Facilitation by arachidonic acid of acetylcholine release from the rat hippocampus

Serum unsaturated phosphatidylcholines predict longitudinal basal forebrain degeneration in Alzheimer's disease

Basal forebrain cholinergic neurons are among the first cell types affected by Alzheimer's disease pathology, but the cause of their early vulnerability is unknown. The lipid phosphatidylcholine is an essential component of the cell membrane, and phosphatidylcholine levels have been shown to be abnormal in the blood and brain of Alzheimer's disease patients. We hypothesized that disease-related changes in phosphatidylcholine metabolism may disproportionately affect basal forebrain cholinergic neurons due to their extremely large size, plasticity in adulthood and unique reliance on phosphatidylcholine for acetylcholine synthesis. To test this hypothesis, we examined whether serum phosphatidylcholine levels predicted longitudinal basal forebrain degeneration in Alzheimer's disease. All data were collected by the Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative. Participants were divided into a normal CSF group (controls; n = 77) and an abnormal CSF group (preclinical and clinical Alzheimer's disease; n = 236) based on their CSF ratios of phosphorylated tau and amyloid beta at baseline. Groups were age-matched (t = 0.89, P > 0.1). Serum lipidomics data collected at baseline were clustered by chemical similarity, and enrichment analyses were used to determine whether serum levels of any lipid clusters differed between the normal and abnormal CSF groups. In a subset of patients with longitudinal structural MRI (normal CSF n = 62, abnormal CSF n = 161), two timepoints of MRI data were used to calculate grey matter annual percent change for each participant. Multivariate partial least squares analyses tested for relationships between neuroimaging and lipidomics data which are moderated by CSF pathology. Our clustering analyses produced 23 serum lipid clusters. Of these clusters, six were altered in the abnormal CSF group, including a cluster of unsaturated phosphatidylcholines. In the subset of participants with longitudinal structural MRI data, a priori nucleus basalis of Meynert partial least squares analyses detected a relationship between unsaturated phosphatidylcholines and degeneration in the nucleus basalis which is moderated by Alzheimer's disease CSF pathology (P = 0.0008). Whole-brain grey matter partial least squares analyses of all 23 lipid clusters revealed that only unsaturated phosphatidylcholines and unsaturated acylcarnitines exhibited an Alzheimer's disease-dependent relationship with longitudinal degeneration (P = 0.0022 and P = 0.0018, respectively). Only the unsaturated phosphatidylcholines predicted basal forebrain degeneration in the whole-brain analyses. Overall, this study provides in vivo evidence for a selective relationship between phosphatidylcholine and basal forebrain degeneration in human Alzheimer's disease, highlighting the importance of phosphatidylcholine to basal forebrain grey matter integrity.

Specific Phospholipid Modulation by Muscarinic Signaling in a Rat Lesion Model of Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) represents the most common cause of dementia worldwide and has been consistently associated with the loss of basal forebrain cholinergic neurons (BFCNs) leading to impaired cholinergic neurotransmission, aberrant synaptic function, and altered structural lipid metabolism. In this sense, membrane phospholipids (PLs) can be used for de novo synthesis of choline (Ch) for the further obtaining of acetylcholine (ACh) when its availability is compromised. Specific lipid species involved in the metabolism of Ch have been identified as possible biomarkers of phenoconversion to AD. Using a rat model of BFCN lesion, we have evaluated the lipid composition and muscarinic signaling in brain areas related to cognitive processes. The loss of BFCN resulted in alterations of varied lipid species related to Ch metabolism at nucleus basalis magnocellularis (NMB) and cortical projection areas. The activity of muscarinic receptors (mAChR) was decreased in the NMB and increased in the hippocampus according to the subcellular distribution of M₁/M₂ mAChR which could explain the learning and memory impairment reported in this AD rat model. These results suggest that the modulation of specific lipid metabolic routes could represent an alternative therapeutic strategy to potentiate cholinergic neurotransmission and preserve cell membrane integrity in AD.

Arachidonic Acid Metabolites in Neurologic Disorders

BACKGROUND & OBJECTIVE

Arachidonic acid (ARA) is essential for the fluidity, selective permeability, and flexibility of the cell membrane. It is an important factor for the function of all cells, particularly in the nervous system, immune system, and vascular endothelium. ARA, after docosahexaenoic acid, is the second most common polyunsaturated fatty acid in the phospholipids of the nerve cell membrane. ARA metabolites have many kinds of physiologic roles. The major action of ARA metabolites is the promotion of the acute inflammatory response, mediated by the production of pro-inflammatory mediators such as PGE2 and PGI2, followed by the formation of lipid mediators, which have pro-resolving effects. Another important action of ARA derivatives, especially COX, is the regulation of vascular reactivity through PGs and TXA2. There is significant involvement of ARA metabolites in neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and neuropsychiatric disorders. ARA derivatives also make an important contribution to acute stroke, global ischemia, subarachnoid hemorrhage, and anticoagulation- related hemorrhagic transformation.

CONCLUSION

In this review, we discuss experimental and human study results of neurologic disorders related to ARA and its metabolites in line with treatment options.

