Cholinesterase inhibitors for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease:: getting on and staying on

Emerging pharmacological approaches for Huntington's disease

Huntington's disease (HD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by cognitive, motor, and psychiatric symptoms. Despite significant advances in understanding the underlying molecular mechanisms of HD, there is currently no cure or disease-modifying treatment available. Emerging pharmacological approaches offer promising strategies to alleviate symptoms and slow down disease progression. This comprehensive review aims to provide a critical appraisal of the latest developments in pharmacological interventions for HD. The review begins by discussing the pathogenesis of HD, focusing on the role of mutant huntingtin protein, mitochondrial dysfunction, excitotoxicity, and neuro-inflammation. It then explores emerging therapeutic targets, including the modulation of protein homeostasis, mitochondrial function, neuro-inflammation, and neurotransmitter systems. Pharmacological agents targeting these pathways are discussed, including small molecules, gene-based therapies, and neuroprotective agents. In recent years, several clinical trials have been conducted to evaluate the safety and efficiency of novel compounds for HD. This review presents an update on the outcomes of these trials, highlighting promising results and challenges encountered. Additionally, it discusses the potential of repurposing existing drugs approved for other indications as a cost-effective approach for HD treatment. The review concludes by summarizing the current state of pharmacological approaches for HD and outlining future directions in drug development. The integration of multiple therapeutic strategies, personalized medicine approaches, and combination therapies are highlighted as potential avenues to maximize treatment effectiveness.

Design of Multi-Target drugs of HDACs and other Anti-Alzheimer related Targets: Current strategies and future prospects in Alzheimer's diseases therapy

Alzheimer disease (AD) is the most prevalent form of dementia that develops spontaneously in the elderly. It's worth mentioning that as people age, the epigenetic profile of the central nervous system cells changes, which may speed up the development of various neurodegenerative disorders including AD. Histone deacetylases (HDACs) are a class of epigenetic enzymes that can control gene expression without altering the gene sequence. Moreover, a promising strategy for multi-target hybrid design was proposed to potentially improve drug efficacy and reduce side effects. These hybrids are monocular drugs that contain various pharmacophore components and have the ability to bind to different targets at the same time. The HDACs ability to synergistically boost the performance of other anti-AD drugs, as well as the ease with which HDACs inhibitor cap group, can be modified. This has prompted numerous medicinal chemists to design a novel generation of HDACs multi-target inhibitors. Different HDACs inhibitors and other ones such as acetylcholinesterase, butyryl-cholinesterase, phosphodiesterase 9, phosphodiesterase 5 or glycogen synthase kinase 3β inhibitors were merged into hybrids for treatment of AD. This review goes over the scientific rationale for targeting HDACs along with several other crucial targets in AD therapy. This review presents the latest hybrids of HDACs and other AD target pharmacophores.

Role of Cytoskeletal Elements in Regulation of Synaptic Functions: Implications Toward Alzheimer's Disease and Phytochemicals-Based Interventions

Alzheimer's disease (AD), a multifactorial disease, is characterized by the accumulation of neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) and amyloid beta (Aβ) plaques. AD is triggered via several factors like alteration in cytoskeletal proteins, a mutation in presenilin 1 (PSEN1), presenilin 2 (PSEN2), amyloid precursor protein (APP), and post-translational modifications (PTMs) in the cytoskeletal elements. Owing to the major structural and functional role of cytoskeletal elements, like the organization of axon initial segmentation, dendritic spines, synaptic regulation, and delivery of cargo at the synapse; modulation of these elements plays an important role in AD pathogenesis; like Tau is a microtubule-associated protein that stabilizes the microtubules, and it also causes inhibition of nucleo-cytoplasmic transportation by disrupting the integrity of nuclear pore complex. One of the major cytoskeletal elements, actin and its dynamics, regulate the dendritic spine structure and functions; impairments have been documented towards learning and memory defects. The second major constituent of these cytoskeletal elements, microtubules, are necessary for the delivery of the cargo, like ion channels and receptors at the synaptic membranes, whereas actin-binding protein, i.e., Cofilin's activation form rod-like structures, is involved in the formation of paired helical filaments (PHFs) observed in AD. Also, the glial cells rely on their cytoskeleton to maintain synaptic functionality. Thus, making cytoskeletal elements and their regulation in synaptic structure and function as an important aspect to be focused for better management and targeting AD pathology. This review advocates exploring phytochemicals and Ayurvedic plant extracts against AD by elucidating their neuroprotective mechanisms involving cytoskeletal modulation and enhancing synaptic plasticity. However, challenges include their limited bioavailability due to the poor solubility and the limited potential to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB), emphasizing the need for targeted strategies to improve therapeutic efficacy.

Profiling aducanumab as a treatment option for alzheimer's disease: an overview of efficacy, safety and tolerability

INTRODUCTION

Alzheimer's disease is the most common form of dementia worldwide. Aducanumab, a monoclonal antibody targeting amyloid-beta, became the first disease-modifying treatment for mild cognitive impairment due to Alzheimer's disease (AD) and mild AD dementia and suggested that removing amyloid from the brain, especially in early AD, might make a difference in slowing cognitive decline.

AREAS COVERED

In this review, the authors outline aducanumab's clinical efficacy as shown through key clinical trials and discuss its approval by the Food and Drug Administration under the accelerated pathway, which sparked both hope and controversy. We also discuss the importance of amyloid-related imaging abnormalities as a major side effect of aducanumab and all subsequent monoclonal antibodies targeting amyloid-beta.

EXPERT OPINION

Aducanumab, became the first monoclonal antibody that provided at least partial support for the amyloid hypothesis by demonstrating slowed cognitive decline by removing amyloid from the brain, although full FDA approval now seems unlikely due to discontinuation of its development. Its introduction raised awareness of ARIA, highlighted the significant costs and need for informed consent in treatment, and emphasized the importance of long-term, diverse, and combination therapy data for future AD treatments targeting amyloid and tau.

Pathogenesis, diagnostics, and therapeutics for Alzheimer's disease: Breaking the memory barrier

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common cause of dementia and accounts for 60-70 % of all cases. It affects millions of people worldwide. AD poses a substantial economic burden on societies and healthcare systems. AD is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by cognitive decline, memory loss, and impaired daily functioning. As the prevalence of AD continues to increase, understanding its pathogenesis, improving diagnostic methods, and developing effective therapeutics have become paramount. This comprehensive review delves into the intricate mechanisms underlying AD, explores the current state of diagnostic techniques, and examines emerging therapeutic strategies. By revealing the complexities of AD, this review aims to contribute to the growing body of knowledge surrounding this devastating disease.

Alzheimer's disease: a review on the current trends of the effective diagnosis and therapeutics

The most prevalent cause of dementia is Alzheimer's disease. Cognitive decline and accelerating memory loss characterize it. Alzheimer's disease advances sequentially, starting with preclinical stages, followed by mild cognitive and/or behavioral impairment, and ultimately leading to Alzheimer's disease dementia. In recent years, healthcare providers have been advised to make an earlier diagnosis of Alzheimer's, prior to individuals developing Alzheimer's disease dementia. Regrettably, the identification of early-stage Alzheimer's disease in clinical settings can be arduous due to the tendency of patients and healthcare providers to disregard symptoms as typical signs of aging. Therefore, accurate and prompt diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease is essential in order to facilitate the development of disease-modifying and secondary preventive therapies prior to the onset of symptoms. There has been a notable shift in the goal of the diagnosis process, transitioning from merely confirming the presence of symptomatic AD to recognizing the illness in its early, asymptomatic phases. Understanding the evolution of disease-modifying therapies and putting effective diagnostic and therapeutic management into practice requires an understanding of this concept. The outcomes of this study will enhance in-depth knowledge of the current status of Alzheimer's disease's diagnosis and treatment, justifying the necessity for the quest for potential novel biomarkers that can contribute to determining the stage of the disease, particularly in its earliest stages. Interestingly, latest clinical trial status on pharmacological agents, the nonpharmacological treatments such as behavior modification, exercise, and cognitive training as well as alternative approach on phytochemicals as neuroprotective agents have been covered in detailed.

