Identification and distribution of neuronal nitric oxide synthase and neurochemical markers in the neuroepithelial cells of the gill and the skin in the giant mudskipper, Periophthalmodon schlosseri

Fish gill chemosensing: knowledge gaps and inconsistencies

In this review, we explore the inconsistencies in the data and gaps in our knowledge that exist in what is currently known regarding gill chemosensors which drive the cardiorespiratory reflexes in fish. Although putative serotonergic neuroepithelial cells (NEC) dominate the literature, it is clear that other neurotransmitters are involved (adrenaline, noradrenaline, acetylcholine, purines, and dopamine). And although we assume that these agents act on neurons synapsing with the NECs or in the afferent or efferent limbs of the paths between chemosensors and central integration sites, this process remains elusive and may explain current discrepancies or species differences in the literature. To date it has been impossible to link the distribution of NECs to species sensitivity to different stimuli or fish lifestyles and while the gills have been shown to be the primary sensing site for respiratory gases, the location (gills, oro-branchial cavity or elsewhere) and orientation (external/water or internal/blood sensing) of the NECs are highly variable between species of water and air breathing fish. Much of what has been described so far comes from studies of hypoxic responses in fish, however, changes in CO2, ammonia and lactate have all been shown to elicit cardio-respiratory responses and all have been suggested to arise from stimulation of gill NECs. Our view of the role of NECs is broadening as we begin to understand the polymodal nature of these cells. We begin by presenting the fundamental picture of gill chemosensing that has developed, followed by some key unanswered questions about gill chemosensing in general.

Effect of hypoxia on the post-hatching growth of the body of the fry and the caudal fin of the Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar)

Introduction

Hypoxia is a recurring problem in the fish farming industry. Currently, it is known that the exposure of fish and fry to a hypoxic environment induces important changes in their metabolism, compromising not only their development but also their reproduction and mortality rates. Our hypothesis is that hypoxia constitutes one of the etiological factors causing deformation of the body and caudal fin in this species, as well as affecting its growth.

Methods

We analyzed two hundred forty Salmo salar salmon fry, differentially cultured at 100% saturation (normoxia condition) and 60% (hypoxia condition) for 2, 4, 6, and 8 days, including a group under continuous hypoxia. We performed diaphanization and Alcian blue staining, along with standard histological techniques. The polyclonal anti-HIF-1a antibody was used as a marker of hypoxia in Salmo salar, and hypoxia in these fish was associated with the immunopositivity of this antibody.

Results and discussion

The results indicate that there is an association between exposure to hypoxia and the deformation of the body and fin, as well as an agreement between hypoxia and the total length of the fry and fin. Several months after the event occurred, we were able to find and describe angiogenesis, blood vessel disorganization, and vasodilation histologically. Finally, hypoxic cells in the fry (HIF-1a) could be recognized and confirmed as hypoxia sensors. All of this indicates that hypoxia not only affects the fry during the development phase of the event, but that its results can be evident much later and affect the fry throughout their entire ontogeny.

Nitric Oxide Function and Nitric Oxide Synthase Evolution in Aquatic Chordates

Nitric oxide (NO) is a key signaling molecule in almost all organisms and is active in a variety of physiological and pathological processes. Our understanding of the peculiarities and functions of this simple gas has increased considerably by extending studies to non-mammal vertebrates and invertebrates. In this review, we report the nitric oxide synthase (Nos) genes so far characterized in chordates and provide an extensive, detailed, and comparative analysis of the function of NO in the aquatic chordates tunicates, cephalochordates, teleost fishes, and amphibians. This comprehensive set of data adds new elements to our understanding of Nos evolution, from the single gene commonly found in invertebrates to the three genes present in vertebrates.

Spirulina promotes macrophages aggregation in zebrafish (Danio rerio) liver

The immune system of teleosts offers many ideas to deepen the immune mechanisms and cells in general. The use of zebrafish as an experimental model is increased in recent years, thanks to its genetic and anatomical characteristics. It is known that several natural compounds exert an action on the immune system, boosting it. Spirulina, a non-toxic blue-green alga, has been declared a superfood for its peculiar biological activities. In this study, we test the immunostimulant effect of spirulina on zebrafish liver macrophages by immunohistochemical analysis using optical and confocal microscopy. Our results have shown an increase in the number of macrophages after feeding with spirulina, furthermore, this natural 'superfood' can induce macrophages aggregation. These data not only provide information on the possible effect of this alga as a complementary feed on the immune cells of teleost, but also improve the knowledge of the immune mechanisms of vertebrates.

Insights into the control and consequences of breathing adjustments in fishes-from larvae to adults

Adjustments of ventilation in fishes to regulate the volume of water flowing over the gills are critically important responses to match branchial gas transfer with metabolic needs and to defend homeostasis during environmental fluctuations in O₂ and/or CO₂ levels. In this focused review, we discuss the control and consequences of ventilatory adjustments in fish, briefly summarizing ventilatory responses to hypoxia and hypercapnia before describing the current state of knowledge of the chemoreceptor cells and molecular mechanisms involved in sensing O₂ and CO₂. We emphasize, where possible, insights gained from studies on early developmental stages. In particular, zebrafish (Danio rerio) larvae have emerged as an important model for investigating the molecular mechanisms of O₂ and CO₂ chemosensing as well as the central integration of chemosensory information. Their value stems, in part, from their amenability to genetic manipulation, which enables the creation of loss-of-function mutants, optogenetic manipulation, and the production of transgenic fish with specific genes linked to fluorescent reporters or biosensors.

