Two additional common subunits, ABC10 alpha and ABC10 beta, are shared by yeast RNA polymerases

Gpn2 and Rba50 Directly Participate in the Assembly of the Rpb3 Subcomplex in the Biogenesis of RNA Polymerase II

RNA polymerase II (RNAPII) is one of the central enzymes in cell growth and organizational development. It is a large macromolecular complex consisting of 12 subunits. Relative to the clear definition of RNAPII structure and biological function, the molecular mechanism of how RNAPII is assembled is poorly understood, and thus the key assembly factors acting for the assembly of RNAPII remain elusive. In this study, we identified two factors, Gpn2 and Rba50, that directly participate in the assembly of RNAPII. Gpn2 and Rba50 were demonstrated to interact with Rpb12 and Rpb3, respectively. An interaction between Gpn2 and Rba50 was also demonstrated. When Gpn2 and Rba50 are functionally defective, the assembly of the Rpb3 subcomplex is disrupted, leading to defects in the assembly of RNAPII. Based on these results, we conclude that Gpn2 and Rba50 directly participate in the assembly of the Rpb3 subcomplex and subsequently the biogenesis of RNAPII.

Identification of Genes in Saccharomyces cerevisiae that Are Haploinsufficient for Overcoming Amino Acid Starvation

The yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae responds to amino acid deprivation by activating a pathway conserved in eukaryotes to overcome the starvation stress. We have screened the entire yeast heterozygous deletion collection to identify strains haploinsufficient for growth in the presence of sulfometuron methyl, which causes starvation for isoleucine and valine. We have discovered that cells devoid of MET15 are sensitive to sulfometuron methyl, and loss of heterozygosity at the MET15 locus can complicate screening the heterozygous deletion collection. We identified 138 cases of loss of heterozygosity in this screen. After eliminating the issues of the MET15 loss of heterozygosity, strains isolated from the collection were retested on sulfometuron methyl. To determine the general effect of the mutations for a starvation response, SMM-sensitive strains were tested for the ability to grow in the presence of canavanine, which induces arginine starvation, and strains that were MET15 were also tested for growth in the presence of ethionine, which causes methionine starvation. Many of the genes identified in our study were not previously identified as starvation-responsive genes, including a number of essential genes that are not easily screened in a systematic way. The genes identified span a broad range of biological functions, including many involved in some level of gene expression. Several unnamed proteins have also been identified, giving a clue as to possible functions of the encoded proteins.

Subunit compositions of Arabidopsis RNA polymerases I and III reveal Pol I- and Pol III-specific forms of the AC40 subunit and alternative forms of the C53 subunit

Using affinity purification and mass spectrometry, we identified the subunits of Arabidopsis thaliana multisubunit RNA polymerases I and III (abbreviated as Pol I and Pol III), the first analysis of their physical compositions in plants. In all eukaryotes examined to date, AC40 and AC19 subunits are common to Pol I (a.k.a. Pol A) and Pol III (a.k.a. Pol C) and are encoded by single genes. Surprisingly, A. thaliana and related species express two distinct AC40 paralogs, one of which assembles into Pol I and the other of which assembles into Pol III. Changes at eight amino acid positions correlate with the functional divergence of Pol I- and Pol III-specific AC40 paralogs. Two genes encode homologs of the yeast C53 subunit and either protein can assemble into Pol III. By contrast, only one of two potential C17 variants, and one of two potential C31 variants were detected in Pol III. We introduce a new nomenclature system for plant Pol I and Pol III subunits in which the 12 subunits that are structurally and functionally homologous among Pols I through V are assigned equivalent numbers.

