Host specificity in blood feeding parasites: a defining contribution by haemoglobin-degrading enzymes?

Schistosome feeding and regurgitation

Schistosomes are parasitic flatworms that infect >200 million people worldwide, causing the chronic, debilitating disease schistosomiasis. Unusual among parasitic helminths, the long-lived adult worms, continuously bathed in blood, take up nutrients directly across the body surface and also by ingestion of blood into the gut. Recent proteomic analyses of the body surface revealed the presence of hydrolytic enzymes, solute, and ion transporters, thus emphasising its metabolic credentials. Furthermore, definition of the molecular mechanisms for the uptake of selected metabolites (glucose, certain amino acids, and water) establishes it as a vital site of nutrient acquisition. Nevertheless, the amount of blood ingested into the gut per day is considerable: for males ∼100 nl; for the more actively feeding females ∼900 nl, >4 times body volume. Ingested erythrocytes are lysed as they pass through the specialized esophagus, while leucocytes become tethered and disabled there. Proteomics and transcriptomics have revealed, in addition to gut proteases, an amino acid transporter in gut tissue and other hydrolases, ion, and lipid transporters in the lumen, implicating the gut as the site for acquisition of essential lipids and inorganic ions. The surface is the principal entry route for glucose, whereas the gut dominates amino acid acquisition, especially in females. Heme, a potentially toxic hemoglobin degradation product, accumulates in the gut and, since schistosomes lack an anus, must be expelled by the poorly understood process of regurgitation. Here we place the new observations on the proteome of body surface and gut, and the entry of different nutrient classes into schistosomes, into the context of older studies on worm composition and metabolism. We suggest that the balance between surface and gut in nutrition is determined by the constraints of solute diffusion imposed by differences in male and female worm morphology. Our conclusions have major implications for worm survival under immunological or pharmacological pressure.

Molecular characterization of 45 kDa aspartic protease of Trichinella spiralis

In a previous study, we identified an aspartic protease gene (Ts-Asp) from the Trichinella spiralis muscle stage larva cDNA library. The gene sequence of Ts-Asp was 1281 bp long and was found to encode a protein consisting of 405 amino acids, with a molecular mass of 45.248 kD and a pI of 5.95. The deduced Ts-Asp has a conserved catalytic motif with catalytic aspartic acid residues in the active site, a common characteristic of aspartic proteases. In addition, the deduced amino acid sequence of Ts-Asp was found to possess significant homology (above 50%) with aspartic proteases from nematode parasites. Results of phylogenetic analysis indicated a close relationship of Ts-Asp with cathepsin D aspartic proteases. For production of recombinant Ts-Asp (rTs-Asp), the pGEX4T expression system was used. Like other proteases, the purified rTs-Asp was able to digest collagen matrix in vitro. Abundant expression of Ts-Asp was observed in muscle stage larva. Ts-Asp was detected in ES proteins, and was able to elicit the production of specific antibodies. It is the first report of molecular characterization of aspartic protease isolated from T. spiralis.

Scabies: important clinical consequences explained by new molecular studies

In 2004, we reviewed the status of disease caused by the scabies mite Sarcoptes scabiei at the time and pointed out that very little basic research had ever been done. The reason for this was largely the lack of availability of mites for experimental purposes and, to a degree, a consequent lack of understanding of its importance, resulting in the trivial name 'itch mite'. Scabies is responsible for major morbidity in disadvantaged communities and immunocompromised patients worldwide. In addition to the physical discomfort caused by the disease, scabies infestations facilitate infection by bacterial pathogens such as Streptococcus pyogenes and Staphylococcus aureus via skin lesions, resulting in severe downstream disease such as in a high prevalence of rheumatic fever/heart disease in affected communities. We now have further evidence that in disadvantaged populations living in tropical climates, scabies rather than 'Strep throat' is an important source of S. pyogenes causing rheumatic fever and eventually rheumatic heart disease. In addition, our work has resulted in two fundamental research tools that facilitate much of the current biomedical research efforts on scabies, namely a public database containing ~45,000 scabies mite expressed sequence tags and a porcine in vivo model. Here we will discuss novel and unexpected proteins encountered in the database that appear crucial to mite survival with regard to digestion and evasion of host defence. The mode(s) of action of some of these have been at least partially revealed. Further, newly discovered molecules that may well have a similar role, such as a family of inactivated cysteine proteases, are yet to be investigated. Hence, there are now whole families of potential targets for chemical inhibitors of S. scabiei. These efforts put today's scabies research in a unique position to design and test small molecules that may specifically interfere with mite-derived molecules, such as digestive proteases and mite complement inhibitors. The porcine scabies model will be available to trial in vivo treatment with potential inhibitors. New therapies for scabies may be developed from these studies and may contribute to reduce the spread of scabies and the subsequent prevalence of bacterial skin infections and their devastating sequelae in the community.