Design, Synthesis, and Biological Evaluation of Ferulic Acid-Piperazine Derivatives Targeting Pathological Hallmarks of Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most prevalent cause of dementia and is characterized by low levels of acetyl and butyrylcholine, increased oxidative stress, inflammation, accumulation of metals, and aggregations of Aβ and tau proteins. Current treatments for AD provide only symptomatic relief without impacting the pathological hallmarks of the disease. In our ongoing efforts to develop naturally inspired novel multitarget molecules for AD, through extensive medicinal chemistry efforts, we have developed 13a, harboring the key functional groups to provide not only symptomatic relief but also targeting oxidative stress, able to chelate iron, inhibiting NLRP3, and Aβ1-42 aggregation in various AD models. 13a exhibited promising anticholinesterase activity against AChE (IC50 = 0.59 ± 0.19 μM) and BChE (IC50 = 5.02 ± 0.14 μM) with excellent antioxidant properties in DPPH assay (IC50 = 5.88 ± 0.21 μM) over ferulic acid (56.49 ± 0.62 μM). The molecular docking and dynamic simulations further corroborated the enzyme inhibition studies and confirmed the stability of these complexes. Importantly, in the PAMPA-BBB assay, 13a turned out to be a promising molecule that can efficiently cross the blood-brain barrier. Notably, 13a also exhibited iron-chelating properties. Furthermore, 13a effectively inhibited self- and metal-induced Aβ1-42 aggregation. It is worth mentioning that 13a demonstrated no symptom of cytotoxicity up to 30 μM concentration in PC-12 cells. Additionally, 13a inhibited the NLRP3 inflammasome and mitigated mitochondrial-induced reactive oxygen species and mitochondrial membrane potential damage triggered by LPS and ATP in HMC-3 cells. 13a could effectively reduce mitochondrial and cellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the Drosophila model of AD. Finally, 13a was found to be efficacious in reversing memory impairment in a scopolamine-induced AD mouse model in the in vivo studies. In ex vivo assessments, 13a notably modulates the levels of superoxide, catalase, and malondialdehyde along with AChE and BChE. These findings revealed that 13a holds promise as a potential candidate for further development in AD management.

Proactive M2 blockade prevents cognitive decline in GRK5-deficient APP transgenic mice via enhancing cholinergic neuronal resilience

Alzheimer's disease (AD) poses an immense challenge in healthcare, lacking effective therapies. This study investigates the potential of anthranilamide derivative (AAD23), a selective M2 receptor antagonist, in proactively preventing cognitive impairments and cholinergic neuronal degeneration in G protein-coupled receptor kinase-5-deficient Swedish APP (GAP) mice. GAP mice manifest cognitive deficits by 7 months and develop senile plaques by 9 months. A 6-month AAD23 treatment was initiated at 5 months and stopped at 11 months before behavioral assessments without the treatment. AAD23-treated mice exhibited preserved cognitive abilities and improved cholinergic axonal health in the nucleus basalis of Meynert akin to wildtype mice. Conversely, vehicle-treated GAP mice displayed memory deficits and pronounced cholinergic axonal swellings in the nucleus basalis of Meynert. Notably, AAD23 treatment did not alter senile plaques and microgliosis. These findings highlight AAD23's efficacy in forestalling AD-related cognitive decline in G protein-coupled receptor kinase-5-deficient subjects, attributing its success to restoring cholinergic neuronal integrity and resilience, enhancing resistance against diverse degenerative insults.

The impact of chelating compounds on Cu2+, Fe2+/3+, and Zn2+ ions in Alzheimer's disease treatment

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the accumulation of amyloid - β extracellular plaques and tau interfibrillar tangles, leading to memory loss, cognitive decline, and behavioral changes. With dementia posing a growing global health concern, there is an urgent need for comprehensive strategies to address its challenges. The economic burden of dementia is projected to rise significantly, emphasizing the necessity for collaborative efforts in research and healthcare. In the United States alone, millions are affected by AD, with prevalence increasing with age and even affecting younger individuals. The complexity of AD involves intricate biological processes, including the aggregation of amyloid beta, oxidative stress, and metal ion dysregulation. Metal ions, particularly those from copper, iron, and zinc, play pivotal roles in AD pathology, influencing Aβ deposition and tau protein accumulation. Current treatments offer symptomatic relief but do not address the underlying disease mechanisms. This paper explores the potential of various chelating compounds to target metal ions involved in AD pathology. N-acylhydrazones, morpholine, chrysin, quinoline, oxindole, cyclam, catechol-based, and quinazolinone-based derivatives show promising chelation activity and therapeutic effects. Metal chelation therapy offers a targeted approach to AD treatment by addressing the core pathology. By selectively binding to metal ions implicated in disease progression, chelators may minimize side effects associated with broad-spectrum treatments. Additionally, chelators may offer neuroprotective effects beyond metal binding, further enhancing their therapeutic potential. Overall, metal chelation therapy presents a promising strategy in combating AD, with the potential to significantly impact disease progression and improve patient outcomes.

Development of Delivery Systems with Prebiotic and Neuroprotective Potential of Industrial-Grade Cannabis sativa L

This study delves into the transformative effects of supercritical carbon dioxide (scCO2) cannabis extracts and prebiotic substances (dextran, inulin, trehalose) on gut bacteria, coupled with a focus on neuroprotection. Extracts derived from the Białobrzeska variety of Cannabis sativa, utilising supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), resulted in notable cannabinoid concentrations (cannabidiol (CBD): 6.675 ± 0.166; tetrahydrocannabinol (THC): 0.180 ± 0.006; cannabigerol (CBG): 0.434 ± 0.014; cannabichromene (CBC): 0.490 ± 0.017; cannabinol (CBN): 1.696 ± 0.047 mg/gD). The assessment encompassed antioxidant activity via four in vitro assays and neuroprotective effects against acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE). The extract boasting the highest cannabinoid content exhibited remarkable antioxidant potential and significant inhibitory activity against both enzymes. Further investigation into prebiotic deliveries revealed their proficiency in fostering the growth of beneficial gut bacteria while maintaining antioxidant and neuroprotective functionalities. This study sheds light on the active compounds present in the Białobrzeska variety, showcasing their therapeutic potential within prebiotic systems. Notably, the antioxidant, neuroprotective, and prebiotic properties observed underscore the promising therapeutic applications of these extracts. The results offer valuable insights for potential interventions in antioxidant, neuroprotective, and prebiotic domains. In addition, subsequent analyses of cannabinoid concentrations post-cultivation revealed nuanced changes, emphasising the need for further exploration into the dynamic interactions between cannabinoids and the gut microbiota.

An Expanded Narrative Review of Neurotransmitters on Alzheimer's Disease: The Role of Therapeutic Interventions on Neurotransmission

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease. The accumulation of amyloid-β (Aβ) plaques and tau neurofibrillary tangles are the key players responsible for the pathogenesis of the disease. The accumulation of Aβ plaques and tau affect the balance in chemical neurotransmitters in the brain. Thus, the current review examined the role of neurotransmitters in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease and discusses the alterations in the neurochemical activity and cross talk with their receptors and transporters. In the presence of Aβ plaques and neurofibrillary tangles, changes may occur in the expression of neuronal receptors which in turn triggers excessive release of glutamate into the synaptic cleft contributing to cell death and neuronal damage. The GABAergic system may also be affected by AD pathology in a similar way. In addition, decreased receptors in the cholinergic system and dysfunction in the dopamine neurotransmission of AD pathology may also contribute to the damage to cognitive function. Moreover, the presence of deficiencies in noradrenergic neurons within the locus coeruleus in AD suggests that noradrenergic stimulation could be useful in addressing its pathophysiology. The regulation of melatonin, known for its effectiveness in enhancing cognitive function and preventing Aβ accumulation, along with the involvement of the serotonergic system and histaminergic system in cognition and memory, becomes remarkable for promoting neurotransmission in AD. Additionally, nitric oxide and adenosine-based therapeutic approaches play a protective role in AD by preventing neuroinflammation. Overall, neurotransmitter-based therapeutic strategies emerge as pivotal for addressing neurotransmitter homeostasis and neurotransmission in the context of AD. This review discussed the potential for neurotransmitter-based drugs to be effective in slowing and correcting the neurodegenerative processes in AD by targeting the neurochemical imbalance in the brain. Therefore, neurotransmitter-based drugs could serve as a future therapeutic strategy to tackle AD.

Effect of acetylcholinesterase inhibition on immune cells in the murine intestinal mucosa

The gastrointestinal tract (GI) is the largest immune organ whose function is controlled by a complex network of neurons from the enteric nervous system (ENS) as well as the sympathetic and parasympathetic system. Evolving evidence indicates that cross-communication between gut-innervating neurons and immune cells regulates many essential physiological functions including protection against mucosal infections. We previously demonstrated that following paraoxon treatment, 70 % of the mice were able to survive an oral infection with S. typhimurium, a virulent strain of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium. The present study aims to investigate the effect that rivastigmine, a reversible AChE inhibitor used for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, has on the murine immune defenses of the intestinal mucosa. Our findings show that, similar to what is observed with paraoxon, administration of rivastigmine promoted the release of secretory granules from goblet and Paneth cells, resulting in increased mucin layer. Surprisingly, however, and unlike paraoxon, rivastigmine treatment did not affect overall mortality of infected mice. In order to investigate the mechanistic basis for the differential effects observed between paraoxon and rivastigmine, we used multi-color flowcytometric analysis to characterize the immune cell landscape in the intraepithelial (IE) and lamina propria (LP) compartments of intestinal mucosa. Our data indicate that treatment with paraoxon, but not rivastigmine, led to an increase of resident CD3+CD8+ T lymphocytes in the ileal mucosa (epithelium and lamina propria) and CD11b- CD11c+ dendritic cells in the LP. Our findings indicate the requirement for persistent cholinergic pathway engagement to effect a change in the cellular landscape of the mucosal tissue that is necessary for protection against lethal bacterial infections. Moreover, optimal protection requires a collaboration between innate and adaptive mucosal immune responses in the intestine.

