Partition coefficient of a surfactant between aggregates and solution: application to the micelle-vesicle transition of egg phosphatidylcholine and octyl beta-D-glucopyranoside

Solid-Supported Assembly Composed of n-Octyl-β-D-glucopyranoside and 1,2-Dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine in Equilibrium with Its Ambient Aqueous Solution System Including Dispersed Assembly

In the last few decades, the preparation of solid-supported lipid bilayers by immersing a solid substrate in an aqueous solution where the lipid is dissolved with the aid of a surfactant, followed by dilution of the solution, has been reported. In this study, we attempted to interpret the evolution of supported surfactant/lipid assemblies towards the supported lipid bilayer in terms of a phase equilibrium between the supported assembly phase and its ambient solution system consisting of the dispersed surfactant/lipid assembly phase and the bulk solution phase comprising monomeric surfactant and lipid. We characterized the supported assembly formed on hydrophilized Ge or mica substrates in equilibrium with aqueous solutions containing various concentrations of the nonionic surfactant, n-octyl-β-D-glucopyranoside (OG) and the amphoteric phospholipid, 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DOPC), using interaction-force-profile measurements by atomic force microscopy (AFM), and attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR). We also investigated the ambient solution system using equilibrium dialysis to obtain the partition equilibrium profile of OG between the bulk solution and dispersed assembly phases in the micellar or vesicular states. These studies indicate that the properties of the supported assembly depend on the composition of the dispersed assembly and concentration of monomerically dissolved OG. Further, a type of micellar-bilayer state transition occurs in the supported assembly, roughly synchronized with that in the dispersed assembly.

Simple Thermodynamic Description of the Micellar-Bilayer State Transition of Assemblies Composed of n-Octyl-β-D-glucopyranoside and 1,2-Dioleolyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine Dispersed in Aqueous Media or Supported on Solid Substrates

In the preceding paper, we investigated a mixed assembly composed of a nonionic surfactant, n-octyl-β-D-glucopyranoside (OG), and an amphoteric lipid, 1,2-dioleolyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DOPC), formed on hydrophilized solid substrates immersed in aqueous solutions containing OG and DOPC. The experimental data could be interpreted in terms of the phase equilibrium; thus, the partition equilibrium profile of OG between the bulk solution phase and the supported assembly phase was obtained, as well as that between the bulk solution and the dispersed assembly. The partition equilibrium profiles suggested that micellar-bilayer state transitions occur both in the supported assembly and in the dispersed one in a roughly synchronized manner, even though there are significant discrepancies between them. In this paper, we propose a simple thermodynamic model for the micellar-bilayer transition of the dispersed and supported assembly of OG and DOPC, assuming that the micellar and bilayer states are also pseudo-phases distinct from each other. Using this model, we analyzed these partition equilibrium profiles and concluded that the transition in the supported assembly should mainly be attributed to the transition in the dispersed assembly, which is partly modified by the interaction energy between the supported assembly and the substrate.

The Optimal Lipid Chain Length of a Membrane-Permeabilizing Lipopeptide Results From the Balance of Membrane Partitioning and Local Damage

Pseudodesmin A (PSD) is a cyclic lipodepsipeptide produced by Pseudomonas that kills certain bacteria at MIC_1/2 in the single micromolar range, probably by permeabilizing their cellular membranes. Synthetic PSD variants, where the native decanoic (C10) acyl chain is varied in length from C4 to C8 and C12 to C14 carbons, were described to be not or less active against a panel of gram-positive strains, as compared to native PSD-C10. Here, we test the membrane-permeabilizing activity of PSD-C4 through PSD-C14 in terms of calcein release from liposomes, which is characterized in detail by the fluorescence-lifetime based leakage assay. Antagonistic concentrations and their chain length dependence agree well for liposome leakage and antimicrobial activity. The optimal chain length is governed by a balance between membrane partitioning (favoring longer chains) and the local perturbation or “damage” inflicted by a membrane-bound molecule (weakening for longer chains). Local perturbation, in turn, may involve at least two modes of action. Asymmetry stress between outer and inner leaflet builds up as the lipopeptides enter the outer leaflet and when it reaches a system-specific stability threshold, it causes a transient membrane failure that allows for the flip of some molecules from the outer to the inner leaflet. This cracking-in may be accompanied by transient, incomplete leakage from the aqueous cores of the liposomes observed, typically, for some seconds or less. The mismatch of the lipopeptide with the lipid leaflet geometry, expressed for example in terms of a spontaneous curvature, has two effects. First, it affects the threshold for transient leakage as described. Second, it controls the rate of equilibrium leakage proceeding as the lipopeptide has reached sufficient local concentrations in both leaflets to form quasi-toroidal defects or pores. Both modes of action, transient and equilibrium leakage, synergize for intermediate chain lengths such as the native, i.e., for PSD-C10. These mechanisms may also account for the reported chain-length dependent specificities of antibiotic action against the target bacteria.