Expression of Antimicrobic Peptide Piscidin1 in Gills Mast Cells of Giant Mudskipper Periophthalmodon schlosseri (Pallas, 1770)

The amphibious teleost Giant mudskipper (Periophthalmodon schlosseri, Pallas 1770) inhabit muddy plains and Asian mangrove forests. It spends more than 90% of its life outside of the water, using its skin, gills, and buccal-pharyngeal cavity mucosa to breathe in oxygen from the surrounding air. All vertebrates have been found to have mast cells (MCs), which are part of the innate immune system. These cells are mostly found in the mucous membranes of the organs that come in contact with the outside environment. According to their morphology, MCs have distinctive cytoplasmic granules that are released during the degranulation process. Additionally, these cells have antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) that fight a variety of infections. Piscidins, hepcidins, defensins, cathelicidins, and histonic peptides are examples of fish AMPs. Confocal microscopy was used in this study to assess Piscidin1 expression in Giant Mudskipper branchial MCs. Our results demonstrated the presence of MCs in the gills is highly positive for Piscidin1. Additionally, colocalized MCs labeled with TLR2/5-HT and Piscidin1/5-HT supported our data. The expression of Piscidin1 in giant mudskipper MCs highlights the involvement of this peptide in the orchestration of teleost immunity, advancing the knowledge of the defense system of this fish.

Gill structure and neurochemical markers in the African bonytongue (Heterotis niloticus): A preliminary study

We have conducted a morphological and immunohistochemical study of the gills of juvenile specimens of the obligate air-breathing fish Heterotis niloticus. The study has been performed under normoxic and hypoxic conditions. The gills showed a reduced respiratory surface area by development of an interlamellar cellular mass (ILCM). The ILCM persisted without changes under both normoxia and hypoxia. Neuroepithelial cells (NECs), the major oxygen and hypoxia sensing cell type, were located in the distal end of the gill filaments and along the ILCM edges. These cells expressed 5HT, the neuronal isoform of the nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) and the vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VAChT). Furthermore, NECs appeared associated with nitrergic nerve fibres. The O2 levels did not modify the location, number or the immunohistochemical characteristics of NECs. Pavement cells covering the ILCM were also positive to nNOS and VAChT. The mechanisms of O₂ sensing in the gills of Heterotis appears to involve several cell populations, the release of multiple neurotransmitters and a diversity of excitatory, inhibitory and modulatory mechanisms.

Histological and Chemical Analysis of Heavy Metals in Kidney and Gills of Boops boops: Melanomacrophages Centers and Rodlet Cells as Environmental Biomarkers

Industrialization has resulted in a massive increase in garbage output, which is frequently discharged or stored in waterways like rivers and seas. Due to their toxicity, durability, bioaccumulation, and biomagnification, heavy metals (such as mercury, cadmium, and lead) have been identified as strong biological poisons. Their presence in the aquatic environment has the potential to affect water quality parameters and aquatic life in general. Teleosts’ histopathology provides a sensitive indicator of pollutant-induced stress, because their organs have a central role in the transformation of different active chemical compounds in the aquatic environment. In particular, the gills, kidneys, and liver are placed at the center of toxicological studies. The purpose of this study is to examine the morphological changes caused by heavy metals in the kidney and gills of Boops boops, with a focus on melanomacrophages centers (MMCs) and rodlet cells (RCs) as environmental biomarkers, using histological and histochemical stainings (hematoxylin/eosin, Van Gieson trichrome, Periodic Acid Schiff reaction, and Alcian Blue/PAS 2.5), and immunoperoxidase methods. Our findings show an increase of MMCs and RCs linked to higher exposure to heavy metals, confirming the role of these aggregates and cells as reliable biomarkers of potential aquatic environmental changes reflected in fish fauna. The cytological study of RCs and MMCs could be important in gaining a better understanding of the complicated immune systems of teleosts.

Retention of larval skin traits in adult amphibious killifishes: a cross-species investigation

The gills are the primary site of exchange in fishes. However, during early life-stages or in amphibious fishes, ionoregulation and gas-exchange may be primarily cutaneous. Given the similarities between larval and amphibious fishes, we hypothesized that cutaneous larval traits are continuously expressed in amphibious fishes across all life-stages to enable the skin to be a major site of exchange on land. Alternatively, we hypothesized that cutaneous larval traits disappear in juvenile stages and are re-expressed in amphibious species in later life-stages. We surveyed six species spanning a range of amphibiousness and characterized cutaneous ionocytes and neuroepithelial cells (NECs) as representative larval skin traits at up to five stages of development. We found that skin ionocyte density remained lower and constant in exclusively water-breathing, relative to amphibious species across development, whereas in amphibious species ionocyte density generally increased. Additionally, adults of the most amphibious species had the highest cutaneous ionocyte densities. Surprisingly, cutaneous NECs were only identified in the skin of one amphibious species (Kryptolebias marmoratus), suggesting that cutaneous NECs are not a ubiquitous larval or amphibious skin trait, at least among the species we studied. Our data broadly supports the continuous-expression hypothesis, as three of four amphibious experimental species expressed cutaneous ionocytes in all examined life-stages. Further, the increasing density of cutaneous ionocytes across development in amphibious species probably facilitates the prolonged occupation of terrestrial habitats.

Localization of vasoactive intestinal peptide and toll-like receptor 2 immunoreactive cells in endostyle of urochordate Styela plicata (Lesueur, 1823)

The endostyle is the first component of the ascidian digestive tract, it is shaped like a through and is located in the pharynx's ventral wall. This organ is divided longitudinally into nine zones that are parallel to each other. Each zone's cells are physically and functionally distinct. Support elements are found in zones 1, 3, and 5, while mucoproteins secreting elements related to the filtering function are found in zones 2, 4, and 6. Zones 7, 8, and 9, which are located in the lateral dorsal section of the endostyle, include cells with high iodine and peroxidase concentrations. Immunohistochemical technique using the following antibodies, Toll‐like receptor 2 (TLR‐2) and vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), and lectin histochemistry (WGA—wheat‐germagglutinin), were used in this investigation to define immune cells in the endostyle of Styela plicata (Lesueur, 1823). Our results demonstrate the presence of immune cells in the endostyle of S. plicata, highlighting that innate immune mechanisms are highly conserved in the phylogeny of the chordates.