The plant apoplasm is an important recipient compartment for nematode secreted proteins

Similarly to microbial pathogens, plant-parasitic nematodes secrete into their host plants proteins that are essential to establish a functional interaction. Identifying the destination of nematode secreted proteins within plant cell compartment(s) will provide compelling clues on their molecular functions. Here the fine localization of five nematode secreted proteins was analysed throughout parasitism in Arabidopsis thaliana. An immunocytochemical method was developed that preserves both the host and the pathogen tissues, allowing the localization of nematode secreted proteins within both organisms. One secreted protein from the amphids and three secreted proteins from the subventral oesophageal glands involved in protein degradation and cell wall modification were secreted in the apoplasm during intercellular migration and to a lower extent by early sedentary stages during giant cell formation. Conversely, another protein produced by both subventral and dorsal oesophageal glands in parasitic stages accumulated profusely at the cell wall of young and mature giant cells. In addition, secretion of cell wall-modifying proteins by the vulva of adult females suggested a role in egg laying. The study shows that the plant apoplasm acts as an important destination compartment for proteins secreted during migration and during sedentary stages of the nematode.

A review of the biology of the parasitic copepod Lernaeocera branchialis (L., 1767) (Copepoda: Pennellidae)

This review concerns the parasitic marine copepod Lernaeocera branchialis (L., 1767) and provides an overview of current knowledge concerning its biology and host-parasite interactions. The large size and distinctive appearance of the metamorphosed adult female stage, coupled with the wide exploitation and commercial importance of its final gadoid hosts, means that this species has long been recognised in the scientific literature. The fact that the Atlantic cod, Gadus morhua L., is one of its key host species, and has itself had a major impact on the social and economic development of many countries bordering the North Atlantic for more than 10 centuries is also a factor in its widespread recognition. L. branchialis is recognised as a pathogen that could have major effects on the aquaculture industry and with gadoid (especially cod) farming expanding in several North Atlantic countries, there is considerable potential for this parasite to become a serious problem for commercial mariculture. The main subject areas covered are the parasite's taxonomy; the life history of the parasite including its life cycle, reproduction and host associations; parasite physiology; parasite seasonality and distribution; and the pathogenic effects of the parasite on its host.

Aspartic protease activities of schistosomes cleave mammalian hemoglobins in a host-specific manner

We examined the efficiency of digestion of hemoglobin from four mammalian species, human, cow, sheep, and horse by acidic extracts of mixed sex adults of Schistosoma japonicum and S. mansoni. Activity ascribable to aspartic protease(s) from S. japonicum and S. mansoni cleaved human hemoglobin. In addition, aspartic protease activities from S. japonicum cleaved hemoglobin from bovine, sheep, and horse blood more efficiently than did the activity from extracts of S. mansoni. These findings support the hypothesis that substrate specificity of hemoglobin-degrading proteases employed by blood feeding helminth parasites influences parasite host species range; differences in amino acid sequences in key sites of the parasite proteases interact less or more efficiently with the hemoglobins of permissive or non-permissive hosts.

Progress in the development of a recombinant vaccine for human hookworm disease: the Human Hookworm Vaccine Initiative