Membrane/Water Partition Coefficients of Bile Salts Determined Using Laurdan as a Fluorescent Probe

The interaction of liposomal membranes composed of soybean phosphatidylcholine with the bile salts (BSs) cholate (Ch), glycocholate (GC), chenodeoxycholate (CDC), and glycochenodeoxycholate (GCDC) was studied. The BSs differed with regard to their lipophilicity, pKa values, and the size of their hydrophilic moiety. Their membrane interactions were investigated using Laurdan as a membrane-anchored fluorescent dye. The apparent membrane/water partition coefficient, D, at pH 7.4 was calculated from binding plots and compared with direct binding measurements using ultracentrifugation as a reference. The Laurdan-derived LogD values at pH 7.4 were found to be 2.10 and 2.25 for the trihydroxy BSs, i.e., Ch and GC, and 2.85 and 2.75 for the dihydroxy BSs, i.e., CDC and GCDC, respectively. For the membrane-associated glycine-conjugated GC and GCDC (pK_a values of ∼3.9), no differences in the Laurdan spectra of the respective BS were found at pH 6.8, 7.4, and 8.2. Unconjugated Ch and CDC (pK_a values of ∼5.0) showed pronounced differences at the three pH values. Furthermore, the kinetics of membrane adsorption and transbilayer movement differed between conjugated and unconjugated BSs as determined with Laurdan-labeled liposomes.

Characteristics and behaviour of liposomes when incubated with natural bile salt extract: implications for their use as oral drug delivery systems

The use of liposomes for oral administration of drugs and for food applications is based on their ability to preserve entrapped substances and to increase their bioavailability. Bile salts are one of the agents that affect the liposome structure during intestinal digestion and the main reported studies on liposome/bile salt systems used only one bile salt. The aim of this work is to characterise the interaction of liposomes with a natural bile salt extract (BSE) at physiological pH and temperature. Three types of liposomes (fluid, gel-state and liquid-ordered bilayers) were studied. Phase diagrams were obtained and a very different behaviour was found. Fluid bilayers were completely permeable to an entrapped dye with partial or complete disruption of vesicles (final size 10 nm). Gel-state bilayers released their content but BSE led to the formation of large mixed structures (2000 nm). Liquid-ordered bilayers formed mixed vesicles (1000 nm) and, surprisingly, retained a high percentage of their aqueous content (about 50%). As a consequence, each type of liposome offers singular features to be used in oral applications due to their specific interaction with bile salts.

Utilizing zeta potential measurements to study the effective charge, membrane partitioning, and membrane permeation of the lipopeptide surfactin

The effective charge of membrane-active molecules such as the fungicidal lipopeptide surfactin (SF) is a crucial property governing solubility, membrane partitioning, and membrane permeability. We present zeta potential measurements of liposomes to measure the effective charge as well as membrane partitioning of SF by utilizing what we call an equi-activity analysis of several series of samples with different lipid concentrations. We observe an effective charge of -1.0 for SF at pH8.5 and insignificantly lower at pH7.4, illustrating that the effective charge may deviate strongly from the nominal value (-2 for 1 Asp, 1 Glu). The apparent partition coefficient decreases from roughly 100 to 20/mM with increasing membrane content of SF in agreement with the literature. Finally, by comparing zeta potentials measured soon after the addition of peptide to liposomes with those measured after a heat treatment to induce transmembrane equilibration of SF, we quantified the asymmetry of partitioning between the outer and inner leaflets. At very low concentration, SF binds exclusively to the outer leaflet. The onset of partial translocation to the inner leaflet occurs at about 5mol-% SF in the membrane. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Interfacially Active Peptides and Proteins. Guest Editors: William C. Wimley and Kalina Hristova.

Interaction of n-octyl β,D-glucopyranoside with giant magnetic-fluid-loaded phosphatidylcholine vesicles: direct visualization of membrane curvature fluctuations as a function of surfactant partitioning between water and lipid bilayer

The present study deals with the morphological modifications of giant dioleoyl phosphatidylcholine vesicles (DOPC GUVs) induced by the nonionic surfactant n-octyl β,D-glucopyranoside at sublytic levels, i.e., in the first steps of the vesicle-to-micelle transition process, when surfactant inserts into the vesicle bilayer without disruption. Experimental conditions were perfected to exactly control the surfactant bilayer composition of the vesicles, in line with former work focused on the mechanical properties of the membrane of magnetic-fluid-loaded DOPC GUVs submitted to a magnetic field. The purpose here was to systematically examine, in the absence of any external mechanical constraint, the dynamics of giant vesicle shape and membrane deformations as a function of surfactant partitioning between the aqueous phase and the lipid membrane, beforehand established by turbidity measurements from small unilamellar vesicles.

Membrane solubilisation and reconstitution by octylglucoside: comparison of synthetic lipid and natural lipid extract by isothermal titration calorimetry

We have studied the solubilisation and reconstitution of lipid membranes composed of either synthetic phosphatidylcholine or Escherichia. coli polar lipid extract by the non-ionic detergent octylglucoside. For both lipid systems, composition-dependent transformations of unilamellar vesicles into micelles or vice versa were followed by high-sensitivity isothermal titration calorimetry. Data obtained over a range of detergent and lipid concentrations could be rationalised in terms of a three-stage phase separation model involving bilayer, bilayer/micelle coexistence, and micellar ranges, yielding the detergent/lipid phase diagrams and the bilayer-to-micelle partition coefficients of both detergent and lipid. The most notable difference between the lipids investigated was a substantial widening of the bilayer/micelle coexistence range for E. coli lipid, which was due to an increased preference of the detergent and a decreased affinity of the lipid for the micellar phase as compared with the bilayer phase. These effects on the bilayer-to-micelle partition coefficients could be explained by the high proportion in E. coli membranes of lipids possessing negative spontaneous curvature, which hampers both their transfer into strongly curved micellar structures as well as the insertion of detergent into condensed bilayers.