Innovative approaches to Alzheimer's therapy: Harnessing the power of heterocycles, oxidative stress management, and nanomaterial drug delivery system

Alzheimer's disease (AD) presents a complex pathology involving amyloidogenic proteolysis, neuroinflammation, mitochondrial dysfunction, and cholinergic deficits. Oxidative stress exacerbates AD progression through pathways like macromolecular peroxidation, mitochondrial dysfunction, and metal ion redox potential alteration linked to amyloid-beta (Aβ). Despite limited approved medications, heterocyclic compounds have emerged as promising candidates in AD drug discovery. This review highlights recent advancements in synthetic heterocyclic compounds targeting oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and neuroinflammation in AD. Additionally, it explores the potential of nanomaterial-based drug delivery systems to overcome challenges in AD treatment. Nanoparticles with heterocyclic scaffolds, like polysorbate 80-coated PLGA and Resveratrol-loaded nano-selenium, show improved brain transport and efficacy. Micellar CAPE and Melatonin-loaded nano-capsules exhibit enhanced antioxidant properties, while a tetra hydroacridine derivative (CHDA) combined with nano-radiogold particles demonstrates promising acetylcholinesterase inhibition without toxicity. This comprehensive review underscores the potential of nanotechnology-driven drug delivery for optimizing the therapeutic outcomes of novel synthetic heterocyclic compounds in AD management. Furthermore, the inclusion of various promising heterocyclic compounds with detailed ADMET (Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, Excretion, and Toxicity) data provides valuable insights for planning the development of novel drug delivery treatments for AD.

Translation from Preclinical Research to Clinical Trials: Transdermal Drug Delivery for Neurodegenerative and Mental Disorders

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDs), particularly dementia, provide significant problems to worldwide healthcare systems. The development of therapeutic materials for various diseases has a severe challenge in the form of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Transdermal treatment has recently garnered widespread favor as an alternative method of delivering active chemicals to the brain. This approach has several advantages, including low invasiveness, self-administration, avoidance of first-pass metabolism, preservation of steady plasma concentrations, regulated release, safety, efficacy, and better patient compliance. Topics include the transdermal method for therapeutic NDs, their classification, and the mechanisms that allow the medicine to enter the bloodstream through the skin. The paper also discusses the obstacles and potential outcomes of transdermal therapy, emphasizing the benefits and drawbacks of different approaches.

Natural Bioactive Compounds from Macroalgae and Microalgae for the Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease: A Review

Neuroinflammation, toxic protein aggregation, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial dysfunction are key pathways in neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's disease (AD). Targeting these mechanisms with antioxidants, anti-inflammatory compounds, and inhibitors of Aβ formation and aggregation is crucial for treatment. Marine algae are rich sources of bioactive compounds, including carbohydrates, phenolics, fatty acids, phycobiliproteins, carotenoids, fatty acids, and vitamins. In recent years, they have attracted interest from the pharmaceutical and nutraceutical industries due to their exceptional biological activities, which include anti-inflammation, antioxidant, anticancer, and anti-apoptosis properties. Multiple lines of evidence have unveiled the potential neuroprotective effects of these multifunctional algal compounds for application in treating and managing AD. This article will provide insight into the molecular mechanisms underlying the neuroprotective effects of bioactive compounds derived from algae based on in vitro and in vivo models of neuroinflammation and AD. We will also discuss their potential as disease-modifying and symptomatic treatment strategies for AD.

Blood-based therapies to combat neurodegenerative diseases

Neurodegeneration, known as the progressive loss of neurons in terms of their structure and function, is the principal pathophysiological change found in the majority of brain-related disorders. Ageing has been considered the most well-established risk factor in most common neurodegenerative diseases, such as Parkinson's disease (PD) and Alzheimer's disease (AD). There is currently no effective treatment or cure for these diseases; the approved therapeutic options to date are only for palliative care. Ageing and neurodegenerative diseases are closely intertwined; reversing the aspects of brain ageing could theoretically mitigate age-related neurodegeneration. Ever since the regenerative properties of young blood on aged tissues came to light, substantial efforts have been focused on identifying and characterizing the circulating factors in the young and old systemic milieu that may attenuate or accentuate brain ageing and neurodegeneration. Later studies discovered the superiority of old plasma dilution in tissue rejuvenation, which is achieved through a molecular reset of the systemic proteome. These findings supported the use of therapeutic blood exchange for the treatment of degenerative diseases in older individuals. The first objective of this article is to explore the rejuvenating properties of blood-based therapies in the ageing brains and their therapeutic effects on AD. Then, we also look into the clinical applications, various limitations, and challenges associated with blood-based therapies for AD patients.

Network pharmacology-based approach to elucidate the pharmacologic mechanisms of natural compounds from Dictyostelium discoideum for Alzheimer's disease treatment

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is increasingly becoming a major public health concern in our society. While many studies have explored the use of natural polyketides, alkaloids, and other chemical components in AD treatment, there is an urgent need to clarify the concept of multi-target treatment for AD. This study focuses on using network pharmacology approach to elucidate how secondary metabolites from Dictyostelium discoideum affect AD through multi-target or indirect mechanisms. The secondary metabolites produced by D. discoideum during their development were obtained from literature sources and PubChem. Disease targets were selected using GeneCards, DisGeNET, and CTD databases, while compound-based targets were identified through Swiss target prediction and Venn diagrams were used to find intersections between these targets. A network depicting the interplay among disease, drugs, active ingredients, and key target proteins (PPI network) was formed utilizing the STRING (Protein-Protein Interaction Networks Functional Enrichment Analysis) database. To anticipate the function and mechanism of the screened compounds, GO and KEGG enrichment analyses were conducted and visually presented using graphs and bubble charts. After the screening phase, the top interacting targets in the PPI network and the compound with the most active target were chosen for subsequent molecular docking and molecular dynamic simulation studies. This study identified nearly 50 potential targeting genes for each of the screened compounds and revealed multiple signaling pathways. Among these pathways, the inflammatory pathway stood out. COX-2, a receptor associated with neuroinflammation, showed differential expression in various stages of AD, particularly in pyramidal neurons during the early stages of the disease. This increase in COX-2 expression is likely induce by higher levels of IL-1, which is associated with neuritic plaques and microglial cells in AD. Molecular docking investigations demonstrated a strong binding interaction between the terpene compound PQA-11 and the neuroinflammatory receptor COX2, with a substantial binding affinity of -8.4 kcal/mol. Subsequently, a thorough analysis of the docked complex (COX2-PQA11) through Molecular Dynamics Simulation showed lower RMSD, minimal RMSF fluctuations, and a reduced total energy of -291.35 kJ/mol compared to the standard drug. These findings suggest that the therapeutic effect of PQA-11 operates through the inflammatory pathway, laying the groundwork for further in-depth research into the role of secondary metabolites in AD treatment.

Experimental and pharmacoinformatic approaches unveil the neuropharmacological and analgesic potential of chloroform fraction of Roktoshirinchi (Achyranthes ferruginea Roxb.)

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Achyranthes ferruginea (A. ferruginea) Roxb. is a common plant used in traditional medicine in Asia and Africa. It has a variety of local names, including "Gulmanci" in Nigeria, "Dangar" in Pakistan, "Thola" in Ethiopia, and "Roktoshirinchi" in Bangladesh. It is edible and has several ethnomedical uses for a wide range of illnesses, including hysteria, dropsy, constipation, piles, boils, asthma, and shigellosis. However, the neuropharmacological and analgesic potential of A. ferruginea remains uninvestigated.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To assess the neuropharmacological and analgesic potential of A. ferruginea through a multifaceted approach encompassing both experimental and computational models.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Methanol was used to extract the leaves of A. ferruginea. It was then fractionated with low to high polar solvents (n-hexane, chloroform, ethyl acetate, and water) to get different fractions, including chloroform fraction (CLF). The study selected CLF at different doses and conducted advanced chemical element and proximate analyses, as well as phytochemical profiling using GC-MS. Toxicological studies were done at 300 μg per rat per day for 14 days. Cholinesterase inhibitory potential was checked using an in-vitro colorimetric assay. Acetic acid-induced writhing (AAWT) and formalin-induced licking tests (FILT) were used to assess anti-nociceptive effects. The forced swim test (FST), tail suspension test (TST), elevated plus maze (EPM), hole board test (HBT), and light and dark box test (LDB) were among the behavioral tests used to assess depression and anxiolytic activity. Network pharmacology-based analysis was performed on selected compounds using the search tool for interacting chemicals-5 (STITCH 5), Swiss target prediction tool, and search tool for the retrieval of interacting genes and proteins (STRING) database to link their role with genes involved in neurological disorders through gene ontology and reactome analysis.

