversification rate variation, with a significant acceleration following the host shift. Lineages without an inferred major host shift generally agreed with a constant-rate model of diversification. These results are consistent with the view that host plant associations have played a profound role in the evolutionary history of butterflies, and show that major shifts to chemically distinct plant groups leave a historical footprint that remains detectable today.

Light habitats and the role of polarized iridescence in the sensory ecology of neotropical nymphalid butterflies (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae)

The exploitation of polarized light may increase perceived visual contrast independent of spectrum and intensity and thus have adaptive value in forest habitats, where illumination varies greatly in brightness and spectral properties. Here we investigate the extent to which Costa Rican butterflies of the family Nymphalidae exhibit polarized wing reflectance and evaluate the types of habitats in which the trait is commonly found. We also examine the degree of polarized reflectance of wing patterns in representative species belonging to the nymphalid subfamilies Charaxinae, Heliconiinae, Morphinae and Nymphalinae. Polarized reflectance was evaluated using museum specimens illuminated with a light source that simulated the spectrum of ambient sunlight and viewed through a polarized filter. Of the 144 species examined,75 species exhibited polarized reflectance patterns. These species were significantly more likely to occupy forest habitats than open habitats. A concentrated changes test performed on a phylogeny of the Nymphalidae, with the Papilionidae as an outgroup, provides further support for the correlated evolution of polarized iridescence and life in a forest light environment. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that the production and detection of polarized light may have adaptive communicative value in those species inhabiting forest habitats with complex light conditions. The potential utility of polarized iridescence and iridescent wing coloration within differing ambient spectral environments is discussed to provide a basis for future investigation of the polarized light ecology of butterflies.