RNA polymerase III transcription control elements: themes and variations

Eukaryotic genomes are punctuated by a multitude of tiny genetic elements, that share the property of being recognized and transcribed by the RNA polymerase (Pol) III machinery to produce a variety of small, abundant non-protein-coding (nc) RNAs (tRNAs, 5S rRNA, U6 snRNA and many others). The highly selective, efficient and localized action of Pol III at its minute genomic targets is made possible by a handful of cis-acting regulatory elements, located within the transcribed region (where they are bound by the multisubunit assembly factor TFIIIC) and/or upstream of the transcription start site. Most of them participate directly or indirectly in the ultimate recruitment of TFIIIB, a key multiprotein initiation factor able to direct, once assembled, multiple transcription cycles by Pol III. But the peculiar efficiency and selectivity of Pol III transcription also depends on its ability to recognize very simple and precisely positioned termination signals. Studies in the last few years have significantly expanded the set of known Pol III-associated loci in genomes and, concomitantly, have revealed unexpected features of Pol III cis-regulatory elements in terms of variety, function, genomic location and potential contribution to transcriptome complexity. Here we review, in a historical perspective, well established and newly acquired knowledge about Pol III transcription control elements, with the aim of providing a useful reference for future studies of the Pol III system, which we anticipate will be numerous and intriguing for years to come.

Iwr1 protein is important for preinitiation complex formation by all three nuclear RNA polymerases in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

BACKGROUND

Iwr1, a protein conserved throughout eukaryotes, was originally identified by its physical interaction with RNA polymerase (Pol) II.

PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

Here, we identify Iwr1 in a genetic screen designed to uncover proteins involved in Pol III transcription in S. cerevisiae. Iwr1 is important for Pol III transcription, because an iwr1 mutant strain shows reduced association of TBP and Pol III at Pol III promoters, a decreased rate of Pol III transcription, and lower steady-state levels of Pol III transcripts. Interestingly, an iwr1 mutant strain also displays reduced association of TBP to Pol I-transcribed genes and of both TBP and Pol II to Pol II-transcribed promoters. Despite this, rRNA and mRNA levels are virtually unaffected, suggesting a post-transcriptional mechanism compensating for the occupancy defect.

CONCLUSIONS

Thus, Iwr1 plays an important role in preinitiation complex formation by all three nuclear RNA polymerases.

Sub1 functions in osmoregulation and in transcription by both RNA polymerases II and III

Sub1 is implicated in transcriptional activation, elongation, and mRNA 3'-end formation in budding yeast. To gain more insight into its function, we performed a synthetic genetic array screen with SUB1 that uncovered genetic interactions with genes involved in the high-osmolarity glycerol (HOG) osmoresponse pathway. We find that Sub1 and the HOG pathway are redundant for survival in moderate osmolarity. Chromatin immunoprecipitation analysis shows that Sub1 is recruited to osmoresponse gene promoters during osmotic shock and is required for full recruitment of TBP, TFIIB, and RNA polymerase II (RNAP II) at a subset of these genes. Furthermore, we detect Sub1 at the promoter of every constitutively transcribed RNAP II and, unexpectedly, at every RNAP III gene tested, but not at the RNAP I-transcribed ribosomal DNA promoter. Significantly, deletion of SUB1 reduced levels of promoter-associated RNAP II or III at these genes, but not TBP levels. Together these data suggest that, in addition to a general role in polymerase recruitment at constitutive RNAP II and RNAP III genes, during osmotic shock, Sub1 facilitates osmoresponse gene transcription by enhancing preinitiation complex formation.

The archaeal RNA polymerase subunit P and the eukaryotic polymerase subunit Rpb12 are interchangeable in vivo and in vitro

The general subunit of all three eukaryotic RNA polymerases, Rpb12, and subunit P of the archaeal enzyme show sequence similarities in their N-terminal zinc ribbon and some highly conserved residues in the C-terminus. We report here that archaeal subunit P under the control of a strong yeast promoter could complement the lethal phenotype of a RPB12 deletion mutant and that subunit Rpb12 from yeast can functionally replace subunit P during reconstitution of the archaeal RNA polymerase. The ΔP enzyme is unable to form stable open complexes, but can efficiently extend a dinucleotide on a premelted template or RNA on an elongation scaffold. This suggests that subunit P is directly or indirectly involved in promoter opening. The activity of the ΔP enzyme can be rescued by the addition of Rpb12 or subunit P to transcription reactions. Mutation of cysteine residues in the zinc ribbon impair the activity of the enzyme in several assays and this mutated form of P is rapidly replaced by wild-type P in transcription reactions. The conserved zinc ribbon in the N-terminus seems to be important for proper interaction of the complete subunit with other RNA polymerase subunits and a 17-amino-acid C-terminal peptide is sufficient to support all basic RNA polymerase functions in vitro.