Interactions of surfactants with lipid membranes

Surfactants are surface-active, amphiphilic compounds that are water-soluble in the micro- to millimolar range, and self-assemble to form micelles or other aggregates above a critical concentration. This definition comprises synthetic detergents as well as amphiphilic peptides and lipopeptides, bile salts and many other compounds. This paper reviews the biophysics of the interactions of surfactants with membranes of insoluble, naturally occurring lipids. It discusses structural, thermodynamic and kinetic aspects of membrane-water partitioning, changes in membrane properties induced by surfactants, membrane solubilisation to micelles and other phases formed by lipid-surfactant systems. Each section defines and derives key parameters, mentions experimental methods for their measurement and compiles and discusses published data. Additionally, a brief overview is given of surfactant-like effects in biological systems, technical applications of surfactants that involve membrane interactions, and surfactant-based protocols to study biological membranes.

Solubilization of lipid bilayers by myristyl sucrose ester: effect of cholesterol and phospholipid head group size

The solubilization of biological membranes by detergents has been used as a major method for the isolation and purification of membrane proteins and other constituents. Considerable interest in this field has resulted from the finding that different components can be solubilized selectively. Certain membrane constituents are incorporated into small micelles, whereas others remain in the so-called detergent-resistant membrane domains that are large enough to be separated by centrifugation. The detergent-resistant fractions contain an elevated percentage of cholesterol, and thus its interaction with specific lipids and proteins may be key for membrane organization and regulation of cellular signaling events. This report focuses on the solubilization process induced by the sucrose monoester of myristic acid, beta-D-fructofuranosyl-6-O-myristyl-alpha-D-glucopyranoside (MMS), a nonionic detergent. We studied the effect of the head group and the cholesterol content on the process. 1-Palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (POPC) and dioctadecyl-dimethyl-ammonium chloride (DODAC) vesicles were used, and the solubilization process was followed using Laurdan (6-dodecanoyl-2-dimethylaminonaphthalene) generalized polarization (GP) measurements, carried out in the cuvette and in the 2-photon microscope. Our results indicate that: (i) localization of the MMS moieties in the lipid bilayer depends on the characteristics of the lipid polar head group and influences the solubilization process. (ii) Insertion of cholesterol molecules into the lipid bilayer protects it from solubilizaton and (iii) the microscopic mechanism of solubilization by MMS implies the decrease in size of the individual liposomes.

Additive action of two or more solutes on lipid membranes

A wide variety of biological processes, pharmaceutical applications, and technical procedures is based on the combined action of two or more soluble compounds to perturb, permeabilize, or lyse biological membranes. Here we present a general model describing the additive action of solutes on the properties of membranes or micelles. The onset and completion of membrane solubilization induced by two surfactants (lauryl maltoside, with nonyl maltoside, octyl glucoside, or CHAPS, respectively) are very well described by our model on the basis of their individual partition coefficients, cmc's, and critical mole ratios R e sat and R e sol as detected by isothermal titration calorimetry. This suggests that the thermodynamic phase transition is governed by a single parameter (e.g., spontaneous curvature) in spite of the complexity of structural changes. Such surfactant mixtures show unique features such as nonlinear solubilization boundaries and concentration-dependent effective partition coefficients. Other phenomena such as membrane leakage are predicted to obey additive action if the solutes act via the same mechanism (e.g., toroidal pore formation) but deviate from the model in the case of independent, synergistic, or antagonistic action.

Lipid bilayer elasticity measurements in giant liposomes in contact with a solubilizing surfactant

A new method to probe the modification of the elasticity of phospholipid bilayers is presented. The purpose here concerns the action of a solubilizing surfactant on a vesicle bilayer. This method is based on the measure of the under-field elongation of giant magnetic-fluid-loaded liposomes. The addition of the nonionic surfactant octyl-beta-d-glucopyranoside (OG) to vesicles at sublytic levels increases the elasticity of the membrane, as shown by the value of the bending modulus K(b), which decreases. K(b) measured around 20 kT for a pure 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DOPC) bilayer indeed reaches a few kT in the case of the mixed OG-DOPC bilayer. The purpose and interest of this study are to allow the determination of the membrane bending modulus before and after the addition of OG on the same magnetic liposome. Moreover, the experimental conditions used in this work allow the control of lipid and surfactant molar fractions in the mixed aggregates. Then, optical microscopy observation can be performed on samples in well-defined regions of the OG-phospholipid state diagram.

Inclusion complex of n-octyl beta-D-glucopyranoside and alpha-cyclodextrin in aqueous solutions: thermodynamic and structural characterization

Complex formation between octyl beta-D-glucopyranoside (OG) and alpha-cyclodextrin (alphaCD) was investigated on the basis of three highly accurate and appropriate experimental techniques. First, surface tension measurements showed that alphaCD directly acts on the surfactant monomers in the aqueous phase, leading to progressive depletion of the air-water interface with increasing cyclodextrin contents. Significant shift of OG critical micelle concentration (cmc) was consequently observed: the higher alphaCD concentration, the higher the cmc value. Experiments performed at surfactant and cyclodextrin concentrations in the Gibbs regime of surface tension versus OG content were performed on one hand to establish Job's plot that showed 1:1 stoichiometry of the OG-alphaCD complex and on the other hand to calculate the association constant found equal to (1.85 +/- 0.35) x 10(3) L mol(-1). An inclusion process of the surfactant alkyl residue within the cyclodextrin cavity was confirmed by one-dimensional (1)H NMR, and the structure of the mixed assembly was extensively characterized by two-dimensional NOESY (1)H NMR. OG penetrates alphaCD so that its hydrocarbon chain is embedded inside the cyclodextrin cavity, and its polar head as well as the alpha-methylene group emerges outside the alphaCD secondary face. Solubility behavior of the OG-alphaCD complex in a wide range of host-guest ratios and concentrations was finally examined by turbidity recording and optical microscopy. At very low free cyclodextrin levels in the solution, the complex presented high solubility behavior up to more than 70 mM. By increasing nonassociated alphaCD in the mixture, propensity of the cyclodextrin molecules to crystallize was observed at concentrations far below the 100 mM aqueous solubility of the pure cyclodextrin. The hexagonal shape of the crystals seen in the optical microscopy images suggested they were, partially at least, composed of the solid complex.