Rodlet cells in kidney of goldfish (Carassius auratus, Linnaeus 1758): A light and confocal microscopy study

Rodlet cells (RCs) have always been an enigma for scientists. RCs have been given a variety of activities over the years, including ion transport, osmoregulation, and sensory function. These cells, presumably as members of the granulocyte line, are present only in teleosts and play a role in the innate immune response. RCs are migratory cells found in a variety of organs, including skin, vascular, digestive, uropoietic, reproductive, and respiratory systems, and present distinct physical properties that make them easily recognizable in tissues and organs. The development of RCs can be divided into four stages: granular, transitional, mature, and ruptured, having different morphological characteristics. Our study aims to characterize the different stages of these cells by histomorphological and histochemical techniques. Furthermore, we characterized these cells at all stages with peroxidase and fluorescence immunohistochemical techniques using different antibodies: S100, tubulin, α-SMA, piscidin, and for the first time TLR-2. From our results, the immunoreactivity of these cells to the antibodies performed may confirm that RCs play a role in fish defense mechanisms, helping to expand the state of the art on immunology and immune cells of teleosts.

Relationship between Immune Cells, Depression, Stress, and Psoriasis: Could the Use of Natural Products Be Helpful?

Psoriasis is one of the most widespread chronic inflammatory skin diseases, affecting about 2%-3% of the worldwide adult population. The pathogenesis of this disease is quite complex, but an interaction between genetic and environmental factors has been recognized with an essential modulation of inflammatory and immune responses in affected patients. Psoriatic plaques generally represent the clinical psoriatic feature resulting from an abnormal proliferation and differentiation of keratinocytes, which cause dermal hyperplasia, skin infiltration of immune cells, and increased capillarity. Some scientific pieces of evidence have reported that psychological stress may play a key role in psoriasis, and the disease itself may cause stress conditions in patients, thus reproducing a vicious cycle. The present review aims at examining immune cell involvement in psoriasis and the relationship of depression and stress in its pathogenesis and development. In addition, this review contains a focus on the possible use of natural products, thus pointing out their mechanism of action in order to counteract clinical and psychological symptoms.

Immunohistochemical and ultrastructural study of the immune cell system and epithelial surfaces of the respiratory organs in the bimodally-breathing African sharptooth catfish (Clarias gariepinus Burchell, 1822)

Ach, represents the old neurotransmitter in central and peripheral nervous system. Its muscarinic and nicotinic receptors (mAChRs and nAChRs) constitute an independent cholinergic system that is found in immune cells and playsa key role in regulation of the immune function and cytokine production. Gas exchanging surfaces of the gills and air-breathing organs (ABOs) of the sharptooth catfish Clarias gariepinus were investigated using ultrastructural and confocal immunofluorescence techniques. This study was predominantly focused on the structure of the immune cell types, the expression of their neurotransmitters, including the antimicrobial peptide piscidin 1, and the functional significance of respiratory gas exchange epithelia. A network of immune cells (monocytes, eosinophils, and mast cells) was observed in the gill and theABO epithelia. Eosinophils containing 5HT immunoreactivity were seen in close association with mast cells expressing acetylcholine (Ach), 5HT, nNOS and piscidin 1. A rich and dense cholinergic innervation dispersing across the islet capillaries of the gas exchange barrier, and the localization of Ach in the squamous pavement cells covering the capillaries, were evidenced byVAChT antibodies.We report for the first time that piscidin 1(Pis 1) positive mast cells interact with Pis 1 positive nerves found in the epithelia of the respiratory organs.Pis 1 immunoreactivity was also observed in the covering respiratory epithelium of the ABOs and associated with a role in local mucosal immune defense . The above results anticipate future studies on the neuro-immune interactions at mucosal barrier surfaces, like the gill and the skin of fish, areas densely populated by different immune cells and sensory nerves that constantly sense and adapt to tissue-specific environmental challenges. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Quest for breathing: proliferation of alveolar type 1 cells

There is much evidence that the vertebrate lung originated from a progenitor structure which was present in bony fish. However, critical basic elements for the evolution of breathing in tetrapods, such as the central rhythm generator sensitive to CO₂/pH and the pulmonary surfactant, were present in the lungless primitive vertebrate. This suggests that the evolution of air breathing in all vertebrates may have evolved through exaptations. It appears that the capability for proliferation of alveolar type 1 (AT1) cells is the "critical factor" which rendered possible the most radical subsequent innovation-the possibility of air breathing. "Epithelial remodeling," which consists in proliferation of alveolar cells-the structural basis for gas diffusion-observed in the alimentary tract of the gut-breathing fishes (GBF) has great potential for application in biomedical research. Such a process probably led to the gradual evolutionary development of lungs in terrestrial vertebrates. Research on the cellular and molecular mechanisms controlling proliferation of squamous epithelial cells in the GBF should contribute to explaining the regeneration-associated phenomena that occur in mammal lungs, and especially to the understanding of signal pathways which govern the process.

Resveratrol and Immune Cells: A Link to Improve Human Health

The use of polyphenols as adjuvants in lowering risk factors for various debilitating diseases has been investigated in recent years due to their possible antioxidant action. Polyphenols represent a fascinating and relatively new subject of research in nutraceuticals and nutrition, with interest rapidly expanding since they can help maintain health by controlling metabolism, weight, chronic diseases, and cell proliferation. Resveratrol is a phenolic compound found mostly in the pulp, peels, seeds, and stems of red grapes. It has a wide variety of biological actions that can be used to prevent the beginning of various diseases or manage their symptoms. Resveratrol can influence multiple inflammatory and non-inflammatory responses, protecting organs and tissues, thanks to its interaction with immune cells and its activity on SIRT1. This compound has anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-apoptotic, neuroprotective, cardioprotective, anticancer, and antiviral properties, making it a potential adjunct to traditional pharmaceutical therapy in public health. This review aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of resveratrol in terms of active biological effects and mechanism of action in modifying the immune cellular response to promote human psychophysical health.