Biochemical and structural characterization of a novel family of cystathionine beta-synthase domain proteins fused to a Zn ribbon-like domain

We have identified a novel family of proteins, in which the N-terminal cystathionine beta-synthase (CBS) domain is fused to the C-terminal Zn ribbon domain. Four proteins were overexpressed in Escherichia coli and purified: TA0289 from Thermoplasma acidophilum, TV1335 from Thermoplasma volcanium, PF1953 from Pyrococcus furiosus, and PH0267 from Pyrococcus horikoshii. The purified proteins had a red/purple color in solution and an absorption spectrum typical of rubredoxins (Rds). Metal analysis of purified proteins revealed the presence of several metals, with iron and zinc being the most abundant metals (2-67% of iron and 12-74% of zinc). Crystal structures of both mercury- and iron-bound TA0289 (1.5-2.0 A resolution) revealed a dimeric protein whose intersubunit contacts are formed exclusively by the alpha-helices of two cystathionine beta-synthase subdomains, whereas the C-terminal domain has a classical Zn ribbon planar architecture. All proteins were reversibly reduced by chemical reductants (ascorbate or dithionite) or by the general Rd reductase NorW from E. coli in the presence of NADH. Reduced TA0289 was found to be capable of transferring electrons to cytochrome C from horse heart. Likewise, the purified Zn ribbon protein KTI11 from Saccharomyces cerevisiae had a purple color in solution and an Rd-like absorption spectrum, contained both iron and zinc, and was reduced by the Rd reductase NorW from E. coli. Thus, recombinant Zn ribbon domains from archaea and yeast demonstrate an Rd-like electron carrier activity in vitro. We suggest that, in vivo, some Zn ribbon domains might also bind iron and therefore possess an electron carrier activity, adding another physiological role to this large family of important proteins.

The NS5A protein of hepatitis C virus represses gene expression of hRPB10alpha, a common subunit of host RNA polymerases, through interferon regulatory factor-1 binding site

The nonstructural (NS) 5A protein of hepatitis C virus (HCV) plays important roles in both viral RNA replication and modulation of the physiology of the host cell. Here we report that NS5A repressed gene expression of hRPB10alpha, a common subunit of host RNA polymerases (Pol), in hepatoma cell lines and Huh-7 cells harboring HCV replicon. Analysis of the hRPB10alpha promoter region revealed that interferon regulatory factor-1 binding element (IRF-E) was essential for its transcription. The IRF-E was responsible for the NS5A-mediated repression of the hRPB10alpha transcription and its induction by IRF-1 that is known to be induced by interferon-alpha. Electrophoretic mobility shift assay showed that IRF-1 bound to the IRF-E and the binding reduced when NS5A was expressed. NS5A appeared to negatively regulate IRF-1 expression, which might be partly responsible for the decrease of hRPB10alpha expression. NS5A expression moderately decreased promoter-independent Pol activity in vitro. Transcription of adenoviral genes that are dependent on Pol II or III and propagation of adenoviral genome were impaired in HeLa cells with stable NS5A expression. The results suggest that NS5A may partly modulate host cell transcription by the down-regulation of hRPB10alpha.