Triton X-100 partitioning into sphingomyelin bilayers at subsolubilizing detergent concentrations: effect of lipid phase and a comparison with dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine

We examined the partitioning of the nonionic detergent Triton X-100 at subsolubilizing concentrations into bilayers of either egg sphingomyelin (SM), palmitoyl SM, or dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine. SM is known to require less detergent than phosphatidylcholine to achieve the same extent of solubilization, and for all three phospholipids solubilization is temperature dependent. In addition, the three lipids exhibit a gel-fluid phase transition in the 38-41 degrees C temperature range. Experiments have been performed at Triton X-100 concentrations well below the critical micellar concentration, so that only detergent monomers have to be considered. Lipid/detergent mol ratios were never <10:1, thus ensuring that the solubilization stage was never reached. Isothermal titration calorimetry, DSC, and infrared, fluorescence, and (31)P-NMR spectroscopies were applied in the 5-55 degrees C temperature range. The results show that, irrespective of the chemical nature of the lipid, DeltaG degrees of partitioning remained in the range of -27 kJ/mol lipid in the gel phase and of -30 kJ/mol lipid in the fluid phase. This small difference cannot account for the observed phase-dependent differences in solubilization. Such virtually constant DeltaG degrees occurred as a result of the compensation of enthalpic and entropic components, which varied with both temperature and lipid composition. Consequently, the observed different susceptibilities to solubilization cannot be attributed to differential binding but to further events in the solubilization process, e.g., bilayer saturability by detergent or propensity to form lipid-detergent mixed micelles. The data here shed light on the relatively unexplored early stages of membrane solubilization and open new ways to understand the phenomenon of membrane resistance toward detergent solubilization.

Sterically stabilized superparamagnetic liposomes for MR imaging and cancer therapy: pharmacokinetics and biodistribution

Pharmacokinetics of magnetic-fluid-loaded liposomes (MFLs) with mean hydrodynamic diameter of 200 nm sterically stabilized by poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) and labelled by a fluorescent lipid probe, N-(lissamine rhodamine B sulfonyl) phosphatidylethanolamine (Rho-PE) was studied. The loading consisted in an aqueous suspension of maghemite nanocrystals close to 8 nm in size at 1.7 Fe(III)mol/mol total lipids ratio. Double tracking of MFL in blood was performed versus time after intravenous administration in mice. Lipids constituting vesicle membrane were followed by Rho-PE fluorescence spectroscopy while iron oxide was determined independently by relaxometry. MFLs circulating in the vascular compartment conserved their vesicle structure and content. The pharmacokinetic profile was characterized by two first-order kinetics of elimination with distinct plasmatic half-lives of 70 min and 12.5 h. Iron biodistribution and organ histology clearly highlighted preferential MFL accumulation within liver and spleen. The pathway in spleen supported that elimination was governed by the mononuclear phagocyte system (MPS). PEG coating was essential to prolong MFL circulation time whereas iron oxide loading tends to favour uptake by the MPS. Despite partial uptake in the earlier times after administration, MFLs exhibited long circulation behaviour over a 24-h period that, coupled to magnetic targeting, encourages further use in drug delivery.

Process of destruction of large unilamellar vesicles by a zwitterionic detergent, CHAPS: partition behavior between membrane and water phases

The process of vesicle destruction by zwitterionic detergent, 3-[(3-cholamidopropyl)dimethylammonio]-1-propanesulfonate (CHAPS), was examined to clarify the vesicle-micelle transition mechanism. The physicochemical properties including turbidity, apparent particle size, Cl(-) permeability, electron spin resonance (ESR) spectroscopic parameters, and freeze-fracture electron microscopy were investigated. The concentration of CHAPS was analyzed using HPLC to determine the partition coefficient during the solubilization process. The data obtained revealed that maximum turbidity and apparent particle size were found at the effective ratio (R(e)) of 0.21 and 0.49, respectively. With a further increase in CHAPS concentration, turbidity and particle size abruptly decreased, suggesting the formation of mixed micelles. The partition coefficient changed throughout the solubilization process. In the presence of low concentrations of CHAPS, CHAPS partitioned into vesicles without destruction of membrane bilayers. When the R(e)<0.04, the partition coefficient was independent of the detergent concentration with value of 24 M(-1). At R(e) greater than 0.05, the membrane barrier abruptly decreased. At 0.04</=R(e)<0.21, the gradual increase in the partition coefficient accounted for the occurrence of larger vesicles. In range of 0.21</=R(e)<0.52, the abrupt increase in the partition behavior was possibly attributed to the structural change of mixed vesicles to mixed micelles. Furthermore, the ESR results showed that the incorporation of CHAPS into vesicles led to an increase in membrane fluidity near the polar head, and a decrease near the end of the acyl chain. ESR spectra of 5-doxylstearic acid in CHAPS-containing micelles were anisotropic, indicating that the steroidal structure of CHAPS was responsible for the micelles possessing an orderly arrangement of hydrocarbon chains.