Role of nutraceuticals on neurodegenerative diseases: neuroprotective and immunomodulant activity

Neurodegeneration is a degenerative process characterized by the progressive loss of the structure and function of neurons that involves several immune cells. It is the primary cause of dementia and other several syndromes, known as neurodegenerative diseases. These disorders are age-related and it is estimated that by 2040 there will be approximately 81.1 million people suffering from these diseases. In addition to the traditional pharmacological therapy, in recent years nutraceuticals, naturally based compounds with a broad spectrum of biological effects: anti-aging, antioxidants, hypoglycaemic, hypocholesterolemic, anticancer, anxiolytic, antidepressant, etc., assumed an important role in counteracting these pathologies. In particular, several compounds such as astaxanthin, baicalein, glycyrrhizin, St. John's wort, and Ginkgo biloba L. extracts show particular neuroprotective and immunomodulatory abilities, involving several immune cells and some neurotransmitters that play a critical role in neurodegeneration, making them particularly useful in improving the symptoms and progression of neurodegenerative diseases.

Morphology of the respiratory vasculature of the mudskipper Boleophthalmus pectinirostris (Gobiidae: Oxudercinae)

The gross morphology of the circulatory system in the amphibious mudskipper, Boleophthalmus pectinirostris, conforms with the typical teleost configuration, in which gills and systemic vascular beds are connected in series. However, at the microscopic level, the vasculatures of the respiratory organs, the inner epithelium of the bucco-opercular cavity, gills and skin, all show specializations for aerial gas exchange. The epithelium of the bucco-opercular cavity is heavily vascularized by respiratory capillaries that are derived from systemic arteries of the head, mainly branches of the hyomandibular artery and the dorsal opercular artery. The respiratory circuit of the secondary lamellae of the gills consists of 15-17 channels running in parallel, unlike the lacuna-like blood space of aquatic fishes. The most notable specialization is found in the microcirculation of the respiratory papillae in the skin. Each respiratory papilla is supplied by an arteriole that is derived from a systemic artery, mainly the cranial artery in the head and the segmental artery in the trunk. The arteriole divides several times along its course to the apical region of a papilla, where the branches split into approximately 65 capillaries that radiate to the periphery of the papilla. The capillaries twist 5-10 times before they unite to form the venules that encircle maximally half the circumference of a papilla. A variable number of venules merge into a vein, which progressively coalesces with veins from other papillae. There is no morphological specialization that separates oxygen-rich effluent blood of the epithelia of the bucco-opercular cavity and the respiratory papillae of the skin from the oxygen-poor systemic venous blood. The ecophysiological implications of these findings are discussed in relation to the environmental conditions that B. pectinirostris experience during tidal cycles in the warm months and during overwintering.

Neuroepithelial cells (NECs) and mucous cells express a variety of neurotransmitters and neurotransmitter receptors in the gill and respiratory air-sac of the catfish Heteropneustes fossilis (Siluriformes, Heteropneustidae): a possible role in local immune defence

Heteropneustes fossilis is an air-breathing teleost inhabiting environments with very poor O₂ conditions, and so it has evolved to cope with hypoxia. In the gills and respiratory air-sac, the sites for O₂ sensing and the response to hypoxia rely on the expression of acetylcholine (Ach) acting via its nicotinic receptor (nAChR). This study examined the expression patterns of neuronal markers and some compounds in the NECs of the gills and respiratory air sac having an immunomodulatory function in mammalian lungs. Mucous cells, epithelial cells and neuroepithelial cells (NECs) were immunopositive to a variety of both neuronal markers (VAChT, nAChR, GABA-B-R1 receptor, GAD679) and the antimicrobial peptide piscidin, an evolutionary conserved humoral component of the mucosal immune system in fish. We speculate that Ach release via nAChR from mucous cells may be modulated by GABA production in the NECs and it is required for the induction of mucus production in both normoxic and hypoxic conditions. The presence of piscidin in mucous cells may act in synergy with the autocrine/paracrine signals of Ach and GABA binding to GABA B R1B receptor that may play a local immunomodulatory function in the mucous epithelia of the gills and the respiratory air sac. The potential role of the NECs in the immunobiological behaviour of the gill/air-sac is at moment a matter of speculation. The extent to which the NECs as such may participate is elusive at this stage and waits investigation.

Structural Identification of the Pacemaker Cells and Expression of Hyperpolarization-Activated Cyclic Nucleotide-Gated (HCN) Channels in the Heart of the Wild Atlantic Cod, Gadus morhua (Linnaeus, 1758)

Hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels are proteins that contain highly conserved functional domains and sequence motifs that are correlated with their unique biophysical activities, to regulate cardiac pacemaker activity and synaptic transmission. These pacemaker proteins have been studied in mammalian species, but little is known now about their heart distribution in lower vertebrates and c-AMP modulation. Here, we characterized the pacemaker system in the heart of the wild Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua), with respect to primary pacemaker molecular markers. Special focus is given to the structural, ultrastructural and molecular characterization of the pacemaker domain, through the expression of HCN channel genes and the immunohistochemistry of HCN isoforms, including the location of intracardiac neurons that are adjacent to the sinoatrial region of the heart. Similarly to zebrafish and mammals, these neurons are immunoreactive to ChAT, VAChT and nNOS. It has been shown that cardiac pacemaking can be modulated by sympathetic and parasympathetic pathways, and the existence of intracardiac neurons projecting back to the central nervous system provide a plausible link between them.