The general transcription machinery and general cofactors

In eukaryotes, the core promoter serves as a platform for the assembly of transcription preinitiation complex (PIC) that includes TFIIA, TFIIB, TFIID, TFIIE, TFIIF, TFIIH, and RNA polymerase II (pol II), which function collectively to specify the transcription start site. PIC formation usually begins with TFIID binding to the TATA box, initiator, and/or downstream promoter element (DPE) found in most core promoters, followed by the entry of other general transcription factors (GTFs) and pol II through either a sequential assembly or a preassembled pol II holoenzyme pathway. Formation of this promoter-bound complex is sufficient for a basal level of transcription. However, for activator-dependent (or regulated) transcription, general cofactors are often required to transmit regulatory signals between gene-specific activators and the general transcription machinery. Three classes of general cofactors, including TBP-associated factors (TAFs), Mediator, and upstream stimulatory activity (USA)-derived positive cofactors (PC1/PARP-1, PC2, PC3/DNA topoisomerase I, and PC4) and negative cofactor 1 (NC1/HMGB1), normally function independently or in combination to fine-tune the promoter activity in a gene-specific or cell-type-specific manner. In addition, other cofactors, such as TAF1, BTAF1, and negative cofactor 2 (NC2), can also modulate TBP or TFIID binding to the core promoter. In general, these cofactors are capable of repressing basal transcription when activators are absent and stimulating transcription in the presence of activators. Here we review the roles of these cofactors and GTFs, as well as TBP-related factors (TRFs), TAF-containing complexes (TFTC, SAGA, SLIK/SALSA, STAGA, and PRC1) and TAF variants, in pol II-mediated transcription, with emphasis on the events occurring after the chromatin has been remodeled but prior to the formation of the first phosphodiester bond.

Structural perspective on mutations affecting the function of multisubunit RNA polymerases

High-resolution crystallographic structures of multisubunit RNA polymerases (RNAPs) have increased our understanding of transcriptional mechanisms. Based on a thorough review of the literature, we have compiled the mutations affecting the function of multisubunit RNA polymerases, many of which having been generated and studied prior to the publication of the first high-resolution structure, and highlighted the positions of the altered amino acids in the structures of both the prokaryotic and eukaryotic enzymes. The observations support many previous hypotheses on the transcriptional process, including the implication of the bridge helix and the trigger loop in the processivity of RNAP, the importance of contacts between the RNAP jaw-lobe module and the downstream DNA in the establishment of a transcription bubble and selection of the transcription start site, the destabilizing effects of ppGpp on the open promoter complex, and the link between RNAP processivity and termination. This study also revealed novel, remarkable features of the RNA polymerase catalytic mechanisms that will require additional investigation, including the putative roles of fork loop 2 in the establishment of a transcription bubble, the trigger loop in start site selection, and the uncharacterized funnel domain in RNAP processivity.

Functional dissection of the catalytic mechanism of mammalian RNA polymerase II

High resolution X-ray crystal structures of multisubunit RNA polymerases (RNAP) have contributed to our understanding of transcriptional mechanisms. They also provided a powerful guide for the design of experiments aimed at further characterizing the molecular stages of the transcription reaction. Our laboratory used tandem-affinity peptide purification in native conditions to isolate human RNAP II variants that had site-specific mutations in structural elements located strategically within the enzyme's catalytic center. Both in vitro and in vivo analyses of these mutants revealed novel features of the catalytic mechanisms involving this enzyme.

Rpc25, a conserved RNA polymerase III subunit, is critical for transcription initiation

Rpc25 is a strongly conserved subunit of RNA polymerase III with homology to Rpa43 in RNA polymerase I, Rpb7 in RNA polymerase II and the archaeal RpoE subunit. A central domain of Rpc25 can replaced the corresponding region of Rpb7 with little or no growth defect, underscoring the functional relatedness of these proteins. Rpc25 forms a heterodimer with Rpc17, another conserved component of RNA polymerase III. A conditional mutant (rpc25-S100P) impairs this interaction. rpc25-S100P and another conditional mutant obtained by complementation with the Schizosaccharomyces pombe subunit (rpc25-Sp) were investigated for the properties of their purified RNA polymerase III. The mutant enzymes were defective in the specific synthesis of pre-tRNA transcripts but acted at a wild-type level on poly[d(A-T)] templates. They were also indistinguishable from wild type in transcript elongation, cleavage and termination. These data indicate that Rpc25 is needed for transcription initiation but is not critical for the elongating properties of RNA polymerase III.