Dietary arachidonic acid increases deleterious effects of amyloid-β oligomers on learning abilities and expression of AMPA receptors: putative role of the ACSL4-cPLA2 balance

Background

Polyunsaturated fatty acids play a crucial role in neuronal function, and the modification of these compounds in the brain could have an impact on neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease. Despite the fact that arachidonic acid is the second foremost polyunsaturated fatty acid besides docosahexaenoic acid, its role and the regulation of its transfer and mobilization in the brain are poorly known.

Methods

Two groups of 39 adult male BALB/c mice were fed with an arachidonic acid-enriched diet or an oleic acid-enriched diet, respectively, for 12 weeks. After 10 weeks on the diet, mice received intracerebroventricular injections of either NaCl solution or amyloid-β peptide (Aβ) oligomers. Y-maze and Morris water maze tests were used to evaluate short- and long-term memory. At 12 weeks on the diet, mice were killed, and blood, liver, and brain samples were collected for lipid and protein analyses.

Results

We found that the administration of an arachidonic acid-enriched diet for 12 weeks induced short-term memory impairment and increased deleterious effects of Aβ oligomers on learning abilities. These cognitive alterations were associated with modifications of expression of α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptors, postsynaptic density protein 95, and glial fibrillary acidic protein in mouse cortex or hippocampus by the arachidonic acid-enriched diet and Aβ oligomer administration. This diet also led to an imbalance between the main ω-6 fatty acids and the ω-3 fatty acids in favor of the first one in erythrocytes and the liver as well as in the hippocampal and cortical brain structures. In the cortex, the dietary arachidonic acid also induced an increase of arachidonic acid-containing phospholipid species in phosphatidylserine class, whereas intracerebroventricular injections modified several arachidonic acid- and docosahexaenoic acid-containing species in the four phospholipid classes. Finally, we observed that dietary arachidonic acid decreased the expression of the neuronal form of acyl-coenzyme A synthetase 4 in the hippocampus and increased the cytosolic phospholipase A₂ activation level in the cortices of the mice.

Conclusions

Dietary arachidonic acid could amplify Aβ oligomer neurotoxicity. Its consumption could constitute a risk factor for Alzheimer’s disease in humans and should be taken into account in future preventive strategies. Its deleterious effect on cognitive capacity could be linked to the balance between arachidonic acid-mobilizing enzymes.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13195-017-0295-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Plasma Phospholipid and Sphingolipid Alterations in Presenilin1 Mutation Carriers: A Pilot Study

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Aberrant lipid metabolism has been implicated in sporadic Alzheimer's disease (AD). The current study investigated plasma phospholipid and sphingolipid profiles in individuals carrying PSEN1 mutations responsible for autosomal dominant AD (ADAD).

METHODS

Study participants evaluated were from the Perth and Melbourne sites of the Dominantly Inherited Alzheimer Network (DIAN) study. Plasma phospholipid and sphingolipid profiles were measured using liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry in 20 PSEN1 mutation carriers (MC; eight of whom were symptomatic and twelve asymptomatic, based on Clinical Dementia Rating scores) and compared with six non carriers (NC) using linear mixed models. Further, AD gold standard biomarker data obtained from the DIAN database were correlated with lipid species significantly altered between MC and NC, using Spearman's correlation coefficient.

RESULTS

One-hundred and thirty-nine plasma phospholipid and sphingolipid species were measured. Significantly altered species in MC compared to NC primarily belonged to choline and ethanolamine containing phospholipid classes and ceramides. Further phosphatidylcholine species (34:6, 36:5, 40:6) correlated with cerebrospinal fluid tau (p <  0.05), and plasmalogen ethanolamine species (34:2, 36:,4) correlated with both cerebrospinal fluid tau and brain amyloid load within the MC group (p <  0.05).

CONCLUSION

These findings indicate altered phospholipid and sphingolipid metabolism in ADAD and provide insight into the pathomolecular changes occurring with ADAD pathogenesis. Further, findings reported in this study allow comparison of lipid alterations in ADAD with those reported previously in sporadic AD. The findings observed in the current pilot study warrant validation in the larger DIAN cohort.

Phospholipase A₂-Generated Lipid Mediators in the Brain: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly

Phospholipase A2 (PLA2) generates arachidonic acid, docosahexaenoic acid, and lysophospholipids from neural membrane phospholipids. These metabolites have a variety of physiological effects by themselves and also are substrates for the synthesis of more potent lipid mediators such as eicosanoids, platelet activating factor, and 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE). At low concentrations, these mediators act as second messengers. They affect and modulate several cell functions, including signal transduction, gene expression, and cell proliferation, but at high concentrations, these lipid mediators cause neurotoxicity. Among the metabolites generated by PLA2, 4-HNE is the most cytotoxic metabolite and is associated with the apoptotic type of neural cell death. Levels of 4-HNE are markedly increased in neurological disorders such as Alzheimer disease, Parkinson disease, ischemia, spinal cord trauma, and head injury. The purpose of this review is to summarize and integrate the vast literature on metabolites generated by PLA2 for a wider audience. The authors hope that this discussion will jump-start more studies not only on the involvement of PLA2 in neurological disorders but also on the importance of PLA2-generated lipid mediators in physiological and pathological processes.

Molecular and behavioral characterization of adolescent protein kinase C following high dose ethanol exposure

RATIONALE

Ethanol is commonly used and abused during adolescence. Although adolescents display differential behavioral responses to ethanol, the mechanisms by which this occurs are not known. The protein kinase C (PKC) pathway has been implicated in mediating many ethanol-related effects in adults, as well as gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA(A)) receptor regulation.