Replacement of mitochondrion-rich cells during regeneration of the gills and opercular epithelium in zebrafish (Danio rerio)

Transport epithelia maintain the volume, ion concentration and acid-base balance of blood and extracellular fluids. In teleost fish, mitochondrion-rich cells (MRCs) are specialized ionocytes that perform this role. These cells are found in epithelia of the gills and buccal surface of the operculum (the bony structure covering the gills). Proliferation of MRCs in response to changes in water salinity and other environmental stressors is well documented, but the cellular mechanisms underlying MRC proliferation are poorly understood. Recently, regeneration and epithelial cell replacement in the gill filaments was demonstrated in the model vertebrate, zebrafish (Danio rerio), raising the question of whether MRCs are replaced during regrowth of transport epithelia. We chose two anatomical sites where MRCs are found-the gills and the opercular epithelium-to investigate whether MRCs were replaced following surgical resection of these structures. In live imaging experiments, we observed gradual replacement of the branchiostegal valve, an extension of the operculum, in zebrafish over a period of 21 days post-resection (dpr). In regenerating epithelia of both the operculum and gills, we detected MRCs by immunohistochemical localization of the α subunit of plasma membrane Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase. In both tissues, MRCs appeared soon after resection, and as early as 1 dpr in the gill filaments. We report regeneration of the operculum and proliferation of MRCs in regenerating tissue in adult zebrafish. These studies may contribute to our understanding of how MRC populations are regulated during the regenerative process, which may occur following exposure to environmental stressors, chemical toxicity or disease.

Effects of underwater and semi-aquatic environments on gut tissue and microbiota of the mudskipper Boleophthalmus pectinirostris

In both underwater and semi-aquatic environments, the gut microbiota is of particular physiological importance for amphibious animals, given that the gut tract is among those organs in direct communication with the external environment. In this study, we examined the effects of these contrasting environments on the dominant bacteria in the guts of the amphibious mudskipper Boleophthalmus pectinirostris. Compared with the guts of normal mudskippers, in which the dominant bacteria were identified as Vibrio and Faecalibacterium, we found that Acinetobacter, Shigella, and Bacillus predominated in their guts after exposure to the semi-aquatic environment, whereas Escherichia, Bacteroides, and Bacillus were more prevalent in the guts in the underwater environment. The total number of cultured gut bacteria decreased significantly in the semi-aquatic environment. In semi-aquatic mudskippers, we also detected reductions and increases in the length and width of gut villi, respectively, whereas the width of gut villi declined and the number of goblet cells increased significantly in mudskippers maintained underwater. The mRNA expression of multiple gut transporters for glucose, long-chain fatty acids, and amino acids was found to increase markedly in both underwater and semi-aquatic environments, with the expression of most transporters being significantly higher in those mudskippers exposed to an underwater environment. Furthermore, we detected significant increases in the mRNA expression of pro-inflammatory cytokine transcripts in the guts of both underwater and semi-aquatic mudskippers on days 2, 4, and 6 of exposure, whereas the expression of IL-10 and TGFβ mRNA was more pronounced on days 4 and 8, respectively. Comparatively, we found that expression levels of cytokines in the guts of underwater mudskipper were substantially higher than those in the guts of semi-aquatic mudskippers. Collectively, our findings revealed notable differences in the gut microbiota and energy metabolism requirements of mudskippers exposed to underwater and semi-aquatic conditions, thereby providing a theoretical basis explaining the maintenance of a homeostatic state in mudskippers that constantly transition between these contrasting amphibious habitats.

The development of the O2-sensing system in an amphibious fish: consequences of variation in environmental O2 levels

Proper development of the O₂-sensing system is essential for survival. Here, we characterized the development of the O₂-sensing system in the mangrove rivulus (Kryptolebias marmoratus), an amphibious fish that transitions between hypoxic aquatic environments and O₂-rich terrestrial environments. We found that NECs formed in the gills and skin of K. marmoratus during embryonic development and that both NEC populations are retained from the embryonic stage to adulthood. We also found that the hyperventilatory response to acute hypoxia was present in embryonic K. marmoratus, indicating that functional O₂-sensing pathways are formed during embryonic development. We then exposed embryos to aquatic normoxia, aquatic hyperoxia, aquatic hypoxia, or terrestrial conditions for the first 30 days of embryonic development and tested the hypothesis that environmental O₂ availability during embryonic development modulates the development of the O₂-sensing system in amphibious fishes. Surprisingly, we found that O₂ availability during embryonic development had little impact on the density and morphology of NECs in the gills and skin of K. marmoratus. Collectively, our results demonstrate that, unlike the only other species of fish in which NEC development has been studied to date (i.e., zebrafish), NEC development in K. marmoratus is largely unaffected by environmental O₂ levels during the embryonic stage, indicating that there is interspecies variation in O₂-induced plasticity in the O₂-sensing system of fishes.

Expression of acetylcholine, its contribution to regulation of immune function and O2 sensing and phylogenetic interpretations of the African butterfly fish Pantodon buchholzi (Osteoglossiformes, Pantodontidae)

Acetylcholine (Ach) is the main neurotransmitter in the neuronal cholinergic system and also works as a signaling molecule in non-neuronal cells and tissues. The diversity of signaling pathways mediated by Ach provides a basis for understanding the biology of the cholinergic epithelial cells and immune cells in the gill of the species studied. NECs in the gill were not found surprisingly, but specialized cells showing the morphological, histochemical and ultrastructural characteristics of eosinophils were located in the gill filaments and respiratory lamellae. Much remains unknown about the interaction between the nerves and eosinophils that modulate both the release of acetylcholine and its nicotinic and muscarinic receptors including the role of acetylcholine in the mechanisms of O₂ chemosensing. In this study we report for the first time the expression of Ach in the pavement cells of the gill lamellae in fish, the mast cells associated with eosinophils and nerve interaction for both immune cell types, in the gill of the extant butterfly fish Pantodon buchholzi. Multiple roles have been hypothesized for Ach and alpha nAChR in the gills. Among these there are the possible involvement of the pavement cells of the gill lamellae as O₂ chemosensitive cells, the interaction of Ach positive mast cells with eosinophils and interaction of eosinophils with nerve terminals. This could be related to the use of the vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VAChT) and the alpha 2 subunit of the acetylcholine nicotinic receptor (alpha 2 nAChR). These data demonstrate the presence of Ach multiple sites of neuronal and non-neuronal release and reception within the gill and its ancestral signaling that arose during the evolutionary history of this conservative fish species.