Association of the GTP-binding protein Gtr1p with Rpc19p, a shared subunit of RNA polymerase I and III in yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Yeast Gtr1p and its human homolog RRAG A belong to the Ras-like small G-protein superfamily and genetically interact with RCC1, a guanine nucleotide exchange factor for Ran GTPase. Little is known regarding the function of Gtr1p. We performed yeast two-hybrid screening using Gtr1p as the bait to find interacting proteins. Rpc19p, a shared subunit of RNA polymerases I and III, associated with Gtr1p. The association of Gtr1p with Rpc19p occurred in a GTP-form-specific manner. RRAG A associated with RPA16 (human Rpc19p homolog) in a GTP-form-specific manner, suggesting that the association is conserved during evolution. Ribosomal RNA and tRNA synthesis were reduced in the gtr1Delta strain expressing the GDP form of Gtr1p, but not the GTP form of Gtr1p. Gel-filtration studies revealed an accumulation of the smaller Rpc19p-containing complex, but not of A135, in the gtr1Delta strain. Here, we propose that Gtr1p is involved in RNA polymerase I and III assembly by its association with Rpc19p and could be a mediator that links growth regulatory signals with ribosome biogenesis.

The A14-A43 heterodimer subunit in yeast RNA pol I and their relationship to Rpb4-Rpb7 pol II subunits

A43, an essential subunit of yeast RNA polymerase I (pol I), interacts with Rrn3, a class I general transcription factor required for rDNA transcription. The pol I-Rrn3 complex is the only form of enzyme competent for promoter-dependent transcription initiation. In this paper, using biochemical and genetic approaches, we demonstrate that the A43 polypeptide forms a stable heterodimer with the A14 pol I subunit and interacts with the common ABC23 subunit, the yeast counterpart of the omega subunit of bacterial RNA polymerase. We show by immunoelectronic microscopy that A43, ABC23, and A14 colocalize in the three-dimensional structure of the pol I, and we demonstrate that the presence of A43 is required for the stabilization of both A14 and ABC23 within the pol I. Because the N-terminal half of A43 is clearly related to the pol II Rpb7 subunit, we propose that the A43-A14 pair is likely the pol I counterpart of the Rpb7-Rpb4 heterodimer, although A14 distinguishes from Rpb4 by specific sequence and structure features. This hypothesis, combined with our structural data, suggests a new localization of Rpb7-Rpb4 subunits in the three-dimensional structure of yeast pol II.

Partners of Rpb8p, a small subunit shared by yeast RNA polymerases I, II and III

Rpb8p, a subunit common to the three yeast RNA polymerases, is conserved among eukaryotes and absent from noneukaryotes. Defective mutants were found at an invariant GGLLM motif and at two other highly conserved amino acids. With one exception, they are clustered on the Rpb8p structure. They all impair a two-hybrid interaction with a fragment conserved in the largest subunits of RNA polymerases I (Rpa190p), II (Rpb1p), and III (Rpc160p). This fragment corresponds to the pore 1 module of the RNA polymerase II crystal structure and bears a highly conserved motif (P.I.KP.LW.GKQ) facing the GGLLM motif of Rpb8p. An RNA polymerase I mutant (rpa190-G728D) at the invariant glycyl of P.I.KP.LW.GKQ provokes a temperature-sensitive defect. Increasing the gene dosage of another common subunit, Rpb6p, suppresses this phenotype. It also suppresses a conditional growth defect observed when replacing Rpb8p by its human counterpart. Hence, Rpb6p and Rpb8p functionally interact in vivo. These two subunits are spatially separated by the pore 1 module and may also be possibly connected by the disorganized N half of Rpb6p, not included in the present structure data. Human Rpb6p is phosphorylated at its N-terminal Ser2, but an alanyl replacement at this position still complements an rpb6-Delta null allele. A two-hybrid interaction also occurs between Rpb8p and the product of orphan gene YGR089w. A ygr089-Delta null mutant has no detectable growth defect but aggravates the conditional growth defect of rpb8 mutants, suggesting that the interaction with Rpb8p may be physiologically relevant.