OBJECTIVES

The present study was designed to characterize cortical PKC isoform and GABA(A) receptor subunit expression during adolescence relative to adults as well as assess PKC involvement in ethanol action.

RESULTS

Novel PKC isoforms were elevated, while PKCγ was lower during mid-adolescence relative to adults. Whole-cell lysate and synaptosomal preparations correlated for all isoforms except PKCδ. In parallel, synaptosomal GABAA receptor subunit expression was also developmentally regulated, with GABA(A)R δ and α4 being lower while α1 and γ2 were higher or similar, respectively, in adolescents compared to adults. Following acute ethanol exposure, synaptosomal novel and atypical PKC isoform expression was decreased only in adolescents. Behaviorally, inhibiting PKC with calphostin C, significantly increased ethanol-induced loss of righting reflex (LORR) in adolescents but not adults, whereas activating PKC with phorbol dibutyrate was ineffective in adolescents but decreased LORR duration in adults. Further investigation revealed that inhibiting the cytosolic phospholipase A2/arachidonic acid (cPLA2/AA) pathway increased LORR duration in adolescents, but was ineffective in adults.

CONCLUSIONS

These data indicate that PKC isoforms are variably regulated during adolescence and may contribute to adolescent ethanol-related behavior. Furthermore, age-related differences in the cPLA2/AA pathway may contribute to ethanol's age-related effects on novel and atypical PKC isoform expression and behavior.

Polyunsaturated fatty acids and their metabolites in the pathobiology of schizophrenia

Schizophrenia can be considered as a low-grade systemic inflammatory disease with its origins in the perinatal period. It is likely that genetic, environmental, and nutritional factors interact to induce excess production of pro-inflammatory cytokines that, in turn, damage fetal neurons leading to the adult onset of schizophrenia. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and their metabolites such as lipoxins, resolvins, protectins, maresins and nitrolipids not only have potent neuroprotective action but also are capable of inhibiting the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Decreased formation of PUFAs as a result of low activity of Δ(6) and Δ(5) desaturases can result in an increase in the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines due to the absence of negative control exerted by PUFAs and their anti-inflammatory metabolites that, in turn, may predispose to neuronal damage and development of schizophrenia in adult life. Furthermore, PUFAs are essential for brain growth and development. If this proposal is correct, this implies that perinatal and adult supplementation of PUFAs not only prevents but also helps in the treatment of schizophrenia. Furthermore, synthetic analogs of lipoxins, resolvins, and protectins may be of significant benefit in schizophrenia.

Fetal cardiac autonomic control during breathing and non-breathing epochs: the effect of maternal exercise

We explored whether maternal exercise during pregnancy moderates the effect of fetal breathing movements on fetal cardiac autonomic control assessed by metrics of heart rate (HR) and heart rate variability (HRV). Thirty women were assigned to Exercise or Control group (n=15/group) based on the modifiable physical activity questionnaire (MPAQ). Magnetocardiograms (MCG) were recorded using a dedicated fetal biomagnetometer. Periods of fetal breathing activity and apnea were identified using the fetal diaphragmatic magnetomyogram (dMMG) as a marker. MCG R-waves were marked. Metrics of fetal HR and HRV were compared using 1 breathing and 1 apneic epoch/fetus. The main effects of group (Exercise vs. Control) and condition (Apnea vs. Breathing) and their interactions were explored. Fetal breathing resulted in significantly lower fetal HR and higher vagally-mediated HRV. Maternal exercise resulted in significantly lower fetal HR, higher total HRV and vagally-mediated HRV with no difference in frequency band ratios. Significant interactions between maternal exercise and fetal breathing were found for metrics summarizing total HRV and a parasympathetic metric. Post hoc comparison showed no group difference during fetal apnea. Fetal breathing was associated with a loss of Total HRV in the Control group and no difference in the Exercise group. Both groups show enhanced vagal function during fetal breathing; greater in the Exercise group. During in utero breathing movements, the fetus of the exercising mother has enhanced cardiac autonomic function that may give the offspring an adaptive advantage.

Can vagus nerve stimulation halt or ameliorate rheumatoid arthritis and lupus?

Acetylcholine, the principal vagus neurotransmitter, inhibits inflammation by suppressing the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines through a mechanism dependent on the α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunit (alpha7nAChR) that explains why vagus nerve stimulation is anti-inflammatory in nature. Strong expression of alpha7nAChR in the synovium of rheumatoid arthritis and psoriatic arthritis patients was detected. Peripheral macrophages and synovial fibroblasts respond in vitro to specific alpha7nAChR cholinergic stimulation with potent inhibition of proinflammatory cytokines. Fibroblasts balance inflammatory mechanisms and arthritis development through feedback cholinergic stimulation by nearby immune cells. Collagen induced arthritis in alpha7nAChR^(-/-) mice was significantly severe and showed increased synovial inflammation and joint destruction compared to the wild-type mice. Similar to vagal nerve stimulation and alpha7nAChR agonists, polyunsaturated fatty acids: eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) also suppress inflammation. In view of their similar anti-inflammatory actions, it is proposed that vagal nerve stimulation, alpha7nAChR agonists and EPA and DHA may augment the formation of anti-inflammatory lipid molecules: lipoxins, resolvins, protectins and maresins. This implies that therapies directed at regulation of the cholinergic and alpha7nAChR mediated mechanisms and enhancing the formation of lipoxins, resolvins, protectins and maresins may halt and/or ameliorate rheumatoid arthritis, lupus and other rheumatological conditions.