RESULTS

Qualitative chemical element analysis revealed the presence of 15 elements, including Na, K, Ca, Mg, P, and Zn. The moisture content, ash value, and organic matter were found to be 11.12, 11.03, and 88.97%, respectively. GC-MS data revealed that the CLF possesses 25 phytoconstituents. Toxicological studies suggested the CLF has no effects on normal growth, hematological and biochemical parameters, or cellular organs after 14 days at 300 μg per rat. The CLF markedly reduced the activity of both acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase (IC50: 56.22 and 13.22 μg/mL, respectively). Promising dose-dependent analgesic activity (p < 0.05) was observed in chemically-induced pain models. The TST and FST showed a dose-dependent substantial reduction in immobility time due to the CLF. Treatment with CLF notably increased the number of open arm entries and time spent in the EPM test at doses of 200 and 400 mg/kg b.w. The CLF showed significant anxiolytic activity at 200 mg/kg b.w. in the HBT test, whereas a similar activity was observed at 400 mg/kg b.w. in the EPM test. A notable increase in the amount of time spent in the light compartment was observed in the LDB test by mice treated with CLF, suggesting an anxiolytic effect. A network pharmacology study demonstrated the relationship between the phytochemicals and a number of targets, such as PPARA, PPARG, CHRM1, and HTR2, which are connected to the shown bioactivities.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrated the safety of A. ferruginea and its efficacy in attenuating cholinesterase inhibitory activity, central and peripheral pain, anxiety, and depression, warranting further exploration of its therapeutic potential.

Design, Synthesis, and Biological Evaluation of Ferulic Acid Template-Based Novel Multifunctional Ligands Targeting NLRP3 Inflammasome for the Management of Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common cause of dementia, which arises due to low levels of acetyl and butyrylcholines, an increase in oxidative stress, inflammation, metal dyshomeostasis, Aβ and tau aggregations. The currently available drugs for AD treatment can provide only symptomatic relief without interfering with pathological hallmarks of the disease. In our ongoing efforts to develop naturally inspired novel multifunctional molecules for AD, systematic SAR studies on EJMC-4e were caried out to improve its multifunctional properties. The rigorous medicinal efforts led to the development of 12o, which displayed a 15-fold enhancement in antioxidant properties and a 2-fold increase in the activity against AChE and BChE over EJMC-4e. Molecular docking and dynamics studies revealed the binding sites and stability of the complex of 12o with AChE and BChE. The PAMPA-BBB assay clearly demonstrated that 12o can easily cross the blood-brain barrier. Interestingly, 12o also expresses promising metal chelation activity, while EJMC-4e was found to be devoid of this property. Further, 12o inhibited metal-induced or self Aβ1-42 aggregation. Observing the neuroprotection ability of 12o against H2O2-induced oxidative stress in the PC-12 cell line is noteworthy. Furthermore, 12o also inhibited NLRP3 inflammasome activation and attenuated mitochondrial-induced ROS and MMP damage caused by LPS and ATP in HMC-3 cells. In addition, 12o is able to effectively reduce mitochondrial and cellular oxidative stress in the AD Drosophila model. Finally, 12o could reverse memory impairment in the scopolamine-induced AD mice model, as evident through in vivo and ex vivo studies. These findings suggest that this compound may act as a promising candidate for further improvement in the management of AD.

Alzheimer's Disease: A Review of Pathology, Current Treatments, and the Potential Therapeutic Effect of Decreasing Oxidative Stress by Combined Vitamin D and l-Cysteine Supplementation

Significance: Excess oxidative stress and neuroinflammation are risk factors in the onset and progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and its association with amyloid-β plaque accumulation. Oxidative stress impairs acetylcholine (ACH) and N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor signaling in brain areas that function in memory and learning. Glutathione (GSH) antioxidant depletion positively correlates with the cognitive decline in AD subjects. Treatments that upregulate GSH and ACH levels, which simultaneously decrease oxidative stress and inflammation, may be beneficial for AD. Recent Advances: Some clinical trials have shown a benefit of monotherapy with vitamin D (VD), whose deficiency is linked to AD or with l-cysteine (LC), a precursor of GSH biosynthesis, in reducing mild cognitive impairment. Animal studies have shown a simultaneous decrease in ACH esterase (AChE) and increase in GSH; combined supplementation with VD and LC results in a greater decrease in oxidative stress and inflammation, and increase in GSH levels compared with monotherapy with VD or LC. Therefore, cosupplementation with VD and LC has the potential of increasing GSH, downregulation of oxidative stress, and decreased inflammation and AChE levels. Future Directions: Clinical trials are needed to determine whether safe low-cost dietary supplements, using combined VD+LC, have the potential to alleviate elevated AChE, oxidative stress, and inflammation levels, thereby halting the onset of AD. Goal of Review: The goal of this review is to highlight the pathological hallmarks and current Food and Drug Administration-approved treatments for AD, and discuss the potential therapeutic effect that cosupplementation with VD+LC could manifest by increasing GSH levels in patients. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 40, 663-678.

Metal free cross-dehydrogenative N-N coupling of primary amides with Lewis basic amines

Hydrazides, N-N containing structural motifs, are important due to their presence in a wide variety of biologically significant compounds. While the homo N-N coupling of two NH moieties to form the hydrazide N-N bond is well developed, the cross-dehydrogenative hetero N-N coupling remains very unevolved. Here we present an efficient intermolecular N-N cross-coupling of a series of primary benzamides with broad range of Lewis basic primary and secondary amines using PhI(OAc)2 as both a terminal oxidant and a cross-coupling mediator, without the need for metal catalysts, high temperatures, and inert atmospheres, and with substantial potential for use in the late-stage functionalization of drugs.

In vitro biological studies and computational prediction-based analyses of pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyrimidine derivatives

There is a need for new pharmaceutical discoveries from bioactive nitrogenous derivatives due to the emergence of scourges, numerous pandemics, and diverse health problems. In this context, pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyrimidine derivatives 12a and 12b were synthesized and screened to evaluate their biological potentials in vitro as antioxidants, anti-diabetics, anti-Alzheimer's, anti-arthritics, and anti-cancer agents. Additionally, the computational pharmacokinetic and toxicity properties of the two pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyrimidines 12a and 12b were calculated and analyzed. The preliminary studies and results of this work represent the initial steps toward more advanced studies and define the bioactive chemical structure of pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyrimidine derivatives with the goal of exploring new drugs to address numerous health problems.

Orthosiphon aristatus (Blume) Miq. Extracts attenuate Alzheimer-like pathology through anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative, and β-amyloid inhibitory activities

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Orthosiphon aristatus (Blume) Miq. (OA) is a traditional folk-herb, which is usually used to treat acute and chronic nephritis, epilepsy, cystitis, and other diseases. Phenols and flavonoids are the main active compound compounds of OA, with proven anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities.

AIMS OF THIS STUDY

Based on evidenced therapeutic activities, we aimed to investigate the impact of OA on Alzheimer's disease (AD) which is the most common age-related neurodegenerative disease, and the pathological features include accumulation of beta-amyloid (Aβ) and neurofibrillary tangles (NFT).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

OA was extracted with water, methanol, chloroform, and ethyl acetate, and determined its total flavonoid and phenolic contents. Initially, Aβ1-42 based cytotoxicity was induced in BV2 cells and C6 cells to investigate the therapeutic impact of OA therapy by MTT, RT-PCR, Western blot, and ELISA. Further, Aβ1-42 Oligomer (400 pmol)-induced AD mice model was established to evaluate the impact of OA extract on improving learning and memory impairment.

RESULTS

The results showed that the extract of OA could increase cell survival, inhibit the expression of TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β, COX-2, and iNOS, and increase BDNF levels. We infer that the OA extract may attenuate Aβ-induced cytotoxicity by retarding the production of inflammatory-related factors. In the animal behavior test, the number of mice entering darkroom and the time of arriving at the platform were significantly reduced, indicating the learning and memory-improving ability of OA extract.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings imply that the OA ethanolic extract demonstrated an improving effect on memory and hence could serve as a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases like AD.

Uncovering chemical profiles, biological potentials, and protection effect against ECM destruction in H2 O2 -treated HDF cells of the extracts of Stachys tundjeliensis

The genus Stachys L., one of the largest genera of the Lamiaceae family, is highly represented in Turkey. This study was conducted to determine the bio-pharmaceutical potential and phenolic contents of six different extracts from aerial parts of Stachys tundjeliensis. The obtained results showed that the ethanol extract exhibited the highest antioxidant activity in the antioxidant assays. Meanwhile, the ethanol extract displayed strong inhibitory activity against α-tyrosinase, the dichloromethane extract exhibited potent inhibition against butyrylcholinesterase, and the n-hexane extract against α-amylase. Based on ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry analysis, more than 90 secondary metabolites, including hydroxybenzoic acid, hydroxycinnamic acid, and their glycosides, acylquinic acids, phenylethanoid glycosides, and various flavonoids were identified or tentatively annotated in the studied S. tundjeliensis extracts. It was observed that the application of S. tundjeliensis eliminated H2 O2 -induced oxidative stress. It was determined that protein levels of phospho-nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), receptor for advanced glycation endproducts, and activator protein-1, which are activated in the nucleus, decreased, and the synthesis of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2 and MMP-9 also decreased to basal levels. Overall, these findings suggest that S. tundjeliensis contains diverse bioactive compounds for the development of nutraceuticals or functional foods with potent biological properties.