Interaction of cetylpyridinium chloride with giant lipid vesicles

The interaction of cationic surfactant cetylpyridinium chloride, CPC, with giant lipid vesicles prepared from 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoylphosphatidylcholine, POPC, was examined at various concentrations of the lipid component. The lipid concentration was determined by a spectrophotometric method. The potentiometric method based on surfactant-selective electrode was used for the determination of surfactant concentration in the external water solution. From these results, moles of surfactant incorporated in the membrane per mole of lipid (parameter beta) and two kinds of partition coefficients were calculated. Their values were found to be considerably larger than the available literature data. A three stage process of surfactant-induced solubilization of lipid vesicles was observed. First, stable mixed bilayers form, which become saturated with CPC at a value beta(sat) larger than 0.8, which then gradually disintegrate. Just prior to the breakdown of the vesicular structure, formation of ellipsoidal vesicles was observed by optical microscopy. This phenomenon was attributed to the cooperative incorporation of surfactant into the bilayer. Fluorescence measurements have shown that the second stage in the solubilization process of POPC by the C16 chain-length surfactant does not involve mixed micelles. These are formed only in the third stage, which is the complete solubilization of POPC bilayers. The corresponding critical micellization concentration decreases with increasing concentration of the lipid component.

A Quantitative Model Describing the Selective Solubilization of Membrane Domains

The classical three-stage model of membrane solubilization, including mixed membranes, membrane-micelle coexistence, and mixed micelles, is not applicable to demixed, domain-forming membranes and must, therefore, fail to describe the phenomenon of detergent-resistant membranes (DRMs). In lack of a quantitative model, it has often been assumed that ordered, detergent-depleted domains are inert, whereas fluid domains are solubilized. We establish a quantitative model based on equilibrium thermodynamics that is analogous to the three-stage model but comprises three components (two lipids and one detergent) in four phases (liquid-ordered and liquid-disordered membranes, micelles, and detergent in aqueous solution). For a given set of total concentrations and input parameters (initial abundance of ordered domains, solubilization boundaries of the pure lipids, etc.), it serves to calculate the phase boundaries and partial concentrations of all components in all phases. The results imply that the abundance and composition of ordered domains may vary substantially upon addition of detergent, both before and during solubilization of the fluid phase. It seems that gel-phase or order-preferring lipids are thermodynamically "resistant" regardless of the presence of a second, fluid phase. However, thermodynamic or kinetic resistance is not sufficient for obtaining DRMs because the resistant particles may be too small to be isolated. Cholesterol may be crucial for rendering the fragments large enough and, furthermore, enhance the formation of ordered domains by nonideal interactions with the detergent.

Cyclodextrin-Mediated Drug Release from Liposomes Dispersed Within a Bioadhesive Gel

PURPOSE

The aim of the present study was to design a new mucosal drug delivery system composed of liposomes dispersed within a bioadhesive hydrogel containing methyl-beta-cyclodextrin (Me(beta)CD) for controlled drug release.

METHODS

A hydrophilic model molecule, inulin, was encapsulated within positively charged and PEG-ylated liposomes and its release was measured in the presence of Me(beta)CD after vesicle dispersion within the bioadhesive Carbopol 974P gel. Freeze-fracture electron microscopy (FFEM) was used to follow liposome morphological changes when dispersed within the hydrogel. Liposome-Me(beta)CD interactions were investigated by turbidity monitoring during continuous addition of Me(beta)CD to liposomes and by FFEM.

RESULTS

Inulin diffusion within the gel was influenced by Carbopol 974P concentration since no gel erosion occurred. When dispersed within the gel, positively charged liposomes displayed a higher stability than PEG-ylated vesicles. In the presence of Me(beta)CD, higher amounts of free inulin were released from liposomes, especially in Carbopol-free system. Me(beta)CD appeared to diffuse towards lipid vesicles and permeabilized their bilayer allowing inulin leakage. Indeed, freeze-fracture experiments and liposome turbidity monitoring have shown that Me(beta)CD behaved as a detergent behavior, resulting in lipid vesicle solubilization.

CONCLUSION

is able to mediate, within a bioadhesive hydrogel, the release of a liposome-encapsulated molecule allowing further application of this delivery system for mucosal administration.

Insertion and partition of sodium taurocholate into egg phosphatidylcholine vesicles

PURPOSE

To get a continuous description of the insertion and partition processes of sodium taurocholate (TC) into the lipid bilayers of vesicles that can serve as a model for understanding the mechanism of destabilization by the bile salts of liposomes used as drug carriers for oral administration.

METHODS

The progressive solubilization of egg phosphatidylcholine vesicles during TC addition at controlled rates was followed by continuous turbidity (OD) and resonance energy transfer (RET) between two fluorescent probes. The influence of the lipid and TC concentrations as well as the rate of TC addition on the processes were examined.

RESULTS

Continuous turbidity recordings allowed following of the size and composition evolutions of the mixed TC/lipid aggregates formed at different steps of the vesicle-micelle transition. The solubilization mechanism is governed by complex kinetics that depend on the surfactant concentration and its addition rate. A two-step process characterizes the evolution of the vesicular state: interaction of TC molecules with the external monolayer of the vesicles first occurs. The homogeneous distribution of TC within the lipid matrix after its insertion is a very slow process. A micellar structural reorganization is observed when TC is added rapidly.