Lipidomics era: accomplishments and challenges

Lipid mediators participate in signal transduction pathways, proliferation, apoptosis, and membrane trafficking in the cell. Lipids are highly complex and diverse owing to the various combinations of polar headgroups, fatty acyl chains, and backbone structures. This structural diversity continues to pose a challenge for lipid analysis. Here we review the current state of the art in lipidomics research and discuss the challenges facing this field. The latest technological developments in mass spectrometry, the role of bioinformatics, and the applications of lipidomics in lipid metabolism and cellular physiology and pathology are also discussed.

Alpha-synuclein sequesters arachidonic acid to modulate SNARE-mediated exocytosis

Alpha-synuclein is a synaptic modulatory protein implicated in the pathogenesis of Parkinson disease. The precise functions of this small cytosolic protein are still under investigation. alpha-Synuclein has been proposed to regulate soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor (SNARE) proteins involved in vesicle fusion. Interestingly, alpha-synuclein fails to interact with SNARE proteins in conventional protein-binding assays, thus suggesting an indirect mode of action. As the structural and functional properties of both alpha-synuclein and the SNARE proteins can be modified by arachidonic acid, a common lipid regulator, we analysed this possible tripartite link in detail. Here, we show that the ability of arachidonic acid to stimulate SNARE complex formation and exocytosis can be controlled by alpha-synuclein, both in vitro and in vivo. Alpha-synuclein sequesters arachidonic acid and thereby blocks the activation of SNAREs. Our data provide mechanistic insights into the action of alpha-synuclein in the modulation of neurotransmission.

Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids improve cholinergic transmission in the aged brain

The cholinergic theory of aging states that dysfunction of cholinergic neurons arising from the basal forebrain and terminating in the cortex and hippocampus may be involved in the cognitive decline that occurs during aging and Alzheimer's disease. Despite years of research, pharmacological interventions to treat or forestall the development of Alzheimer's disease have primarily focused on enhancing cholinergic transmission, either through increasing acetylcholine (ACh) synthesis or inhibition of the acetylcholinesterase enzyme responsible for ACh hydrolysis. However, recent studies have indicated that dietary supplementation can impact the cholinergic system, particularly during aging. The purpose of the present review is to examine the relevant research suggesting that cholinergic functioning may be maintained during aging via consuming a diet containing polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). The data reviewed herein indicate that, at least in animal studies, inclusion of PUFAs in the diet can improve cholinergic transmission in the brain, possibly leading to improvements in cognitive functioning.

Essential fatty acids and their metabolites could function as endogenous HMG-CoA reductase and ACE enzyme inhibitors, anti-arrhythmic, anti-hypertensive, anti-atherosclerotic, anti-inflammatory, cytoprotective, and cardioprotective molecules

Lowering plasma low density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C), blood pressure, homocysteine, and preventing platelet aggregation using a combination of a statin, three blood pressure lowering drugs such as a thiazide, a beta blocker, and an angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor each at half standard dose; folic acid; and aspirin-called as polypill- was estimated to reduce cardiovascular events by approximately 80%. Essential fatty acids (EFAs) and their long-chain metabolites: gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), dihomo-GLA (DGLA), arachidonic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and other products such as prostaglandins E1 (PGE1), prostacyclin (PGI2), PGI3, lipoxins (LXs), resolvins, protectins including neuroprotectin D1 (NPD1) prevent platelet aggregation, lower blood pressure, have anti-arrhythmic action, reduce LDL-C, ameliorate the adverse actions of homocysteine, show anti-inflammatory actions, activate telomerase, and have cytoprotective properties. Thus, EFAs and their metabolites show all the classic actions expected of the "polypill". Unlike the proposed "polypill", EFAs are endogenous molecules present in almost all tissues, have no significant or few side effects, can be taken orally for long periods of time even by pregnant women, lactating mothers, and infants, children, and adults; and have been known to reduce the incidence cardiovascular diseases including stroke. In addition, various EFAs and their long-chain metabolites not only enhance nitric oxide generation but also react with nitric oxide to yield their respective nitroalkene derivatives that produce vascular relaxation, inhibit neutrophil degranulation and superoxide formation, inhibit platelet activation, and possess PPAR-gamma ligand activity and release NO, thus prevent platelet aggregation, thrombus formation, atherosclerosis, and cardiovascular diseases. Based on these evidences, I propose that a rational combination of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids and the co-factors that are necessary for their appropriate action/metabolism is as beneficial as that of the combined use of a statin, thiazide, a beta blocker, and an angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor, folic acid, and aspirin. Furthermore, appropriate combination of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids may even show additional benefits in the form of protection from depression, schizophrenia, Alzheimer's disease, and enhances cognitive function; and serve as endogenous anti-inflammatory molecules; and could be administered from childhood for life long.

Cholinergic and glutamatergic alterations beginning at the early stages of Alzheimer disease: participation of the phospholipase A2 enzyme

RATIONALE

Alzheimer disease (AD), a progressive neurodegenerative disorder, is the leading cause of dementia in the elderly. A combination of cholinergic and glutamatergic dysfunction appears to underlie the symptomatology of AD, and thus, treatment strategies should address impairments in both systems. Evidence suggests the involvement of phospholipase A(2) (PLA(2)) enzyme in memory impairment and neurodegeneration in AD via actions on both cholinergic and glutamatergic systems.