Nitric oxide synthase (NOS) inhibitor L-NAME activates inducible NOS/NO system and drives multidimensional regulation of Na+ /K+ -ATPase in ionocyte epithelia of immersion-stressed air-breathing fish (Anabas testudineus Bloch)

Nitric oxide (NO) has been implicated in Na⁺  homeostatic control in water-breathing fishes. It is, however, uncertain whether air-breathing fish relies on NO to coordinate Na⁺ /K⁺ -ATPase (NKA)-driven Na⁺  transport during acute hypoxemia. We, thus, examined the action of nitric oxide synthase (NOS) inhibitor, L-NAME on NO availability, inducible NOS (iNOS) protein abundance and the regulatory dynamics of NKA in osmoregulatory epithelia of Anabas testudineus kept at induced hypoxemia. As expected in nonstressed fish, in vivo L-NAME (100 ng g^-1 ) challenge for 30 min declined NO production in serum (40%) and osmoregulatory tissues (average 51.6%). Surprisingly, the magnitude of such reduction was less in hypoxemic fish after L-NAME challenge due to the net gain of NO (average 23.7%) in these tissues. Concurrently, higher iNOS protein abundance was found in branchial and intestinal epithelia of these hypoxemic fish. In nonstressed fish, L-NAME treatment inhibited the NKA activity in branchial and intestinal epithelia while stimulating its activity in renal epithelia. Interestingly in hypoxemic fish, L-NAME challenge restored the hypoxemia-inhibited NKA activity in branchial and renal epithelia. Similar recovery response was evident in the NKAα protein abundance in immunoblots and immunofluorescence images of branchial epithelia of these fish. Analysis of Nkaα1 isoform transcript abundance (Nkaα1a, α1b, α1c) also showed spatial and preferential regulation of Nkaα1 isoform switching. Collectively, the data indicate that L-NAME challenge activates iNOS/NO system in the branchial ionocyte epithelia of hypoxemia-stressed Anabas and demands multidimensional regulation of NKA to restore the Na⁺  transport rate probably to defend against acute hypoxemia.

The role of TASK-2 channels in CO2 sensing in zebrafish (Danio rerio)

Peripheral chemosensitivity in fishes is thought to be mediated by serotonin-enriched neuroepithelial cells (NECs) that are localized to the gills of adults and the integument of larvae. In adult zebrafish (Danio rerio), branchial NECs are presumed to mediate the cardiorespiratory reflexes associated with hypoxia or hypercapnia, whereas in larvae, there is indirect evidence linking cutaneous NECs to hypoxic hyperventilation and hypercapnic tachycardia. No study yet has examined the ventilatory response of larval zebrafish to hypercapnia, and regardless of developmental stage, the signaling pathways involved in CO₂ sensing remain unclear. In the mouse, a background potassium channel (TASK-2) contributes to the sensitivity of chemoreceptor cells to CO₂. Zebrafish possess two TASK-2 channel paralogs, TASK-2 and TASK-2b, encoded by kcnk5a and kcnk5b, respectively. The present study aimed to determine whether TASK-2 channels are expressed in NECs of larval zebrafish and whether they are involved in CO₂ sensing. Using immunohistochemical approaches, TASK-2 protein was observed on the surface of NECs in larvae. Exposure of larvae to hypercapnia caused cardiac and breathing frequencies to increase, and these responses were blunted in fish experiencing TASK-2 and/or TASK-2b knockdown. The results of these experiments suggest that TASK-2 channels are involved in CO₂ sensing by NECs and contribute to the initiation of reflex cardiorespiratory responses during exposure of larvae to hypercapnia.

Paraneuronal pseudobranchial neurosecretory system in tank goby Glossogobius giuris with special reference to novel neurohaemal contact complex

Various putative oxygen chemosensory cells are reported to be present throughout the vertebrate body performing pivotal roles in respiration by initiating responses during acute hypoxia. Since air-breathing fishes often are exposed to the oxygen-deficient milieu, in such conditions various chemosensory cells operate in an orchestrated fashion. The Pseudobranchial neurosecretory system (PSNS) a newly discovered system, is one of these. It has been placed in the category of "Diffuse NE systems (DNES)". It is found in all the catfish species and in some other non-catfish group of teleosts. In catfishes, it is present in close association with the carotid labyrinth- a chemosensory structure, known in fish and amphibians. The presence of this system in Glossogobius giuris, in association with the pseudobranch, a structure considered to be precursor of carotid labyrinth, is a significant finding. In an attempt to study the structure and organization of the pseudobranchial neurosecretory system in a non-catfish species of teleost, the present investigation was undertaken on a goby G. giuris. The histological observations, using a neurosecretion-specific stain, revealed the presence of this system in G. giuris. The findings are discussed in the light of the association of PSNS with pseudobranch and the type of "neurohaemal contact complex" formed between this neurosecretory system and the elements of the circulatory system.