RNA polymerase II subunit Rpb9 regulates transcription elongation in vivo

RNA polymerase II lacking the Rpb9 subunit uses alternate transcription initiation sites in vitro and in vivo and is unable to respond to the transcription elongation factor TFIIS in vitro. Here, we show that RPB9 has a synthetic phenotype with the TFIIS gene. Disruption of RPB9 in yeast also resulted in sensitivity to 6-azauracil, which is a phenotype linked to defects in transcription elongation. Expression of the TFIIS gene on a high-copy plasmid partially suppressed the 6-azauracil sensitivity of Deltarpb9 cells. We set out to determine the relevant cellular role of yeast Rpb9 by assessing the ability of 20 different site-directed and deletion mutants of RPB9 to complement the initiation and elongation defects of Deltarpb9 cells in vivo. Rpb9 is composed of two zinc ribbons. The N-terminal zinc ribbon restored the wild-type pattern of initiation start sites, but was unable to complement the growth defects associated with defects in elongation. Most of the site-directed mutants complemented the elongation-specific growth phenotypes and reconstituted the normal pattern of transcription initiation sites. The anti-correlation between the growth defects of cells disrupted for RPB9 and the selection of transcription start sites suggests that this is not the primary cellular role for Rpb9. Genome-wide transcription profiling of Deltarpb9 cells revealed only a few changes, predominantly in genes related to metabolism.

Zinc-bundle structure of the essential RNA polymerase subunit RPB10 from Methanobacterium thermoautotrophicum

The RNA polymerase subunit RPB10 displays a high level of conservation across archaea and eukarya and is required for cell viability in yeast. Structure determination of this RNA polymerase subunit from Methanobacterium thermoautotrophicum reveals a topology, which we term a zinc-bundle, consisting of three alpha-helices stabilized by a zinc ion. The metal ion is bound within an atypical CX(2)CX(n)CC sequence motif and serves to bridge an N-terminal loop with helix 3. This represents an example of two adjacent zinc-binding Cys residues within an alpha-helix conformation. Conserved surface features of RPB10 include discrete regions of neutral, acidic, and basic residues, the latter being located around the zinc-binding site. One or more of these regions may contribute to the role of this subunit as a scaffold protein within the polymerase holoenzyme.

Zinc stoichiometry of yeast RNA polymerase II and characterization of mutations in the zinc-binding domain of the largest subunit

Atomic absorption spectroscopy demonstrated that highly purified RNA polymerase II from the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae binds seven zinc ions. This number agrees with the number of potential zinc-binding sites among the 12 different subunits of the enzyme and with our observation that the ninth largest subunit alone is able to bind two zinc ions. The zinc-binding motif in the largest subunit of the enzyme was investigated using mutagenic analysis. Altering any one of the six conserved residues in the zinc-binding motif conferred either a lethal or conditional phenotype, and zinc blot analysis indicated that mutant forms of the domain had a 2-fold reduction in zinc affinity. Mutations in the zinc-binding domain reduced RNA polymerase II activity in cell-free extracts, even though protein blot analysis indicated that the mutant subunit was present in excess of wild-type levels. Purification of one mutant RNA polymerase revealed a subunit profile that was wild-type like with the exception of two subunits not required for core enzyme activity (Rpb4p and Rpb7p), which were missing. Core activity of the mutant enzyme was reduced 20-fold. We conclude that mutations in the zinc-binding domain can reduce core activity without altering the association of any of the subunits required for this activity.

Functional conservation of RNA polymerase II in fission and budding yeasts

The complementary DNAs of the 12 subunits of fission yeast (Schizosaccharomyces pombe) RNA polymerase II were expressed from strong promoters in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and tested for heterospecific complementation by monitoring their ability to replace in vivo the null mutants of the corresponding host genes. Rpb1 and Rpb2, the two largest subunits and Rpb8, a small subunit shared by all three polymerases, failed to support growth in S. cerevisiae. The remaining nine subunits were all proficient for heterospecific complementation and led in most cases to a wild-type level of growth. The two alpha-like subunits (Rpb3 and Rpb11), however, did not support growth at high (37 degrees C) or low (25 degrees C) temperatures. In the case of Rpb3, growth was restored by increasing the gene dosage of the host Rpb11 or Rpb10 subunits, confirming previous evidence of a close genetic interaction between these three subunits.