OBJECTIVES

To review cholinergic and glutamatergic alterations underlying cognitive impairment and neuropathology in AD and attempt to link PLA(2) with such alterations.

METHODS

Medline databases were searched (no date restrictions) for published articles with links among the terms Alzheimer disease (mild, moderate, severe), mild cognitive impairment, choline acetyltransferase, acetylcholinesterase, NGF, NGF receptor, muscarinic receptor, nicotinic receptor, NMDA, AMPA, metabotropic glutamate receptor, atrophy, glucose metabolism, phospholipid metabolism, sphingolipid, membrane fluidity, phospholipase A(2), arachidonic acid, attention, memory, long-term potentiation, beta-amyloid, tau, inflammation, and reactive species. Reference lists of the identified articles were checked to identify additional studies of interest.

RESULTS

Overall, results suggest the hypothesis that persistent inhibition of cPLA(2) and iPLA(2) isoforms at early stages of AD may play a central role in memory deficits and beta-amyloid production through down-regulation of cholinergic and glutamate receptors. As the disease progresses, beta-amyloid induced up-regulation of cPLA(2) and sPLA(2) isoforms may play critical roles in inflammation and oxidative stress, thus participating in the neurodegenerative process.

CONCLUSION

Activation and inhibition of specific PLA(2) isoforms at different stages of AD could be of therapeutic importance and delay cognitive dysfunction and neurodegeneration.

Antiinflammatory and neuroprotective actions of COX2 inhibitors in the injured brain

Overexpression of COX2 appears to be both a marker and an effector of neural damage after a variety of acquired brain injuries, and in natural or pathological aging of the brain. COX2 inhibitors may be neuroprotective in the brain by reducing prostanoid and free radical synthesis, or by directing arachidonic acid down alternate metabolic pathways. The arachidonic acid shunting hypothesis proposes that COX2 inhibitors' neuroprotective effects may be mediated by increased formation of potentially beneficial eicosanoids. Under conditions where COX2 activity is inhibited, arachidonic acid accumulates or is converted to eicosanoids via lipoxygenases and cytochrome P450 (CYP) epoxygenases. Several P450 eicosanoids have been demonstrated to have beneficial effects in the brain and/or periphery. We suspect that arachidonic acid shunting may be as important to functional recovery after brain injuries as altered prostanoid formation per se. Thus, COX2 inhibition and arachidonic acid shunting have therapeutic implications beyond the suppression of prostaglandin synthesis and free radical formation.

Folic acid and polyunsaturated fatty acids improve cognitive function and prevent depression, dementia, and Alzheimer's disease--but how and why?

Low blood folate and raised homocysteine concentrations are associated with poor cognitive function. Folic acid supplementation improves cognitive function. Folic acid enhances the plasma concentrations of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA). EPA, DHA, and arachidonic acid (AA) are of benefit in dementia and Alzheimer's disease by up-regulating gene expression concerned with neurogenesis, neurotransmission and connectivity, improving endothelial nitric oxide (eNO) generation, enhancing brain acetylcholine levels, and suppressing the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. EPA, DHA, and AA also form precursors to anti-inflammatory compounds such as lipoxins, resolvins, and neuroprotectin D1 (NPD1) that protect neurons from the cytotoxic action of various noxious stimuli. Furthermore, various neurotrophins and statins enhance the formation of NPD1 and thus, protect neurons from oxidative stress and prevent neuronal apoptosis Folic acid improves eNO generation, enhances plasma levels of EPA/DHA and thus, could augment the formation of NPD1. These results suggest that a combination of EPA, DHA, AA and folic acid could be of significant benefit in dementia, depression, and Alzheimer's disease and improve cognitive function.

Interactions between neural membrane glycerophospholipid and sphingolipid mediators: A recipe for neural cell survival or suicide

The neural membranes contain phospholipids, sphingolipids, cholesterol, and proteins. Glycerophospholipids and sphingolipids are precursors for lipid mediators involved in signal transduction processes. Degradation of glycerophospholipids by phospholipase A(2) (PLA(2)) generates arachidonic acid (AA) and docosahexaenoic acids (DHA). Arachidonic acid is metabolized to eicosanoids and DHA is metabolized to docosanoids. The catabolism of glycosphingolipids generates ceramide, ceramide 1-phosphate, sphingosine, and sphingosine 1-phosphate. These metabolites modulate PLA(2) activity. Arachidonic acid, a product derived from glycerophospholipid catabolism by PLA(2), modulates sphingomyelinase (SMase), the enzyme that generates ceramide and phosphocholine. Furthermore, sphingosine 1-phosphate modulates cyclooxygenase, an enzyme responsible for eicosanoid production in brain. This suggests that an interplay and cross talk occurs between lipid mediators of glycerophospholipid and glycosphingolipid metabolism in brain tissue. This interplay between metabolites of glycerophospholipid and sphingolipid metabolism may play an important role in initiation and maintenance of oxidative stress associated with neurologic disorders as well as in neural cell proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. Recent studies indicate that PLA(2) and SMase inhibitors can be used as neuroprotective and anti-apoptotic agents. Development of novel inhibitors of PLA(2) and SMase may be useful for the treatment of oxidative stress, and apoptosis associated with neurologic disorders such as stroke, Alzheimer disease, Parkinson disease, and head and spinal cord injuries.