Expression of Acetylcholine- and G protein coupled Muscarinic receptor in the Neuroepithelial cells (NECs) of the obligated air-breathing fish, Arapaima gigas (Arapaimatidae: Teleostei)

The air-breathing specialization has evolved idependently in vertebrates, as many different organs can perfom gas exchange. The largest obligate air-breathing fish from South America Arapaima gigas breathe air using its gas bladder, and its dependence on air breathing increases during its growth. During its development, gill morphology shows a dramatic change, remodeling with a gradual reduction of gill lamellae during the transition from water breathing to air breathing . It has been suggested that in this species the gills remain the main site of O₂ and CO₂ sensing. Consistent with this, we demonstrate for the first time the occurrence of the neuroepithelial cells (NECs) in the glottis, and in the gill filament epithelia and their distal halves. These cells contain a broader spectrum of neurotransmitters (5-HT, acetylcholine, nNOS), G-protein subunits and the muscarininic receptors that are coupled to G proteins (G-protein coupled receptors). We report also for the first time the presence of G alpha proteins coupled with muscarinic receptors on the NECs, that are thought as receptors that initiate the cardiorespiratory reflexes in aquatic vertebrates. Based on the specific orientation in the epithelia and their closest vicinity to efferent vasculatures, the gill and glottal NECs of A. gigas could be regarded as potential O₂ and CO₂ sensing receptors. However, future studies are needed to ascertain the neurophysiological characterization of these cells.

The paraneuronal gill neuroendocrine system in ocellated puffer fish Leiodon cutcutia

Pseudobranchial neurosecretory system (PSNS) is the third Neuroendocrine (NE) system found in the gill region of fishes in close association with pseudobranch/carotid labyrinth/carotid gland and can suitably be placed under the category of "Diffused NE system (DNES)." The cells belonging to this system fall under the category of "Paraneurons," a concept proposed by Fujita and coworkers. It is found uniformly in all the catfish species and some other noncatfish group of teleosts as Atheriniformes, Channiformes, Perciformes, and Clupeiformes. The fishes, in which the PSNS is present, belong to different breathing habits. Most of these have the capacity to tolerate low O₂ conditions. Leiodon cutcutia although not an air-breathing fish, is known to retain air in its stomach for varied periods when threatened. In an attempt to verify the veracity of this system in a fish of another peculiar breathing habit, ocellated puffer fish L. cutcutia (order Tetradontiformes) was investigated. The histological observations undertaken on L. cutcutia revealed the presence of a well-developed extrabranchial NE system. The findings are discussed in the light of the association of PSNS with chemosensory system and its evolution in fishes, especially in the view of the transition from aquatic to terrestrial life.

Mangrove Fishes Rely on Emersion Behavior and Physiological Tolerance to Persist in Sulfidic Environments

Hydrogen sulfide (H ₂ S) is a potent respiratory toxin that makes sulfidic environments tolerable to only a few organisms. We report the presence of fishes ( Kryptolebias marmoratus , Poecilia orri , Gambusia sp., and Dormitator maculatus ) in Belizean mangrove pools with extremely high H ₂ S concentrations (up to 1,166 μM) that would be lethal for most fishes. Thus, we asked whether the three most prevalent species ( Kryptolebias , Poecilia , and Gambusia ) persist in sulfidic pools because they are exceptionally H ₂ S tolerant and/or because they can leave water (emerse) and completely avoid H ₂ S. We show that both physiological tolerance and emersion behavior are important. Kryptolebias demonstrated high H ₂ S tolerance, as they lost equilibrium significantly later than Poecilia and Gambusia during H ₂ S exposure ( 1,188 ± 21 μM H ₂ S). However, the fact that all species lost equilibrium at an ecologically relevant [H ₂ S] suggests that physiological tolerance may suffice at moderate H ₂ S concentrations but that another strategy is required to endure higher concentrations. In support of the avoidance behavior hypothesis, H ₂ S elicited an emersion response in all species. Kryptolebias was most sensitive to H ₂ S and emersed at H ₂ S concentrations 52% and 34% lower than Poecilia and Gambusia , respectively. Moreover, H ₂ S exposure caused Kryptolebias to emerse more frequently and spend more time out of water compared to control conditions. We suggest that physiological H ₂ S tolerance and emersion behavior are complementary strategies. The superior H ₂ S tolerance and amphibious capability of Kryptolebias may explain why this species was more prevalent in H ₂ S-rich environments than other local fishes.

Hydrogen sulphide toxicity and the importance of amphibious behaviour in a mangrove fish inhabiting sulphide-rich habitats

We investigated amphibious behaviour, hydrogen sulphide (H₂S) tolerance, and the mechanism of H₂S toxicity in the amphibious mangrove rivulus (Kryptolebias marmoratus). We found that fish emersed (left water) in response to acutely elevated [H₂S] (~ 130-200 µmol l^-1). The emersion response to H₂S may be influenced by prior acclimation history due to acclimation-induced alterations in gill morphology and/or the density and size of neuroepithelial cells (NECs) on the gills and skin. Thus, we acclimated fish to water (control), H₂S-rich water, or air and tested the hypotheses that acclimation history influences H₂S sensitivity due to acclimation-induced changes in (i) gill surface area and/or (ii) NEC density and/or size. Air-acclimated fish emersed at significantly lower [H₂S] relative to fish acclimated to control or H₂S-rich water, but exhibited no change in gill surface area or in NEC density or size in the gills or skin. Despite possessing exceptional H₂S tolerance, all fish lost equilibrium when unable to emerse from environments containing extremely elevated [H₂S] (2272 ± 46 µmol l^-1). Consequently, we tested the hypothesis that impaired blood oxygen transport (i.e., sulphemoglobin formation) causes H₂S toxicity in amphibious fishes. In vitro exposure of red blood cells to physiologically relevant [H₂S] did not cause a substantial increase in sulphemoglobin formation. We found evidence, however, for an alternative hypothesis that H₂S toxicity is caused by impaired oxidative phosphorylation (i.e., cytochrome c oxidase inhibition). Collectively, our results show that amphibious behaviour is critical for the survival of K. marmoratus in H₂S-rich environments as fish experience impaired oxidative phosphorylation when unable to emerse.