Interaction between yeast RNA polymerase III and transcription factor TFIIIC via ABC10alpha and tau131 subunits

Yeast TFIIIC mediates transcription of class III genes by promoting the assembly of a stable TFIIIB-DNA complex that is sufficient for RNA polymerase III recruitment and function. Unexpectedly, we found an interaction in vivo and in vitro between the TFIIIB-recruiting subunit of TFIIIC, tau131, and ABC10alpha, a small essential subunit common to the three forms of nuclear RNA polymerases. This interaction was mapped to the C-terminal region of ABC10alpha. A thermosensitive mutation in the C terminus region of ABC10alpha (rpc10-30) was found to be selectively suppressed by overexpression of a mutant form of tau131 (tau131-DeltaTPR2) that lacks the second TPR repeat. Remarkably, the rpc10-30 mutation weakened the ABC10alpha-tau131 interaction, and the suppressive mutation, tau131-DeltaTPR2 increased the interaction between the two proteins in the two-hybrid assay. These results point to the potential importance of a functional contact between TFIIIC and RNA polymerase III.

Functional characterization of ABC10alpha, an essential polypeptide shared by all three forms of eukaryotic DNA-dependent RNA polymerases

ABC10alpha is a small polypeptide shared by the three yeast RNA polymerases. Homologous polypeptides in higher eukaryotes have a zinc-binding CX(2)C. CX(2)C motif and a conserved basic C-terminal end. These features are also found in archaeal gene products that may encode an RNA polymerase subunit. The CX(2)C. CX(2)C motif is partly dispensable, since only its first cysteine is essential for growth, whereas the basic C-terminal end is critical in vivo. A mutant in the latter domain has an RNA polymerase III-specific defect and, in vitro, impairs RNA polymerase III assembly. Polymerase activity was, however, not affected in various faithful transcription assays. The mutant is suppressed by a high gene dosage of the second largest subunit of RNA polymerase III, whereas the homologous subunits of RNA polymerase I and II have aggravating effects. In a two-hybrid assay, ABC10alpha binds to the C-terminal half of the second largest subunit of RNA polymerase I, in a way that requires the integrity of the CX(2)C. CX(2)C motif. Thus, ABC10alpha appears to interact directly with the second largest subunit during polymerase assembly. This interaction is presumably a major rate-limiting step in assembly, since diploid cells containing only one functional gene copy for ABC10alpha have a partial growth defect.

Mutants in ABC10beta, a conserved subunit shared by all three yeast RNA polymerases, specifically affect RNA polymerase I assembly

ABC10beta, a small polypeptide common to the three yeast RNA polymerases, has close homology to the N subunit of the archaeal enzyme and is remotely related to the smallest subunit of vaccinial RNA polymerase. The eucaryotic, archaeal, and viral polypeptides share an invariant motif CX2C. CC that is strictly essential for yeast growth, as shown by site-directed mutagenesis, whereas the rest of the ABC10beta sequence is fairly tolerant to amino acid replacements. ABC10beta has Zn2+ binding properties in vitro, and the CX2C. CC motif may therefore define an atypical metal-chelating site. Hybrid subunits that derive most of their amino acids from the archaeal subunit are functional in yeast, indicating that the archaeal and eucaryotic polypeptides have a largely equivalent role in the organization of their respective transcription complexes. However, all eucaryotic forms of ABC10beta harbor a HVDLIEK motif that, when mutated or replaced by its archaeal counterpart, leads to a polymerase I-specific lethal defect in vivo. This is accompanied by a specific lack in the largest subunit of RNA polymerase I (A190) in cell-free extracts, showing that the mutant enzyme is not properly assembled in vivo.

High-resolution structure of an archaeal zinc ribbon defines a general architectural motif in eukaryotic RNA polymerases

BACKGROUND

Transcriptional initiation and elongation provide control points in gene expression. Eukaryotic RNA polymerase II subunit 9 (RPB9) regulates start-site selection and elongational arrest. RPB9 contains Cys4 Zn(2+)-binding motifs which are conserved in archaea and homologous to those of the general transcription factors TFIIB and TFIIS.