Phospholipases and fatty acid signalling in exocytosis

Vesicle fusion is a ubiquitous biological process involved in general membrane trafficking and a variety of specialized events, for example release of neurotransmitters and hormones, sperm acrosome exocytosis, plasma membrane repair and neurite outgrowth. Many vesicle fusion events have long been known to be activated by phospholipases and products of their activity, such as polyunsaturated arachidonic acid. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) have been proposed to have a number of multiple effectors, including ion channels and the cytoskeleton, but the precise mechanism of PUFA action is still unclear. It was recently reported that omega-3 and omega-6 PUFAs can act on syntaxin, a plasma membrane protein directly involved in vesicle fusion. In this review, we will discuss the role of this new mode of PUFA action in exocytosis.

Is metabolic syndrome X a disorder of the brain with the initiation of low-grade systemic inflammatory events during the perinatal period?

An imbalance between pro- and anti-inflammatory molecules occurs in metabolic syndrome X. High-energy diet, saturated fats and trans-fats during perinatal period could suppress Delta(6) and Delta(5) desaturases both in the maternal and fetal tissues, resulting in a decrease in the concentrations of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFAs): arachidonic acid (AA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) that have a negative feedback control on inflammation. EPA, DHA and AA augment endothelial nitric oxide synthesis, potentiate insulin action both in the peripheral tissues and brain and alter leptin production. LCPUFAs are essential for brain growth and development and synaptogenesis and modulate the action of several neurotransmitters and hypothalamic peptides. This suggests that metabolic syndrome X could be a disorder of the brain due to suboptimal LCPUFAs during perinatal period that triggers low-grade systemic inflammation, implying that perinatal strategies are needed to prevent its development.

Mechanotransduction of stretch-induced prostanoid release by fetal lung epithelial cells

Mechanical ventilation is the primary supportive treatment for infants and adults suffering from severe respiratory failure. Adverse mechanical ventilation (overdistension of the lung) triggers a proinflammatory response. Along with cytokines, inflammatory mediators such as bioactive lipids are involved in the regulation of the inflammatory response. The arachidonic acid pathway is a key source of bioactive lipid mediators, including prostanoids. Although ventilation has been shown to influence the production of prostanoids in the lung, the mechanotransduction pathways are unknown. Herein, we established that cyclic stretch of fetal lung epithelial cells, but not fibroblasts, can evoke an extremely sensitive, rapid alteration in eicosanoid metabolism through a cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 dependent mechanism. Cyclic stretch significantly increased PGI(2), PGF(2alpha), PGD(2), PGE(2), and thromboxane B(2) levels in the media of epithelial cells, but did not alter leukotriene B(4) or 12-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid levels. Inhibition of COX-2, but not COX-1, attenuated the cyclic stretch-induced PG increase in the media, suggesting that cyclic stretch primarily affected PG synthesis. Substrate (free arachidonic acid) availability for PG generation was increased because of a cyclic stretch-induced activation of cytosolic phospholipase A(2) (cPLA(2)) via an influx of extracellular calcium and phosphorylation by mitogen-activated protein kinase, p44/42MAPK. The data are compatible with cPLA(2) and COX-2 being intimately involved in regulating the injury response to adverse mechanical ventilation.

A high n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid diet reduces muscarinic M2/M4 receptor binding in the rat brain

The aim of this study was to examine the influence of different fat diets on muscarinic acetylcholine receptor binding. Nineteen male Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into four groups and fed a diet of either high saturated fat, n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), n-3 PUFA or low fat (control) for 8 weeks. Using quantitative autoradiography, [(3)H]pirenzepine binding to muscarinic M1/M4 receptors and [(3)H]AF-DX384 binding to M2/M4 receptors were measured throughout the brain in all four groups. The main findings were that compared to the low fat control group, M2/M4 receptor binding was significantly reduced in the dorsolateral, dorsomedial and ventromedial parts of the caudate putamen (61-64%, p < 0.05), anterior cingulate cortex (59%, p < 0.01), dentate gyrus and CA1-3 fields of the hippocampus (32-43%, p < 0.01) of rats on a high n-6 PUFA diet; however, no differences in M1/M4 receptor binding densities between the four groups were observed. These results suggest that a diet high in n-6 PUFA, but not of n-3 PUFAs or saturated fat, may selectively alter M2/M4 receptor-mediated signal transduction in the rat brain.