A Systematic Review on Drugs Acting as Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor Agonists in the Treatment of Dementia

Acetylcholine signaling is attenuated in early Alzheimer's disease (AD) and other dementias. A significant reduction in the expression of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) in the brain of AD patients has also been reported in several molecular biological and in situ labeling studies. The modulation of the functional deficit of the cholinergic system as a pharmacological target could therefore have a clinical benefit, which is not to be neglected. This systematic review was conducted to identify clinical trials, which evaluated the safety and efficacy of nicotinic acetylcholine receptor agonists using Clinicaltrial (CT) and EudraCT databases. Structured searches identified 39 trials, which used 15 different drugs designed to increase the function of the nAChRs. Most of the identified clinical trials were phase II trials, with some of them classified as ongoing for several years. The systematic screening of the literature led to the selection of 14 studies out of the 8261 bibliographic records retrieved. Six trials reported detailed data on adverse events associated with the intervention, while twelve trials reported data on efficacy measures, such as attention, behavior and cognition. Overall, smost of the physical side effects of cholinergic agonists were reported to be well tolerated. Some trials also reported improvements in attention. However, the efficacy of these drugs in other cognitive and behavioral outcomes remains highly controversial.

Assessing the potential of Psidium guajava derived phytoconstituents as anticholinesterase inhibitor to combat Alzheimer's disease: an in-silico and in-vitro approach

Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitors play a crucial role in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. These drugs increase acetylcholine levels by inhibiting the enzyme responsible for its degradation, which is a vital neurotransmitter involved in memory and cognition. This intervention intermittently improves cognitive symptoms and augments neurotransmission. This study investigates the potential of Psidium guajava fruit extract as an acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitor for Alzheimer's disease treatment. Molecular characteristics and drug-likeness were analyzed after HR-LCMS revealed phytocompounds in an ethanolic extract of Psidium guajava fruit. Selected phytocompounds were subjected to molecular docking against AChE, with the best-docked compound then undergoing MD simulation, MMGBSA, DCCM, FEL, and PCA investigations to evaluate the complex stability. The hit compound's potential toxicity and further pharmacokinetic features were also predicted. Anticholinesterase activity was also studied using in vitro assay. The HR-LCMS uncovered 68 compounds. Based on computational analysis, Fluspirilene was determined to have the highest potential to inhibit AChE. It was discovered that the Fluspirilene-AChE complex is stable and that Fluspirilene has a high binding affinity for AChE. Extract of Psidium guajava fruit significantly inhibits AChE (88.37% at 200 μg/ml). It is comparable to the standard AChE inhibitor Galantamine. Fluspirilene exhibited remarkable binding to AChE. Psidium guajava fruit extract demonstrated substantial AChE inhibitory activity, indicating its potential for Alzheimer's treatment. The study underscores natural sources' significance in drug discovery.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Marine-derived Compounds: A Powerful Platform for the Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a debilitating form of dementia that primarily affects cholinergic neurons in the brain, significantly reducing an individual's capacity for learning and creative skills and ultimately resulting in an inability to carry out even basic daily tasks. As the elderly population is exponentially increasing, the disease has become a significant concern for society. Therefore, neuroprotective substances have garnered considerable interest in addressing this universal issue. Studies have shown that oxidative damage to neurons contributes to the pathophysiological processes underlying AD progression. In AD, tau phosphorylation and glutamate excitotoxicity may play essential roles, but no permanent cure for AD is available. The existing therapies only manage the early symptoms of AD and often come with numerous side effects and toxicities. To address these challenges, researchers have turned to nature and explored various sources such as plants, animals, and marine organisms. Many historic holy books from different cultures emphasize that adding marine compounds to the regular diet enhances brain function and mitigates its decline. Consequently, researchers have devoted significant time to identifying potentially active neuroprotective substances from marine sources. Marine-derived compounds are gaining recognition due to their abundant supply of diverse chemical compounds with biological and pharmacological potential and unique mechanisms of action. Several studies have reported that plants exhibit multitarget potential in treating AD. In light of this, the current study focuses on marine-derived components with excellent potential for treating this neurodegenerative disease.

A Review of the Common Neurodegenerative Disorders: Current Therapeutic Approaches and the Potential Role of Bioactive Peptides

Neurodegenerative disorders, which include Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), Huntington's disease (HD), and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), represent a significant and growing global health challenge. Current therapies predominantly focus on symptom management rather than altering disease progression. In this review, we discuss the major therapeutic strategies in practice for these disorders, highlighting their limitations. For AD, the mainstay treatments are cholinesterase inhibitors and N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonists. For PD, dopamine replacement therapies, including levodopa, are commonly used. HD is managed primarily with symptomatic treatments, and reusable extends survival in ALS. However, none of these therapies halts or substantially slows the neurodegenerative process. In contrast, this review highlights emerging research into bioactive peptides as potential therapeutic agents. These naturally occurring or synthetically designed molecules can interact with specific cellular targets, potentially modulating disease processes. Preclinical studies suggest that bioactive peptides may mitigate oxidative stress, inflammation, and protein misfolding, which are common pathological features in neurodegenerative diseases. Clinical trials using bioactive peptides for neurodegeneration are limited but show promising initial results. For instance, hemiacetal, a γ-secretase inhibitor peptide, has shown potential in AD by reducing amyloid-beta production, though its development was discontinued due to side effects. Despite these advancements, many challenges remain, including identifying optimal peptides, confirming their mechanisms of action, and overcoming obstacles related to their delivery to the brain. Future research should prioritize the discovery and development of novel bioactive peptides and improve our understanding of their pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. Ultimately, this approach may lead to more effective therapies for neurodegenerative disorders, moving beyond symptom management to potentially modify the course of these devastating diseases.

Beyond Conventional Therapies: Molecular Dynamics of Alzheimer's Treatment through CLOCK/BMAL1 Interactions

BACKGROUND

Alzheimer's Disease (AD) represents a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by cognitive and behavioral impairments significantly hindering social and occupational functioning. Melatonin, a hormone pivotal in regulating the body's intrinsic circadian rhythm, also acts as a catalyst in the breakdown of beta-amyloid deposits, offering a promising therapeutic approach for AD. The upregulation of Brain and Muscle ARNT-Like 1 (Bmal1) gene expression, stimulated by melatonin, emerges as a potential contributor to AD intervention. Current pharmacological interventions, such as FDA-approved cholinesterase inhibitors and the recently authorized monoclonal antibody, Lecanemab, are utilized in AD management. However, the connection between these medications and Bmal1 remains insufficiently explored.

OBJECTIVE

This study aims to investigate the molecular effects of FDA-endorsed drugs on the CLOCK: Bmal1 dimer. Furthermore, considering the interactions between melatonin and Bmal1, this research explores the potential synergistic efficacy of combining these pharmaceutical agents with melatonin for AD treatment.

METHODS

Using molecular docking and MM/PBSA methodologies, this research determines the binding affinities of drugs within the Bmal1 binding site, constructing interaction profiles.

RESULTS

The findings reveal that, among FDA-approved drugs, galanthamine and donepezil demonstrate notably similar binding energy values to melatonin, interacting within the Bmal1 binding site through analogous amino acid residues and functional groups.

CONCLUSION

A novel therapeutic approach emerges, suggesting the combination of melatonin with Lecanemab as a monoclonal antibody therapy. Importantly, prior research has not explored the effects of FDA-approved drugs on Bmal1 expression or their potential for synergistic effects.

Drug Design for Alzheimer's Disease: Biologics vs. Small Molecules

There shall probably be no "magic bullet" for Alzheimer's; rather, we should be pursuing a "magic shotgun blast" that will target multiple complementary therapeutic receptors. Although protein misfolding/oligomerization will probably be one of these targets, this alone is insufficient and will require the co-administration of other therapeutic entities engaging targets, such as immunopathy, gliopathy, mitochondriopathy, synaptotoxicity or others. Although polypharmacy is emerging as the preferred therapeutic route, many questions remain unanswered. Should this be a cocktail of biologics, a concoction of small molecules, or a judicious combination of both? Biologics and small molecule drugs display both strengths and weaknesses. When addressing a disease as complex and globally important as Alzheimer's, there should be room for the continuing development of both of these therapeutic classes. Each has much to offer, and when used with their advantages and disadvantages in clear focus, an ultimate solution will probably require contributions from both.

Carbamate as a potential anti-Alzheimer's pharmacophore: A review

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive age-related neurodegenerative brain disorder, which leads to loss of memory and other cognitive dysfunction. The underlying mechanisms of AD pathogenesis are very complex and still not fully explored. Cholinergic neuronal loss, accumulation of amyloid plaque, metal ions dyshomeostasis, tau hyperphosphorylation, oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and mitochondrial dysfunction are major hallmarks of AD. The current treatment options for AD are acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (donepezil, rivastigmine, and galantamine) and NMDA receptor antagonists (memantine). These FDA-approved drugs mainly provide symptomatic relief without addressing the pathological aspects of disease progression. So, there is an urgent need for novel drug development that not only addresses the basic mechanisms of the disease but also shows the neuroprotective property. Various research groups across the globe are working on the development of multifunctional agents for AD amelioration using different core scaffolds for their design, and carbamate is among them. Rivastigmine was the first carbamate drug investigated for AD management. The carbamate fragment, a core scaffold of rivastigmine, act as a potential inhibitor of acetylcholinesterase. In this review, we summarize the last 10 years of research conducted on the modification of carbamate with different substituents which primarily target ChE inhibition, reduce oxidative stress, and modulate Aβ aggregation.