Hookworm infection is one of the most important parasitic infections of humans, possibly outranked only by malaria as a cause of misery and suffering. An estimated 1.2 billion people are infected with hookworm in areas of rural poverty in the tropics and subtropics. Epidemiological data collected in China, Southeast Asia and Brazil indicate that, unlike other soil-transmitted helminth infections, the highest hookworm burdens typically occur in adult populations, including the elderly. Emerging data on the host cellular immune responses of chronically infected populations suggest that hookworms induce a state of host anergy and immune hyporesponsiveness. These features account for the high rates of hookworm reinfection following treatment with anthelminthic drugs and therefore, the failure of anthelminthics to control hookworm. Despite the inability of the human host to develop naturally acquired immune responses to hookworm, there is evidence for the feasibility of developing a vaccine based on the successes of immunising laboratory animals with either attenuated larval vaccines or antigens extracted from the alimentary canal of adult blood-feeding stages. The major antigens associated with each of these larval and adult hookworm vaccines have been cloned and expressed in prokaryotic and eukaryotic systems. However, only eukaryotic expression systems (e.g., yeast, baculovirus, and insect cells) produce recombinant proteins that immunologically resemble the corresponding native antigens. A challenge for vaccinologists is to formulate selected eukaryotic antigens with appropriate adjuvants in order to elicit high antibody titres. In some cases, antigen-specific IgE responses are required to mediate protection. Another challenge will be to produce anti-hookworm vaccine antigens at high yield low cost suitable for immunising large impoverished populations living in the developing nations of the tropics.

Digestive proteases of blood-feeding nematodes

Blood-feeding parasites employ a battery of proteolytic enzymes to digest the contents of their bloodmeal. Host haemoglobin is a major substrate for these proteases and, therefore, a driving force in the evolution of parasite-derived proteolytic enzymes. This review will focus on the digestive proteases of the major blood-feeding nematodes - hookworms (Ancylostoma spp. and Necator americanus) and the ruminant parasite, Haemonchus contortus - but also compares and contrasts these proteases with recent findings from schistosomes and malaria parasites. Haematophagous nematodes express proteases of different mechanistic classes in their intestines, many of which have proven or putative roles in degradation of haemoglobin and other proteins involved in nutrition. Moreover, the fine specificity of the relationships between digestive proteases and their substrate proteins provides a new molecular paradigm for understanding host-parasite co-evolution. Numerous laboratories are actively investigating these molecules as antiparasite vaccine targets.

Effect of vaccinations with recombinant fusion proteins on Ancylostoma caninum habitat selection in the canine intestine

Laboratory dogs were vaccinated subcutaneously with 3 different recombinant fusion proteins, each precipitated with alum or calcium phosphate. The vaccinated dogs were then challenged orally with 400 third-stage infective larvae (L3) of the canine hookworm, Ancylostoma caninum. The 3 A. caninum antigens selected were Ac-TMP, an adult-specific secreted tissue inhibitor of metalloproteases; Ac-AP, an adult-specific secreted factor Xa serine protease inhibitor anticoagulant; and Ac-ARR-1, a cathepsin D-like aspartic protease. Each of the 3 groups comprised 6 male beagles (8 +/- 1 wk of age). A fourth group comprised control dogs injected with alum. All of the dogs vaccinated with Ac-TMP or Ac-APR-1 exhibited a vigorous antigen-specific antibody response, whereas only a single dog vaccinated with Ac-AP developed an antibody response. Dogs with circulating antibody responses exhibited 4.5-18% reduction in the numbers of adult hookworms recovered from the small intestines at necropsy, relative to alum-injected dogs. In contrast, there was a concomitant increase in the number of adult hookworms recovered from the colon. The increase in colonic hookworms was as high as 500%, relative to alum-injected dogs. Female adult hookworms were more likely to migrate into the colon than were males. Anti-enzyme and anti-enzyme inhibitor antibodies correlated with an alteration in adult hookworm habitat selection in the canine gastroinntestinal tract.

A novel cathepsin B active site motif is shared by helminth bloodfeeders

This study compared specific protein sequence motifs present within cathepsin B-like cysteine proteases from a number of helminth parasites. We have focused our efforts on cathepsin B-like proteases of Haemonchus contortus, Caenorhabditis elegans, Schistosoma mansoni, Schistosoma japonicum, Ostertagia ostertagi, and Ancylostoma caninum. The goal of this work is to correlate specific features, or proposed roles, of the cathepsin B-like proteases with primary sequence motifs discovered within the proteins. We report here a general motif for the identification of cathepsin B enzymes, and more significantly, a motif within this pattern that is found, with one exception, only in cathepsin B-like proteases of helminth bloodfeeders. We suggest that the "hemoglobinase" motif arose evolutionarily in a minimum of three independent events as a specialized response to increase the efficiency of hemoglobin degradation by these cathepsin B-like enzymes. This motif should be useful in identifying additional helminth hemoglobinases and may provide a specific target for drug design efforts.