CONCLUSIONS

This work provides detailed information on the slow insertion and diffusion kinetics of TC in liposomal bilayers by using a dynamic study which mimics physiological phenomena of digestion.

Membrane solubilization by detergent: resistance conferred by thickness

The commonly held model for membrane dissolution by detergents/surfactants requires lipid transport from the inner to the outer bilayer leaflet ('flip-flop'). Although applicable to many systems, it fails in cases where cross-bilayer transport of membrane components is suppressed. In this paper we investigate the mechanism for surfactant-induced solubilization of polymeric bilayers. To that end, we examine the dissolution of a series of increasingly thick, polymer-based vesicles (polymersomes) by a nonionic surfactant, Triton X-100, using dynamic light scattering. We find that increasing the bilayer thickness imparts better resistance to dissolution, so that the concentration required for solubilization, after a fixed amount of time, increases nearly linearly with membrane thickness. Combining our experimental data with a theoretical model, we show that the dominant mechanism for the surfactant-induced dissolution of polymeric vesicles, where polymer flip-flop across the membrane is suppressed, is the surfactant transport through the bilayer. This mechanism is different both qualitatively and quantitatively from the mechanisms by which surfactants dissolve pure lipid vesicles.

Interaction between artificial membranes and enflurane, a general volatile anesthetic: DPPC-enflurane interaction

The structural modifications of the dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC) organization induced by increasing concentration of the volatile anesthetic enflurane have been studied by differential scanning calorimetry, small-angle, and wide-angle x-ray scattering. The interaction of enflurane with DPPC depends on at least two factors: the enflurane-to-lipid concentration ratio and the initial organization of the lipids. At 25 degrees C (gel state), the penetration of enflurane within the lipids induces the apparition of two different mixed lipid phases. At low anesthetic-to-lipid molar ratio, the smectic distance increases whereas the direction of the chain tilt changes from a tilt toward next-neighbors to a tilt between next-neighbors creating a new gel phase called L(beta')(2NNN). At high ratio, the smectic distance is much smaller than for the pure L(beta') DPPC phase, i.e., 50 A compared to 65 A, the aliphatic chains are perpendicular to the membrane and the fusion temperature of the phase is 33 degrees C. The electron profile of this phase that has been called L(beta)(i), indicates that the lipids are fully interdigitated. At 45 degrees C (fluid state), a new melted phase, called L(alpha)(2), was found, in which the smectic distance decreased compared to the initial pure L(alpha)(1) DPPC phase. The thermotropic behavior of the mixed phases has also been characterized by simultaneous x-ray scattering and differential scanning calorimetry measurements using the Microcalix calorimeter of our own. Finally, titration curves of enflurane effect in the mixed lipidic phase has been obtained by using the fluorescent lipid probe Laurdan. Measurements as a function of temperature or at constant temperature, i.e., 25 degrees C and 45 degrees C give, for the maximal effect, an enflurane-to-lipid ratio (M/M), within the membrane, of 1 and 2 for the L(alpha)(2) and the L(beta)(i) lamellar phase respectively. All the results taken together allowed to draw a pseudo-binary phase diagram of enflurane-dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine in excess water.

Effect of dialysis on erythrocyte membrane of chronically hemodialyzed patients

The present work examines the role of uremia and the effect of dialysis treatment on red blood cells (RBCs) membrane properties of hemodialysis patients. The results showed that, the uremic patients had a lower values of erythrocyte deformability than that of healthy control subject. The median osmotic fragility (MOF) showed a significant increase in hemodialyzed patients than that for control group. The osmotic resistance to hemolysis was improved after dialysis. The solubilization process of the RBCs membrane showed that the detergent concentration needed to solubilize the RBCs membrane for uremic patient was much higher than that for control group. The abnormalities of the present results for RBCs membrane properties are mostly related to membrane fluidity, which are slightly improved after dialysis. Biochemical analysis showed a decreasing trend in RBCs count, urea nitrogen, creatinine, potassium,

Partitioning of Triton X-100, deoxycholate and C(10)EO(8) into bilayers composed of native and hydrogenated egg yolk sphingomyelin

We have used isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) to study the thermodynamics of Triton X-100 (T(X-100)), deoxycholate and decyl octaethylene glycol (C(10)EO(8)) penetration into bilayers composed of native (ESM) and hydrogenated egg yolk sphingomyelin (DHSM). Light scattering measurements were used to study the point of saturation (R(e,sat)) and the onset of solubilization of membranes by the detergents. We found that DHSM bilayers at 25 degrees C were much more resistant to detergent partitioning (lower K) and gave higher reaction enthalpies (DeltaH) for all three detergents compared to the ESM bilayer system. Because DHSM lacks double bonds (Delta(4trans) and some cis bonds as well), attractive acyl chain interactions are favored in membranes of this lipid class. The high stability and cohesion of DHSM in membranes could be a crucial functional property of this lipid as it is enriched in eye lens membranes.