Pyrimidine-morpholine hybrids as potent druggable therapeutics for Alzheimer's disease: Synthesis, biochemical and in silico analyses

The identification of effective and druggable cholinesterase inhibitors to treat progressive neurodegenerative Alzheimer's disorder remains a continuous drug discovery hunt. In this perspective, the present study investigates the design and discovery of pyrimidine-morpholine hybrids (5a-l) as potent cholinesterase inhibitors. Palladium-catalyzed Suzuki-Miyaura cross-coupling reaction was employed to introduce the structural diversity on the pyrimidine heterocyclic core. A range of commercially available boronic acids was successfully coupled showing a high functional group tolerance. In vitro cholinesterase inhibitory potential using Ellman's method revealed significantly strong potency. Compound 5h bearing a meta-tolyl substituent at 2-position of pyrimidine ring emerged as a lead candidate against AChE with an inhibitory potency of 0.43 ± 0.42 µM, ∼38-fold stronger value than neostigmine (IC50 = 16.3 ± 1.12 µM). Compound 5h also showed the lead inhibition against BuChE with an IC50 value of 2.5 ± 0.04 µM. The kinetics analysis of 5h revealed the non-competitive mode of inhibition against AChE whereas computational modelling results of potent leads depicted diverse contacts with the binding site amino acid residues. Molecular dynamics simulations revealed the stability of biomolecular system, while, ADME analysis demonstrated druglikeness behaviour of potent compounds. Overall, the investigated pyrimidine-morpholine scaffold presented a remarkable potential to be developed as efficacious anti-Alzheimer's drugs.

Highly accurate disease diagnosis and highly reproducible biomarker identification with PathFormer

Biomarker identification is critical for precise disease diagnosis and understanding disease pathogenesis in omics data analysis, like using fold change and regression analysis. Graph neural networks (GNNs) have been the dominant deep learning model for analyzing graph-structured data. However, we found two major limitations of existing GNNs in omics data analysis, i.e., limited-prediction/diagnosis accuracy and limited-reproducible biomarker identification capacity across multiple datasets. The root of the challenges is the unique graph structure of biological signaling pathways, which consists of a large number of targets and intensive and complex signaling interactions among these targets. To resolve these two challenges, in this study, we presented a novel GNN model architecture, named PathFormer , which systematically integrate signaling network, priori knowledge and omics data to rank biomarkers and predict disease diagnosis. In the comparison results, PathFormer outperformed existing GNN models significantly in terms of highly accurate prediction capability (~ 30% accuracy improvement in disease diagnosis compared with existing GNN models) and high reproducibility of biomarker ranking across different datasets. The improvement was confirmed using two independent Alzheimer's Disease (AD) and cancer transcriptomic datasets. The PathFormer model can be directly applied to other omics data analysis studies.

Demaghi, a polyherbal formulation, mitigates aluminum chloride-induced neurological impairment in mice: Insights from phytochemical analysis and behavioral assessment

Herbal products have been very popular in Pakistan for their curative significance against various disorders. Demaghi (DEMG) is a widely used herbal product claimed to own natural substances having neuroprotective potential. The current study aims to scientifically validate the chemical composition as well as its neuroprotective claims of this widely used herbal tonic. The commercially available Demaghi product was chemically characterized for its phytocomposition. The mice were treated with two doses of Demaghi (DEMG 50 mg and 100 mg/kg/day), and the effects of its prolonged exposure on animal anxiety, memory, and depression were noted through a series of behavioral tests in the AlCl3-induced memory deficient mice model. Besides that, dissected brains were biochemically analyzed for oxidative stress markers and acetylcholinesterase activity, as well as histopathological changes. The study outcomes showed that DEMG (100 mg/kg/day) has prominent anti-anxiety effects, memory-enhancing properties, and anti-depressants effects observed in the AlCl3-induced memory-deficient mice model. Biochemical assays also showed a greater decrease in oxidative stress of tested animals treated with 100 mg/kg/day of DEMG. The histopathological analysis also revealed that administration of DEMG reduced the AlCl3-induced toxicity. UPLC-MS results revealed the presence of many phytoconstituents, which showed to support cholinergic signaling in in-silico studies. The current research validates the neurological benefits of Demaghi for memory-boosting properties. The phytocompounds present in Demaghi exert neuroprotective effects, possibly by enhancing the cholinergic neurotransmission and combating the neurotoxin-induced oxidative stress.

Pathophysiological Aspects and Therapeutic Armamentarium of Alzheimer's Disease: Recent Trends and Future Development

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the primary cause of dementia and is characterized by the death of brain cells due to the accumulation of insoluble amyloid plaques, hyperphosphorylation of tau protein, and the formation of neurofibrillary tangles within the cells. AD is also associated with other pathologies such as neuroinflammation, dysfunction of synaptic connections and circuits, disorders in mitochondrial function and energy production, epigenetic changes, and abnormalities in the vascular system. Despite extensive research conducted over the last hundred years, little is established about what causes AD or how to effectively treat it. Given the severity of the disease and the increasing number of affected individuals, there is a critical need to discover effective medications for AD. The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved several new drug molecules for AD management since 2003, but these drugs only provide temporary relief of symptoms and do not address the underlying causes of the disease. Currently, available medications focus on correcting the neurotransmitter disruption observed in AD, including cholinesterase inhibitors and an antagonist of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor, which temporarily alleviates the signs of dementia but does not prevent or reverse the course of AD. Research towards disease-modifying AD treatments is currently underway, including gene therapy, lipid nanoparticles, and dendrimer-based therapy. These innovative approaches aim to target the underlying pathological processes of AD rather than just managing the symptoms. This review discusses the novel aspects of pathogenesis involved in the causation of AD of AD and in recent developments in the therapeutic armamentarium for the treatment of AD such as gene therapy, lipid nanoparticles, and dendrimer-based therapy, and many more.

Thiadiazolidinone (TDZD) Analogs Inhibit Aggregation-Mediated Pathology in Diverse Neurodegeneration Models, and Extend C. elegans Life- and Healthspan

Chronic, low-grade inflammation has been implicated in aging and age-dependent conditions, including Alzheimer's disease, cardiomyopathy, and cancer. One of the age-associated processes underlying chronic inflammation is protein aggregation, which is implicated in neuroinflammation and a broad spectrum of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's, Huntington's, and Parkinson's diseases. We screened a panel of bioactive thiadiazolidinones (TDZDs) from our in-house library for rescue of protein aggregation in human-cell and C. elegans models of neurodegeneration. Among the tested TDZD analogs, PNR886 and PNR962 were most effective, significantly reducing both the number and intensity of Alzheimer-like tau and amyloid aggregates in human cell-culture models of pathogenic aggregation. A C. elegans strain expressing human Aβ1-42 in muscle, leading to AD-like amyloidopathy, developed fewer and smaller aggregates after PNR886 or PNR962 treatment. Moreover, age-progressive paralysis was reduced 90% by PNR886 and 75% by PNR962, and "healthspan" (the median duration of spontaneous motility) was extended 29% and 62%, respectively. These TDZD analogs also extended wild-type C. elegans lifespan by 15-30% (p < 0.001), placing them among the most effective life-extension drugs. Because the lead drug in this family, TDZD-8, inhibits GSK3β, we used molecular-dynamic tools to assess whether these analogs may also target GSK3β. In silico modeling predicted that PNR886 or PNR962 would bind to the same allosteric pocket of inactive GSK3β as TDZD-8, employing the same pharmacophore but attaching with greater avidity. PNR886 and PNR962 are thus compelling candidate drugs for treatment of tau- and amyloid-associated neurodegenerative diseases such as AD, potentially also reducing all-cause mortality.

Synthesis of phenylethanoid glycosides from acrylic esters of glucose and aryldiazonium salts via palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling reactions and evaluation of their anti-Alzheimer activity

Cinnamic acid-containing sugar compounds such as phenylethanoid glycosides are widely present in nature and display various biological activities. In this work, the synthesis of trans-cinnamic acid containing phenylethanoid glycosides was achieved via palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling reactions between glycosyl acrylic esters and aryldiazonium salts. A wide range of functionalized aryldiazonium salts were successfully coupled with 6-O- and 4-O-acrylic esters of glucose under optimized conditions. The reactions proceeded at room temperature in the absence of additives and base. The desired products were obtained in good to excellent yields. Selected compounds from the library were screened for anti-Alzheimer activity, while compound 16 displayed significant inhibitory activities against butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) enzymes.