Rac and protein kinase C-delta regulate ERKs and cytosolic phospholipase A2 in FcepsilonRI signaling to cysteinyl leukotriene synthesis in mast cells

Although cysteinyl leukotrienes (cysLTs) are known to be principal inflammatory lipid mediators released from IgE-stimulated mast cells, the signaling mechanisms involved in the synthesis of cysLTs remain largely unknown. In the present study, therefore, we investigated the signaling pathway by which IgE induces cysLTs synthesis after binding to its high affinity receptor (FcepsilonRI) in RBL-2H3 mast cells. We found that IgE-induced cysLT synthesis is completely abolished in RBL-2H3(Rac-N17) cells, a stable cell line expressing Rac(N17), a dominant negative Rac1 mutant; conversely, synthesis was enhanced in cells expressing Rac(V12), a constitutively active Rac1 mutant, suggesting that Rac1 is a key mediator of IgE signaling to cysLT synthesis. Further analysis aimed at identifying mediators downstream of Rac1 revealed that pretreating cells with a protein kinase C-delta (PKC-delta) inhibitor or infection with an adenoviral vector harboring a dominant negative PKC-delta mutant significantly attenuates IgE-induced ERKs phosphorylation, cytosolic phospholipase A(2) phosphorylation/translocation, and cysLT synthesis. In addition, the expression of Rac(N17) blocked PKC-delta translocation and impaired the phosphorylation of ERKs and cytosolic phospholipase A(2) otherwise elicited by IgE stimulation. Taken together these results suggest that PKC-delta also plays a critical mediatory role in the IgE signaling pathway leading to cysLT synthesis, acting downstream of Rac1. Finally, the physiological significance of PKC-delta in the IgE signaling pathway was demonstrated in an Ag (OVA)-challenged in vivo mouse model, in which induced levels of cysLTs and airway responsiveness in lung airways were significantly diminished by prior i.p. injection of a PKC-delta inhibitor.

Effect of a diet-induced n-3 PUFA depletion on cholinergic parameters in the rat hippocampus

Because brain membranes contain large amounts of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n-3), and as (n-3) PUFA dietary deficiency can lead to impaired attention, learning, and memory performance in rodents, we have examined the influence of an (n-3) PUFA-deprived diet on the central cholinergic neurotransmission system. We have focused on several cholinergic neurochemical parameters in the frontal cortex and hippocampus of rats fed an (n-3) PUFA-deficient diet, compared with rats fed a control diet. The (n-3) PUFA deficiency resulted in changes in the membrane phospholipid compositions of both brain regions, with a dramatic loss (62-77%) of DHA. However, the cholinergic pathway was only modified in the hippocampus and not in the frontal cortex. The basal acetylcholine (ACh) release in the hippocampus of deficient rats was significantly (72%) higher than in controls, whereas the KCl-induced release was lower (34%). The (n-3) PUFA deprivation also caused a 10% reduction in muscarinic receptor binding. In contrast, acetylcholinesterase activity and the vesicular ACh transporter in both brain regions were unchanged. Thus, we evidenced that an (n-3) PUFA-deficient diet can affect cholinergic neurotransmission, probably via changes in the phospholipid PUFA composition.

DHA-enriched phospholipid diets modulate age-related alterations in rat hippocampus

Our previous work on rat hippocampus showed that a loss of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) occurs in the fatty acid composition of phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), plasmenylethanolamine (PmE) and phosphatidylserine (PS) with increasing age. The present study investigated whether a DHA-enriched phospholipid dietary supplement could restore DHA levels and cholinergic activity. Male rats were fed a balanced diet containing both linoleic and alpha-linolenic acids until the age of 2, 18 and 21 months. From 18 to 21 months, one subgroup received a diet supplemented with DHA-enriched phospholipids from egg yolk (E-PL), and another a diet with DHA-enriched phospholipids from pig brain (B-PL). Compared to the control diet, the E-PL diet restored the proportion of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs: 22:6n-3 and 20:4n-6) in PE and PmE, while enhancing spontaneous and evoked-acetylcholine (Ach) release. The B-PL diet had no effect on PUFAs, but increased basal extracellular levels of Ach in 21-month-old rats as compared to the age-matched control. Our results show that supplementation with DHA-enriched egg PL can enhance Ach release and correct PUFA composition.

Melittin exerts multiple effects on the release of free fatty acids from L1210 cells: lack of selective activation of phospholipase A2 by melittin

Melittin is known as a phospholipase A2 (PLA2) activator, but the selectivity of its effect on PLA2 is uncertain. We examined the selectivity of melittin effect on the release of free fatty acids (FFAs) from L1210 cells using various inhibitors. A systemic lipid analysis by HPLC and GLC revealed that melittin induced release of various FFAs including saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated FFAs. Various PLA2 inhibitors examined exerted only minimal effects on the melittin-induced arachidonic acid (AA) and palmitic acid (PAL) releases. Specific inhibitors of phosphatidylinositol-phospholipase C (U73122) and diacylglycerol lipase (RHC80267) exerted significant inhibitory effects on both AA and PAL releases. These results suggest that melittin-induced FFA release is most likely due to multiple participations of various types of lipases. Since BAPTA/AM, an intracellular Ca2+ chelator, did not influence the FFA release, the Ca2+ influxed by melittin appeared not to be a key factor for the FFA release. The mimicking of the melittin-induced FFA release by digitonin, a membrane-permeabilizing agent, implies that the membrane-perturbing action of melittin is likely the cause of the FFA release. Melittin also induced release of multiple FFAs from other cell lines including P388D1 and HL60. The rapid melittin-stimulated phospholipase D (PLD) observed in L1210 cells appeared not directly related to the steady release of FFA, as indicated by the fact that the PLD was not blocked by RHC80267. In view of melittin's multiple effects on the composition of cellular lipids, we conclude that melittin does neither exclusively release any single FFA nor selectively activate PLA2 in L1210 cells. The problem of using melittin as a PLA2 activator is discussed.