Aggregated Assemblies of Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate/Dimethyldodecyl Ammoniopropane Sulfonate and Phospholipids at the Interface and in the Bulk

Interactions between the binary combinations of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) or dimethyldodecylammoniopropane sulfonate (DPS) with L-alpha-phosphatidylcholine (PC), 1,2-didecanoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphacholine (DPC), and 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphacholine (PPC) at the air/water interface and in aqueous bulk were evaluated with the help of interfacial tension (gamma) and pyrene fluorescence (I(1)/I(3)) measurements by studying the aggregation processes of SDS and DPS in pure water and in the presence of 7-36 microM of each lipid. The gamma measurements suggested that the interface was mainly occupied by the surfactant monomers especially in the presence of PC and PPC, and the surfactant-PC or surfactant-PPC aggregates were mainly available in the bulk with the least surface activity. Significant surface activity was observed in the case of a surfactant-DPC complex. The fluorescence measurements showed clear onset, C(1), and completion, C(2), of a vesicles solubilization process upon incorporation of surfactant monomers into the vesicles in the presence of DPC and PPC whereas this process was not visible in the presence of PC. A comparative study of all the three lipids indicated that both PC and PPC were mainly available in the aggregated form in the bulk due to their higher hydrophobicities and, hence, were the least surface active. On the other hand, DPC with relatively lower hydrophobicity showed considerable surface activity even in the monomeric form. Among both surfactants, DPS showed stronger interactions with DPC and PPC in comparison to SDS due to its zwitterionic nature, which could easily accommodate itself into the lipid-aggregated assemblies with similar headgroup natures, and helped in reducing the interhead-group repulsions.

Origin of laurdan sensitivity to the vesicle-to-micelle transition of phospholipid-octylglucoside system: a time-resolved fluorescence study

The fluorescent probe laurdan has been shown to be sensitive to the vesicle-to-micelle transition of phosphatidylcholine/octylglucoside (M. Paternostre, O. Meyer, C. Grabielle-Madelmont, S. Lesieur, and, Biophys. J. 69:2476-2488). On the other hand, a study on the photophysics of laurdan in organic solvents has shown that the complex de-excitation pathway of the probe can be described by two successive processes, i.e., an intramolecular charge transfer followed by dielectric relaxation of the solvent if polar. These two excited-state reactions lead to three emitting states, i.e., a locally excited state, a charge transfer state, and a solvent relaxed state (M. Viard, J. Gallay, M. Vincent, B. Robert and, Biophys. J. 73:2221-2234). Experiments have been performed using time-resolved fluorescence on the probe inserted in amphiphile aggregates (mixed liposomes, mixed micelles) different in detergent-to-lipid ratios. The results have been compared with those obtained for laurdan inserted in dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine liposomes in the gel and in the fluid lamellar phase. Except for laurdan in dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine liposomes in the gel lamellar phase, the red part of the emission spectra originates from the de-excitation of the relaxed excited state of laurdan, indicating that indeed the dielectric relaxation process is an important phenomena in the ground-state return pathway of this probe. On the other hand, the maximization entropy method (MEM) analysis of the fluorescence decay recorded in the blue part of the emission spectra indicates that the dielectric relaxation is not the only reaction occurring to the excited state of laurdan. Moreover, the analysis of the fluorescence decays of laurdan inserted in gel lamellar dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC) liposomes indicates excited-state reactions, although dielectric relaxation is impossible. These results are in agreement with the de-excitation pathway determined from laurdan behavior in organic solvent even if, in most of the aggregates studied in this work, the major phenomenon is the dielectric relaxation of the solvent. All along the vesicle-to-micelle transition, we have observed that the lifetime of the relaxed excited state of laurdan continuously decreases probably due to a dynamic quenching process by water molecules. On the other hand, the time constant of the dielectric relaxation process remains almost unchanged in the lamellar part of the transition but abruptly decreases as soon as the first mixed micelle is formed. This decrease is continuous all over the rest of the transition even if it is more pronounced in the mixed liposomes' and mixed micelles' coexistence. The increase of the octylglucoside-to-lipid ratio of the mixed micelles via the change of the size and the shape of the aggregates may facilitate the penetration and the mobility of water molecules. Therefore, during the vesicle-to-micelle transition, laurdan probes the evolution of both the amphiphile packing in the aggregates and the increase of the interface polarity. This study finally shows that the detergent-to-lipid ratio of the mixed micelles is an important parameter to control to limit the penetration and the mobility of water within the amphiphile aggregates and that laurdan is a nice tool to monitor this phenomenon.

Phase boundaries in mixtures of membrane-forming amphiphiles and micelle-forming amphiphiles

The phase behavior of mixtures of phospholipids and detergents in aqueous solutions is an issue of basic importance for understanding the solubilization and reconstitution of biological membranes. We review the existing knowledge on the compositionally induced reversible transformation of phospholipid bilayers into lipid-detergent mixed micelles. First, we describe the experimental protocols used for preparation of such mixtures and emphasize the scope and limitations of the various techniques used for evaluation of the microstructures of the self-assembled amphiphiles in the mixture. Subsequently, we interpret the existing data in terms of the spontaneous curvature of the amphiphiles and the finite size of the mixed micelles. These considerations lead to a general description of the phase behavior, which forms the basis for a rational approach to solubilization and reconstitution experiments.

Vesicle reconstitution from lipid-detergent mixed micelles

The process of formation of lipid vesicles using the technique of detergent removal from mixed-micelles is examined. Recent studies on the solubilization and reconstitution of liposomes participated to our knowledge of the structure and properties of mixed lipid-detergent systems. The mechanisms involved in both the lipid self assembly and the micelle-vesicle transition are first reviewed. The simplistic three step minimum scheme is described and criticized in relation with isothermal as well as a function of the [det]/[lip] ratio, phase diagram explorations. The techniques of detergent elimination are reviewed and criticized for advantages and disadvantages. New methods inducing micelle-vesicle transition using enzymatic reaction and T-jump are also described and compared to more classical ones. Future developments of these techniques and improvements resulting of their combinations are also considered. Proper reconstitution of membrane constituents such as proteins and drugs into liposomes are examined in the light of our actual understanding of the micelle-vesicle transition.