The integument of the nonamphibious goby Gobionellus oceanicus: Its functional morphology and respiratory capacity

Facultative air-breathing fish can exchange respiratory gases using an air-breathing organ (ABO), such as the oral cavity of the integument, during environmental hypoxia. The goby Gobionellus oceanicus inhabits areas subject to environmental hypoxia; however, its ABO is unknown. To investigate the respiratory potential of G. oceanicus, the gill and integument surface area, diffusion capacity, and their diffusion barrier thickness were measured. Our results show that although gill surface area is smaller than observed in other facultative air-breathing fish, but it has all features necessary to perform aquatic gas exchange. Additionally the integument of the palate has a short diffusion barrier thickness and a large calculated O₂ -diffusion capacity suggesting that it functions as the ABO.

Control of air-breathing in fishes: Central and peripheral receptors

This review considers the environmental and systemic factors that can stimulate air-breathing responses in fishes with bimodal respiration, and how these may be controlled by peripheral and central chemoreceptors. The systemic factors that stimulate air-breathing in fishes are usually related to conditions that increase the O₂ demand of these animals (e.g. physical exercise, digestion and increased temperature), while the environmental factors are usually related to conditions that impair their capacity to meet this demand (e.g. aquatic/aerial hypoxia, aquatic/aerial hypercarbia, reduced aquatic hidrogenionic potential and environmental pollution). It is now well-established that peripheral chemoreceptors, innervated by cranial nerves, drive increased air-breathing in response to environmental hypoxia and/or hypercarbia. These receptors are, in general, sensitive to O₂ and/or CO₂/H⁺ levels in the blood and/or the environment. Increased air-breathing in response to elevated O₂ demand may also be driven by the peripheral chemoreceptors that monitor O₂ levels in the blood. Very little is known about central chemoreception in air-breathing fishes, the data suggest that central chemosensitivity to CO₂/H⁺ is more prominent in sarcopterygians than in actinopterygians. A great deal remains to be understood about control of air-breathing in fishes, in particular to what extent control systems may show commonalities (or not) among species or groups that have evolved air-breathing independently, and how information from the multiple peripheral (and possibly central) chemoreceptors is integrated to control the balance of aerial and aquatic respiration in these animals.

The presence and expression of the HIF-1α in the respiratory intestine of the bronze Corydoras Corydoras aeneus (Callichthyidae Teleostei)

Bronze corydoras (Corydoras aeneus) is a small diurnal activity fish from South America. Under hypoxia conditions, it uses the posterior part of the intestine as an accessory respiratory organ. The present PCR studies demonstrated higher expression of HIF-1α (hypoxia-inducible factor) gene in the respiratory than that in digestive part of bronze corydoras intestine. Further, immunolocalization studies using antibodies specific to HIF-1α and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) revealed the presence of HIF-1α epitopes in the intestine of Corydoras aeneus. In the respiratory intestine, the numerous clusters of gold particles visualizing HIF-1α antibody were observed within fibroblasts, whereas in the digestive tract of this species, single gold grains in the epithelial cells were noted. On the other hand, the presence of HIF-1α and the cytoplasmic domain of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) in the respiratory intestine of bronze corydoras assumes their interactions in the system where these factors appeared for the first time. The non-obligatory air-breathing fishes using their digestive tract as an accessory respiratory organ during hypoxia conditions are very interesting for the studies of the processes that control HIF-1α expression and squamous cell proliferation.

Immunohistochemical characterization of epidermal dendritic-like cells in giant mudskipper, Periophthalmodon schlosseri

Giant Mudskipper, Periophthalmodon schlosseri (Pallas, 1770), is euryhaline, amphibious, and air-breathing fish. These fishes live in close association to mangrove forests and often spend over 90% of time out of water, in adjacent mudflats. They have developed morphological and physiological adaptations to satisfy their unique lifestyles. The skin is the primary interface between the body and the environment, and has a central role in host defence. The initiation of immune responses to antigens in the vertebrate skin has often been attributed to epidermal Langerhans'cells (LC) that are dendritic cells (DC), antigen-presenting cells (APC) which reside in the epidermis. Dendritic cells have been characterized morphologically and functionally in the teleost fish tissues such as rainbow trout, salmonids, medaka, African catfish and zebrafish. However, there is no evidence of the presence of DCs and their role in mudskippers immunity. The aim of this preliminary study was to characterize, through use of specific antibodies: Toll-like receptor 2, S100, serotonin (5-HT), and Vesicular acetylcholine transporter VAChT, a specific DC-like subpopulation in Pn. schlosseri's epidermis.

Immunohistochemical analysis of the distribution of molecules involved in ionic and pH regulation in the lancelet Branchiostoma floridae (Hubbs, 1922)

The aim of present work is to analyse the distribution of carbonic anhydrase II (CAII), cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator (CFTR), vacuolar-type H⁺-ATPase (V-H⁺-ATPase), Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase, Na⁺/H⁺ exchanger (NHE) and SLC26A6 (solute carrier family 26, member 6), also known as pendrin protein, in the lancelet Branchiostoma floridae in order to go in depth in the evolution of osmoregulation and pH regulation in Chordates. In view of their phylogenetic position, lancelets may indeed provide a critical point of reference for studies on osmoregulation evolution in Chordates. The results of present work demonstrated that, except to Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase that is strongly expressed in nephridia only, all the other studied molecules are abundantly present in skin, coelomic epithelium, renal papillae and nephridia and hepatic coecum. Thus, it is possible to hypothesize that also in lancelet, as in fish, these organs are involved in pH control and ionic regulation. In the digestive tract of B. floridae, the intestine epithelium was weakly immune-reactive to all tested antibodies, while the hepatic coecum showed an intense immunoreactivity to all molecules. Since in amphioxus the hepatic coecum functions simultaneously as stomach, liver and pancreas, these immunohistochemical results proved the secretion of H+ and HCO₃^- ions, typical of digestive process. Colocalization studies indicated a co-expression of the studied proteins in all considered organs, excluding NHE and pendrin for renal papillae, since some renal papillae are NHE immunopositive only.