Adenosine as a neuromodulator and as a homeostatic regulator in the nervous system: different roles, different sources and different receptors

Adenosine exerts two parallel modulatory roles in the CNS, acting as a homeostatic modulator and also as a neuromodulator at the synaptic level. We will present evidence to suggest that these two different modulatory roles are fulfilled by extracellular adenosine originated from different metabolic sources, and involve receptors with different sub-cellular localisation. It is widely accepted that adenosine is an inhibitory modulator in the CNS, a notion that stems from the preponderant role of inhibitory adenosine A(1) receptors in defining the homeostatic modulatory role of adenosine. However, we will review recent data that suggests that the synaptically localised neuromodulatory role of adenosine depend on a balanced activation of inhibitory A(1) receptors and mostly facilitatory A(2A) receptors. This balanced activation of A(1) and A(2A) adenosine receptors depends not only on the transient levels of extracellular adenosine, but also on the direct interaction between A(1) and A(2A) receptors, which control each other's action.

Modification by arachidonic acid of extracellular adenosine metabolism and neuromodulatory action in the rat hippocampus

Adenosine and arachidonate (AA) fulfil opposite modulatory roles, arachidonate facilitating and adenosine inhibiting cellular responses. To understand if there is an inter-play between these two neuromodulatory systems, we investigated the effect of AA on extracellular adenosine metabolism in hippocampal nerve terminals. AA (30 microm) facilitated by 67% adenosine evoked release and by 45% ATP evoked release. These effects were not significantly modified upon blockade of lipooxygenase or cyclooxygenase and were attenuated (52-61%) by the protein kinase C inhibitor, chelerythrine (6 microm). The ecto-5'-nucleotidase inhibitor, alpha,beta-methylene ADP (100 microm), caused a larger inhibition (54%) of adenosine release in the presence of AA (30 microm) compared with control (37% inhibition) indicating that the AA-induced extracellular adenosine accumulation is mostly originated from an increased release and extracellular catabolism of ATP. This AA-induced extracellular adenosine accumulation is further potentiated by an AA-induced decrease (48%) of adenosine transporters capacity. AA (30 microm) increased by 36-42% the tonic inhibition by endogenous extracellular adenosine of adenosine A(1) receptors in the modulation of acetylcholine release and of CA1 hippocampal synaptic transmission in hippocampal slices. These results indicate that AA increases tonic adenosine modulation as a possible feedback loop to limit AA facilitation of neuronal excitability.

Roles of NMDA receptor activity and nitric oxide production in brain development

The concept that neural activity is important for brain maturation has focused much research interest on the developmental role of the NMDA receptor, a key mediator of experience-dependent synaptic plasticity. However, a mechanism able to link spatial and temporal parameters of synaptic activity during development emerged as a necessary condition to explain how axons segregate into a common brain region and make specific synapses on neuronal sub-populations. To comply with this developmental constraint, it was proposed that nitric oxide (NO), or other substances having similar chemical and biological characteristics, could act as short-lived, activity-dependent spatial signals, able to stabilize active synapses by diffusing through a local volume of tissue. The present article addresses this issue, by reviewing the experimental evidence for a correlated role of the activity of the NMDA receptor and the production of NO in key steps of neural development. Evidence for such a functional coupling emerges not only concerning synaptogenesis and formation of neural maps, for which it was originally proposed, but also for some earlier phases of neurogenesis, such as neural cell proliferation and migration. Regarding synaptogenesis and neural map formation in some cases, there is so far no conclusive experimental evidence for a coupled functional role of NMDA receptor activation and NO production. Some technical problems related to the use of inhibitors of NO formation and of gene knockout animals are discussed. It is also suggested that other substances, known to act as spatial signals in adult synaptic plasticity, could have a role in developmental plasticity. Concerning the crucial developmental phase of neuronal survival or elimination through programmed cell death, the well-documented survival role related to NMDA receptor activation also starts to find evidence for a concomitant requirement of downstream NO production. On the basis of the reviewed literature, some of the major controversial issues are addressed and, in some cases, suggestions for possible future experiments are proposed.

Facilitation of GABA release by arachidonic acid in rat hippocampal synaptosomes

Arachidonic acid (AA) is proposed to be a facilitatory retrograde messenger in hippocampal glutamatergic synapses. In this study, we found that AA (10 microM) increased the basal outflow (19 +/- 4%) and the K+-evoked release of [3H]GABA (38 +/- 3%) from rat hippocampal synaptosomes. This effect is likely to be a direct action of AA, as it was not mimicked by arachidic acid (10 microM) and was not modified by inhibition of either lipooxygenase with nordihydroguaiaretic acid (50 microM) or cyclooxygenase with indomethacin (100 microM). Activation of protein kinase C may be involved, as chelerythrine (6 microM), a protein kinase C inhibitor, attenuated the AA (10 microM)-facilitation of K+-evoked [3H]GABA release by 58 +/- 5%. Phospholipase A2 (2 U/mL), an enzyme that releases AA, and melittin (1 microM), a phospholipase A2 activator, mimicked the AA-facilitation of evoked [3H]GABA release (70 +/- 6% and 76 +/- 7% facilitation, respectively). These results show that exogenously added and endogenously produced AA increased basal outflow and K+-evoked release of [3H]GABA from rat hippocampal synaptosomes. Thus, AA can no longer be considered solely a facilitatory neuromodulator in the hippocampus, as this AA-facilitation of the release of the main inhibitory neurotransmitter may predominate under certain circumstances.