Interaction of membrane proteins and lipids with solubilizing detergents

Detergents are indispensable in the isolation of integral membrane proteins from biological membranes to study their intrinsic structural and functional properties. Solubilization involves a number of intermediary states that can be studied by a variety of physicochemical and kinetic methods; it usually starts by destabilization of the lipid component of the membranes, a process that is accompanied by a transition of detergent binding by the membrane from a noncooperative to a cooperative interaction already below the critical micellar concentration (CMC). This leads to the formation of membrane fragments of proteins and lipids with detergent-shielded edges. In the final stage of solubilization membrane proteins are present as protomers, with the membrane inserted sectors covered by detergent. We consider in detail the nature of this interaction and conclude that in general binding as a monolayer ring, rather than as a micelle, is the most probable mechanism. This mode of interaction is supported by neutron diffraction investigations on the disposition of detergent in 3-D crystals of membrane proteins. Finally, we briefly discuss the use of techniques such as analytical ultracentrifugation, size exclusion chromatography, and mass spectrometry relevant for the structural investigation of detergent solubilized membrane proteins.

Protective effect caused by the exopolymer excreted by Pseudoalteromonas antarctica NF(3) on liposomes against the action of octyl glucoside

The capacity of the glycoprotein (GP) excreted by Pseudoalteromonas antarctica NF(3), to protect phosphatidylcholine (PC) liposomes against the action of octyl glucoside (OG) was studied in detail. Increasing amounts of GP assembled with liposomes resulted for the same interaction step in a linear increase in the effective surfactant to PC molar ratios (Re) and in a linear fall in the surfactant partitioning between bilayer and the aqueous phase (partition coefficients K). Thus, the higher the proportion of GP assembled with liposomes the lower the surfactant ability to alter the permeability of vesicles and the lower its affinity with these bilayer structures. In addition, increasing GP proportions resulted in a progressive increase of the free surfactant concentration (S(W)) needed to produce the same alterations in liposomes. The fact that S(W) was always lower than the surfactant critical micelle concentration indicates that the interaction was mainly ruled by the action of surfactant monomers, regardless of the amount of assembled GP.

Correlation of membrane/water partition coefficients of detergents with the critical micelle concentration

The membrane/water partition coefficients, K, of 15 electrically neutral (non-charged or zwitterionic) detergents were measured with phospholipid vesicles by using isothermal titration calorimetry, and were compared to the corresponding critical micellar concentrations, cmc. The detergents measured were oligo(ethylene oxide) alkyl ethers (C(m)EO(n) with m = 10/n = 3, 7 and m = 12/n = 3.8); alkylglucosides (octyl, decyl); alkylmaltosides (octyl, decyl, dodecyl); diheptanoylphosphatidylcholine; Tritons (X-100, X-114) and CHAPS. A linear relation between the free energies of partitioning into the membrane and micelle formation was found such that K. CMC approximately 1. The identity K. CMC = 1 was used to classify detergents with respect to their membrane disruption potency. "Strong" detergents are characterized by K. CMC < 1 and solubilize lipid membranes at detergent-to-lipid ratios X(b) < 1 (alkylmaltosides, tritons, heptaethylene glycol alkyl ethers). "Weak" detergents are characterized by K. CMC > 1 and accumulate in the membrane- to detergent-to-lipid ratios X(b) > 1 before the bilayer disintegrates (alkylglucosides, pentaethylene glycol dodecyl ether).

Biopolymer excreted by pseudoalteromonas antarctica NF(3), as a coating and protective agent of liposomes against dodecyl maltoside

The ability of an exopolymer of glycoproteic character (GP) excreted by a new gram-negative species Pseudoalteromonas antarctica NF(3), to coat phosphatidylcholine (PC) liposomes and to protect these bilayers against the action of the nonionic surfactant dodecyl maltoside was investigated. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) micrographs of freeze fractured liposome/GP aggregates reveal that the addition of the glycoprotein to liposomes led to the formation of a film (polymer adsorbed onto the bilayers) that tightly coated PC bilayers. The complete coating was already achieved at a PC : GP weight ratio of about 9:1. Image analysis profiles of digitalized TEM micrographs (PC : GP weight ratio 8:2) show that this film was formed by a multilayer structure. The periods of the average distance of the pattern ordering in layer structures (9-10 layers) were of about 2-3 nm and the thickness of the complete film was of about 25 nm. Higher amounts of glycoprotein resulted in a growth of this film, which exhibited at the highest proportion of this compound (50% in weight) a multifilm structure. An increasing resistance of liposomes to be affected by dodecyl maltoside both at subsolubilizing and solubilizing levels occurred as the proportion of the glycoprotein in the system rose, although this protective effect was more effective at low proportions of this compound (PC : GP weight ratios from 9:1 to 8:2). Thus, although a direct dependence was found between the growth of the enveloping structure and the resistance of the coated liposomes to be affected by the surfactant, the more effective protection occurred when this structure was a thin film formed by the assembly of various layers of GP of about 2-3 nm. Copyright 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.