Pathogenesis of Alzheimer's Disease and Diversity of 1,2,3-Triazole Scaffold in Drug Development: Design Strategies, Structural Insights, and Therapeutic Potential

Alzheimer's disease is a most prevalent form of dementia all around the globe and currently poses a significant challenge to the healthcare system. Currently available drugs only slow the progression of this disease rather than provide proper containment. Identification of multiple targets responsible for this disease in the last three decades established it as a multifactorial neurodegenerative disorder that needs novel multifunctional agents for its management and the possible reason for the failure of currently available single target clinical drugs. 1,2,3-Triazole is a miraculous nucleus in medicinal chemistry and the first choice for development of multifunctional hybrid molecules. Apart from that, it is an integral component of various drugs in clinical trials as well as in clinical practice. This review is focused on the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease and 1,2,3-triazole containing derivatives developed in recent decades as potential anti-Alzheimer's agents. The review will provide (A) precise insight of various established targets of Alzheimer's disease including cholinergic, amyloid, tau, monoamine oxidases, glutamate, calcium, and reactive oxygen species hypothesis and (B) design hypothesis, structure-activity relationships, and pharmacological outcomes of 1,2,3-triazole containing multifunctional anti-Alzheimer's agents. This review will provide a baseline for various research groups working on Alzheimer's drug development in designing potent, safer, and effective multifunctional anti-Alzheimer's candidates of the future.

Exploring the Potential of Antidiabetic Agents as Therapeutic Approaches for Alzheimer's and Parkinson's Diseases: A Comprehensive Review

Alzheimer's and Parkinson's are two prevalent neurodegenerative disorders with significant societal and healthcare burdens. The search for effective therapeutic approaches to combat these diseases has led to growing interest in exploring the potential of antidiabetic agents. This comprehensive review aims to provide a detailed overview of the current literature on using antidiabetic agents as therapeutic interventions for Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. We discuss the underlying pathological mechanisms of these neurodegenerative diseases, including protein misfolding, inflammation, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial dysfunction. We then delve into the potential mechanisms by which antidiabetic agents may exert neuroprotective effects, including regulation of glucose metabolism and insulin signaling, anti-inflammatory effects, modulation of oxidative stress, and improvement of mitochondrial function and bioenergetics. We highlight in vitro, animal, and clinical studies that support the potential benefits of antidiabetic agents in reducing disease pathology and improving clinical outcomes. However, we also acknowledge these agents' limitations, variability in treatment response, and potential side effects. Furthermore, we explore emerging therapeutic targets and novel approaches, such as glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor (GLP-1R) agonists, insulin sensitizer drugs, neuroinflammation-targeted therapies, and precision medicine approaches. The review concludes by emphasizing the need for further research, including large-scale clinical trials, to validate the efficacy and safety of antidiabetic agents in treating Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease. The collaboration between researchers, clinicians, and pharmaceutical companies is essential in advancing the field and effectively treating patients affected by these debilitating neurodegenerative disorders.

Discovery of Multitarget-Directed Ligands from Piperidine Alkaloid Piperine as a Cap Group for the Management of Alzheimer's Disease

The naturally inspired multitarget-directed ligands (PC01-PC10 and PD01-PD26) were synthesized from piperine for the management of Alzheimer's disease (AD). The compound PD07 showed significant inhibitory activity on ChEs, BACE1, and Aβ1-42 aggregation in in vitro studies. Further, compound PD07 effectively displaced the propidium iodide at the AChE PAS site. The compound PD07 exhibited significant lipophilicity in PAMPA studies. Additionally, PD07 demonstrated neuroprotective properties in the Aβ1-42 induced SH-SY5Y cell line. Furthermore, DFT calculations were performed using B3LYP/6-311G(d,p) basis sets to explore the PD07 physical and chemical properties. The compound PD07 showed a similar binding interaction profile at active sites of AChE, BuChE, and BACE1 proteins as compared to reference ligands (donepezil, tacrine, and BSD) in molecular docking and dynamic simulation studies. In acute oral toxicity studies, compound PD07 exhibited no toxicity symptoms up to 300 mg/kg, po. The compound PD07 (10 mg/kg, po) improved memory and cognition in scopolamine-induced amnesia rats. Further, PD07 increased ACh levels in the brain by inhibiting the AChE activity. The results from in vitro, in silico, and in vivo studies suggested that compound PD07 is a potent multitarget-directed lead from piperine to overcome Alzheimer's disease.

A Mild Dose of Aspirin Promotes Hippocampal Neurogenesis and Working Memory in Experimental Ageing Mice

Aspirin has been reported to prevent memory decline in the elderly population. Adult neurogenesis in the hippocampus has been recognized as an underlying basis of learning and memory. This study investigated the effect of aspirin on spatial memory in correlation with the regulation of hippocampal neurogenesis and microglia in the brains of ageing experimental mice. Results from the novel object recognition (NOR) test, Morris water maze (MWM), and cued radial arm maze (cued RAM) revealed that aspirin treatment enhances working memory in experimental mice. Further, the co-immunohistochemical assessments on the brain sections indicated an increased number of doublecortin (DCX)-positive immature neurons and bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU)/neuronal nuclei (NeuN) double-positive newly generated neurons in the hippocampi of mice in the aspirin-treated group compared to the control group. Moreover, a reduced number of ionized calcium-binding adaptor molecule (Iba)-1-positive microglial cells was evident in the hippocampus of aspirin-treated animals. Recently, enhanced activity of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) in circulation has been identified as an indicative biomarker of dementia. The biochemical assessment in the blood of aspirin-treated mice showed decreased activity of AChE in comparison with that of the control group. Results from this study revealed that aspirin facilitates hippocampal neurogenesis which might be linked to enhanced working memory.

Methoxy-naphthyl-Linked N-Benzyl Pyridinium Styryls as Dual Cholinesterase Inhibitors: Design, Synthesis, Biological Evaluation, and Structure-Activity Relationship

The multifaceted nature of Alzheimer's disease (AD) indicates the need for multitargeted agents as potential therapeutics. Both cholinesterases (ChEs), acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), play a vital role in disease progression. Thus, inhibiting both ChEs is more beneficial than only one for effectively managing AD. The present study provides a detailed lead optimization of the e-pharmacophore-generated pyridinium styryl scaffold to discover a dual ChE inhibitor. A structure-activity relationship analysis indicated the importance of three structural fragments, methoxy-naphthyl, vinyl-pyridinium, and substituted-benzyl, in a dual ChE inhibitor pharmacophore. The optimized 6-methoxy-naphthyl derivative, 7av (SB-1436), inhibits EeAChE and eqBChE with IC₅₀ values of 176 and 370 nM, respectively. The kinetic study has shown that 7av inhibits AChE and BChE in a non-competitive manner with k_i values of 46 and 115 nM, respectively. The docking and molecular dynamics simulation demonstrated that 7av binds with the catalytic and peripheral anionic sites of AChE and BChE. Compound 7av also significantly stops the self-aggregation of Aβ. The data presented herein indicate the potential of 7av for further investigation in preclinical models of AD.

Molecular Docking and Network Pharmacology Interaction Analysis of Gingko Biloba (EGB761) Extract with Dual Target Inhibitory Mechanism in Alzheimer's Disease

BACKGROUND

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common type of neurodegenerative dementia affecting people in their later years of life. The AD prevalence rate has significantly increased due to a lack of early detection technology and low therapeutic efficacy. Despite recent scientific advances, some aspects of AD pathological targets still require special attention. Certain traditionally consumed phytocompounds have been used for thousands of years to treat such pathologies. The standard extract of Gingko biloba (EGB761) is a combination of 13 macro phyto-compounds and various other micro phytocompounds that have shown greater therapeutic potential against the pathology of AD.

OBJECTIVE

Strong physiological evidence of cognitive health preservation has been observed in elderly people who keep an active lifestyle. According to some theories, consuming certain medicinal extracts helps build cognitive reserve. We outline the research employing EGB761 as a dual target for AD.

METHODS

This study investigates various inhibitory targets against AD using computational approaches such as molecular docking, network pharmacology, ADMET (full form), and bioactivity prediction of the selected compounds.

RESULTS

After interaction studies were done for all the phytoconstituents of EGB761, it was concluded that all four of the phytocompounds (kaempferol, isorhamnetin, quercetin, and ginkgotoxin) showed the maximum inhibitory activity against acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and GSK3β.

CONCLUSION

The highly active phytocompounds of EGB761, especially quercetin, kaempferol, and isorhamnetin, have better activity against AChE and GSK3β than its reported synthetic drug, according to molecular docking and network pharmacology research. These compounds may act on multiple targets in the protein network of AD. The AChE theory was primarily responsible for EGB761's therapeutic efficacy in treating AD.

Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction of Isoquercetin from Ephedra alata (Decne): Optimization Using Response Surface Methodology and In Vitro Bioactivities

Isoquercetin (ISQ) is reported to be a powerful antioxidant with extremely high bioavailability and structural stability compared to aglycone quercetin. Despite this, it is not well studied due to the limited methods for its extraction. With the growing interest in the research and analysis of ISQ-rich herbs, there is a need to optimize an efficient and rapid method for their extraction. In the present study, the ultrasound-assisted extraction of ISQ from Ephedra alata Decne was optimized by a response surface methodology (RSM) using high-performance liquid chromatography as a separation method. The best possible ranges for extraction time (10–30 min), temperature (50–70 °C), ultrasonic power (60–90 W), solvent-to-solid ratio (50–70 mL/g), and ethanol concentration (50–70%) were determined using a single factor analysis. Subsequently, an optimization of the extraction conditions was performed with RSM using the Box–Behnken design. An ultrasonication time of 10 min, a temperature of 60 °C, a power of 75 W, a solvent-to-solid ratio of 60 mL/g, and an ethanol concentration of 70% were determined to be the optimal conditions for the highest recovery of isoquercetin (1033.96 ± 3.28 µg/g). Furthermore, E. alata powder morphology (using a scanning electron microscope), antioxidant activities, and the inhibition potential of key enzymes involved in skin aging (elastase and collagenase), hyperpigmentation (tyrosinase), diabetes (α-amylase), inflammation (hyaluronidase), and neurodegenerative disorders (cholinesterase) were determined and compared with those using the Soxhlet method. This study established a highly efficient method for ISQ extraction and suggested several potential applications of ISQ in the pharmaceutical and cosmetics industries.