Molecular cloning and characterization of Ac-mep-1, a developmentally regulated gut luminal metalloendopeptidase from adult Ancylostoma caninum hookworms

A zinc metalloendopeptidase cDNA (Ac-mep-1) was cloned from Ancylostoma caninum adult hookworms. Ac-mep-1 is encoded by a 2.8 kb mRNA with a predicted open reading frame (ORF) of 870 amino acids (predicted pI=5.5, m.w.=98.7 kDa) that contains four potential N-linked glycosylation sites and predicted zinc-binding domains (HExxH and ENxADxGG). These domains represent signature sequences of the Neutral Endopeptidase 24.11 (neprilysin) family of enzymes. The ORF corresponding to Ac-MEP-1 exhibited strong similarity to metalloproteases from the trichostrongyle Haemonchus contortus as well as Caenorhabditis elegans. RT-PCR analysis of A. caninum eggs, L1, non-activated and activated L3 and adult cDNA identify transcription of Ac-MEP-1 only in the adult stage of the parasite. Mouse antibody raised to the expressed protein recognized proteins of approximately 90 and 100 kDa in adult hookworm extracts. Adult worm sections probed with these antisera localized Ac-mep-1 to the microvilli of the worm gastrointestinal tract suggesting a possible role for this enzyme in digestion of the parasite blood meal.

Hemoglobin-degrading, aspartic proteases of blood-feeding parasites: substrate specificity revealed by homology models

Blood-feeding parasites, including schistosomes, hookworms, and malaria parasites, employ aspartic proteases to make initial or early cleavages in ingested host hemoglobin. To better understand the substrate affinity of these aspartic proteases, sequences were aligned with and/or three-dimensional, molecular models were constructed of the cathepsin D-like aspartic proteases of schistosomes and hookworms and of plasmepsins of Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax, using the structure of human cathepsin D bound to the inhibitor pepstatin as the template. The catalytic subsites S5 through S4' were determined for the modeled parasite proteases. Subsequently, the crystal structure of mouse renin complexed with the nonapeptidyl inhibitor t-butyl-CO-His-Pro-Phe-His-Leu [CHOHCH(2)]Leu-Tyr-Tyr-Ser- NH(2) (CH-66) was used to build homology models of the hemoglobin-degrading peptidases docked with a series of octapeptide substrates. The modeled octapeptides included representative sites in hemoglobin known to be cleaved by both Schistosoma japonicum cathepsin D and human cathepsin D, as well as sites cleaved by one but not the other of these enzymes. The peptidase-octapeptide substrate models revealed that differences in cleavage sites were generally attributable to the influence of a single amino acid change among the P5 to P4' residues that would either enhance or diminish the enzymatic affinity. The difference in cleavage sites appeared to be more profound than might be expected from sequence differences in the enzymes and hemoglobins. The findings support the notion that selective inhibitors of the hemoglobin-degrading peptidases of blood-feeding parasites at large could be developed as novel anti-parasitic agents.

Immune responses in hookworm infections

Hookworms infect perhaps one-fifth of the entire human population, yet little is known about their interaction with our immune system. The two major species are Necator americanus, which is adapted to tropical conditions, and Ancylostoma duodenale, which predominates in more temperate zones. While having many common features, they also differ in several key aspects of their biology. Host immune responses are triggered by larval invasion of the skin, larval migration through the circulation and lungs, and worm establishment in the intestine, where adult worms feed on blood and mucosa while injecting various molecules that facilitate feeding and modulate host protective responses. Despite repeated exposure, protective immunity does not seem to develop in humans, so that infections occur in all age groups (depending on exposure patterns) and tend to be prolonged. Responses to both larval and adult worms have a characteristic T-helper type 2 profile, with activated mast cells in the gut mucosa, elevated levels of circulating immunoglobulin E, and eosinophilia in the peripheral blood and local tissues, features also characteristic of type I hypersensitivity reactions. The longevity of adult hookworms is determined probably more by parasite genetics than by host immunity. However, many of the proteins released by the parasites seem to have immunomodulatory activity, presumably for self-protection. Advances in molecular biotechnology enable the identification and characterization of increasing numbers of these parasite molecules and should enhance our detailed understanding of the protective and pathogenetic mechanisms in hookworm infections.