Edible Seaweeds Extracts: Characterization and Functional Properties for Health Conditions

Seaweeds are popular foods due to claimed beneficial health effects, but for many there is a lack of scientific evidence. In this study, extracts of the edible seaweeds Aramé, Nori, and Fucus are compared. Our approach intends to clarify similarities and differences in the health properties of these seaweeds, thus contributing to target potential applications for each. Additionally, although Aramé and Fucus seaweeds are highly explored, information on Nori composition and bioactivities is scarce. The aqueous extracts of the seaweeds were obtained by decoction, then fractionated and characterized according to their composition and biological activity. It was recognized that fractioning the extracts led to bioactivity reduction, suggesting a loss of bioactive compounds synergies. The Aramé extract showed the highest antioxidant activity and Nori exhibited the highest potential for acetylcholinesterase inhibition. The identification of the bioactive compounds in the extracts allowed to see that these contained a mixture of phloroglucinol polymers, and it was suggested that Nori’s effect on acetylcholinesterase inhibition may be associated with a smaller sized phlorotannins capable of entering the enzyme active site. Overall, these results suggest a promising potential for the use of these seaweed extracts, mainly Aramé and Nori, in health improvement and management of diseases, namely those associated to oxidative stress and neurodegeneration.

Lycopodiastrum casuarinoides: An overview of their phytochemicals, biological activities, structure-activity relationship, biosynthetic pathway and 13C NMR data

Huperzine A, a lycodine-type alkaloid, exhibits potent inhibitory activity against acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and has been utilized to treat neurodegenerative diseases' symptoms. Lycopodiastrum casuarinoides, a member of the family Lycopodiaceae, is renowned for its lycodine-type alkaloids. Some of these alkaloids show various pharmacological benefits, such as anti-cholinesterase, neuroprotective, and cytotoxic effects. To date, 113 chemical compounds, including seventy-four lycodine-type alkaloids, ten terpenoids, eleven aliphatics, and eighteen other compounds, have been isolated from this plant. In this review, we have discussed phytochemicals and biological activities of the reported compounds of L. casuarinoides. Moreover, structure-activity relationship (SAR), plausible biosynthetic pathways, and ¹³C nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (¹³C NMR) data of the lycodine-type alkaloids are also summarized.

Long-Term Supplementation of Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels Concentrate Alleviates Age-Related Cognitive Deficit and Oxidative Damage: A Comparative Study of Young vs. Old Mice

The Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels is reported to have medicinal properties, but its benefits on age-related neurological changes have not been previously explored. In the current study, after phytochemical analysis of the pulp of Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels fruit (Sy. cmi), young BALB/c mice have been supplemented with its 5, 15, and 30% dilution for 16 months, followed by behavioral experimentation and biochemical evaluation of isolated brains. The Sy. cmi has been found enriched with phenols/flavonoids while the occurrence of nine phytocompounds has been identified through GC-MS analysis. Further, Sy. cmi supplementation has caused significant (p < 0.05) protection from anxiety-like behavior in aged mice, and they have explored open, illuminated, and exposed areas of open field, light/dark, and an elevated plus maze, respectively. Furthermore, these animals have shown improved cognitive abilities as their percent (%) spontaneous alteration and novelty preference are significantly greater in T-maze and Y-maze and familiarity/novelty recognition tests. Further, Sy. cmi-supplemented mice remember the aversive stimuli zone and escape box location in passive avoidance and Barnes maze tests, and their brains have low levels of malondialdehyde and acetylcholinesterase with elevated antioxidant enzymes. The outcomes have provided scientific insight into the beneficial effects of Sy. cmi on age-associated amnesia that might be attributed to antioxidant and anticholinergic effects exerted by phytocompounds (caryophyllene, humulene, β-Farnesene, and phytol) owned by Syzygium cumini.

A Review on Phyto-Therapeutic Approaches in Alzheimer's Disease

Neurodegenerative diseases occur due to progressive and sometimes irreversible loss of function and death of nerve cells. A great deal of effort is being made to understand the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases. In particular, the prevalence of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is quite high, and only symptomatic therapy is available due to the absence of radical treatment. The aim of this review is to try to elucidate the general pathogenesis of AD, to provide information about the limit points of symptomatic treatment approaches, and to emphasize the potential neurologic effects of phytocompounds as new tools as therapeutic agents for disease prevention, retardation, and therapy. This survey also covers the notable properties of herbal compounds such as their effects on the inhibition of an enzyme called acetylcholinesterase, which has significant value in the treatment of AD. It has been proven that phytopharmaceuticals have long-term effects that could protect nervous system health, eliminate inflammatory responses, improve cognitive damage, provide anti-aging effects in the natural aging process, and alleviate dementia sequelae. Herbal-based therapeutic agents can afford many advantages and can be used as potentially as new-generation therapeutics or complementary agents with high compliance, fewer adverse effects, and lower cost in comparison to the traditional pharmaceutical agents in the fight against AD.

Disruption of hippocampal neuronal circuit function depends upon behavioral state in the APP/PS1 mouse model of Alzheimer's disease

The Alzheimer's disease-associated peptide amyloid-beta (Aβ) has been associated with neuronal hyperactivity under anesthesia, but clinical trials of anticonvulsants or neural system suppressors have, so far, failed to improve symptoms in AD. Using simultaneous hippocampal calcium imaging and electrophysiology in freely moving mice expressing human Aβ, here we show that Aβ aggregates perturbed neural systems in a state-dependent fashion, driving neuronal hyperactivity in exploratory behavior and slow wave sleep (SWS), yet suppressing activity in quiet wakefulness (QW) and REM sleep. In exploratory behavior and REM sleep, Aβ impaired hippocampal theta-gamma phase-amplitude coupling and altered neuronal synchronization with theta. In SWS, Aβ reduced cortical slow oscillation (SO) power, the coordination of hippocampal sharp wave-ripples with both the SO and thalamocortical spindles, and the coordination of calcium transients with the sharp wave-ripple. Physostigmine improved Aβ-associated hyperactivity in exploratory behavior and hypoactivity in QW and expanded the range of gamma that coupled with theta phase, but exacerbated hypoactivity in exploratory behavior. Together, these findings show that the effects of Aβ alone on hippocampal circuit function are profoundly state dependent and suggest a reformulation of therapeutic strategies aimed at Aβ induced hyperexcitability.

Molecular docking and molecular dynamics approach to identify potential compounds in Huperzia squarrosa for treating Alzheimer's disease

OBJECTIVES

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a lingering progressive neurodegenerative disorder that causes patients to lose cognitive function. The enzyme Acetylcholinesterase (AChE), Butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE), Monoamine oxidase A (MAO A), Beta-secretase cleavage enzyme (BACE 1) and N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors play an important role in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. Therefore, inhibiting enzymes is an effective method to treat Alzheimer disease. In this study, we evaluated in silico inhibitory effects of AChE, BuChE, MAO A, BACE 1 and NMDA enzyme of Huperzia squarrosa's compounds.

METHODS

The three-dimensional (3D) of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (PDB ID: 1PBQ), enzyme β-secretase 1 (PDB ID: 4X7I), enzyme monoamine oxidase A (PDB ID: 2Z5X), enzyme butyrylcholinesterase (PDB ID: 4BDS) and enzyme acetylcholinesterase (PDB ID: 1EVE) were retrieved from the Protein Data Bank RCSB. Molecular docking was done by Autodock vina software and molecular dynamics (MD) simulation of the ligand-protein complex with the least binding energy pose was perfomed by MOE. Lipinski Rule of Five is used to compare compounds with drug-like and non-drug-like properties. Pharmacokinetic parameters of potential compounds were evaluated using the pkCSM tool.

RESULTS

Based on previous publication of Huperzia squarrosa, we have collected 15 compounds. In these compounds, huperzine B, huperzinine, lycoposerramine U N-oxide, 12-epilycodine N-oxide showed strongly inhibit the five AChE, BuChE, MAO A, BACE 1 and NMDA targets for Alzheimer's treatment. Lipinski rule of five and ADMET predict have shown that four above compounds have drug-likeness properties, good absorption ability and cross the blood-brain barrier, which have the most potential to become drugs for the treatment of Alzheimer's in the future. Furthermore, MD study showed that huperzine B and huperzinine have stability of the docking pose with NMDA target.

CONCLUSIONS

In this study, we found two natural compounds in Huperzia squarrosa including Huperzine B and Huperzinine have drug-likeness properties, good absorption ability and cross the blood-brain barrier, which have potential to become drugs for the treatment of Alzheimer's in the future.