RESULTS

The structure of an RPB9 domain from the hyperthermophilic archaeon Thermococcus celer was determined at high resolution by NMR spectroscopy. The structure consists of an apical tetrahedral Zn(2+)-binding site, central beta sheet and disordered loop. Although the structure lacks a globular hydrophobic core, the two surfaces of the beta sheet each contain well ordered aromatic rings engaged in serial edge-to-face interactions. Basic sidechains are clustered near the Zn(2+)-binding site. The disordered loop contains sidechains conserved in TFIIS, including acidic residues essential for the stimulation of transcriptional elongation.

CONCLUSIONS

The planar architecture of the RPB9 zinc ribbon-distinct from that of a conventional globular domain-can accommodate significant differences in the alignment of polar, non-polar and charged sidechains. Such divergence is associated with local and non-local changes in structure. The RPB9 structure is distinguished by a fourth beta strand (extending the central beta sheet) in a well ordered N-terminal segment and also differs from TFIIS (but not TFIIB) in the orientation of its apical Zn(2+)-binding site. Cys4 Zn(2+)-binding sites with distinct patterns of polar, non-polar and charged residues are conserved among unrelated RNAP subunits and predicted to form variant zinc ribbons.

Cloning and characterization of the human RNA polymerase I subunit hRPA40

The cloning of the human RNA polymerase I 40 kDa subunit, and the comparison of its amino acid sequence to other related RNA polymerase subunits are described. The amino acid sequence of hRPA40 has high homology to the mouse RNA polymerase I 40 kDa subunit (93%), to two Arabidopsis thaliana subunits (47%), the yeast RPC40 subunit (46%) and the human RNA polymerase II hRPB33 subunit (40%). Southern blot analysis shows that this gene is single copy and Northern blot analysis indicates that the mRNA of 1.3 kb is expressed in different cell types.

A shared subunit belongs to the eukaryotic core RNA polymerase

The yeast RNA polymerase I is a multimeric complex composed of 14 distinct subunits, 5 of which are shared by the three forms of nuclear RNA polymerase. The reasons for this structural complexity are still largely unknown. Isolation of an inactive form of RNA Pol I lacking the A43, ABC23, and A14 subunits (RNA Pol I delta) allowed us to investigate the function of the shared subunit ABC23 by in vitro reconstitution experiments. Addition of recombinant ABC23 alone to the RNA Pol I delta reactivated the enzyme to up to 50% of the wild-type enzyme activity. The recombinant subunit was stably and stoichiometrically reassociated within the enzymatic complex. ABC23 was found to be required for the formation of the first phosphodiester bond, but it was not involved in DNA binding by RNA Pol I, as shown by gel retardation and surface plasmon resonance experiments, and did not recycle during transcription. Electron microscopic visualization and electrophoretic analysis of the subunit depleted and reactivated forms of the enzyme indicate that binding of ABC23 caused a major conformational change leading to a transcriptionally competent enzyme. Altogether, our results demonstrate that the ABC23 subunit is required for the structural and functional integrity of RNA Pol I and thus should be considered as part of the core enzyme.

Gene RPA43 in Saccharomyces cerevisiae encodes an essential subunit of RNA polymerase I

Yeast RNA polymerase I contains 14 distinct polypeptides, including A43, a component of about 43 kDa. The corresponding gene, RPA43, encodes a 326-amino acid polypeptide matching the peptidic sequence of two tryptic fragments isolated from A43. Gene inactivation leads to a lethal phenotype that is rescued by a plasmid containing the 35S ribosomal RNA gene fused to the GAL7 promoter, which allows the synthesis of 35S rRNA by RNA polymerase II in the presence of galactose. A screening for mutants rescued by the presence of GAL7-35SrDNA identified a nonsense rpa43 allele truncating the protein at amino acid position 217. [3H]Uridine pulse labeling showed that this mutation abolishes 35S rRNA synthesis without significant effects on the synthesis of 5 S RNA and tRNAs. These properties establish that A43 is an essential component of RNA polymerase I. This highly hydrophilic phosphoprotein has a strongly acidic carboxyl-terminal domain, and shows no homology to entries in current sequence data banks, including all the genetically identified components of the other two yeast RNA polymerases. RPA43 mapped next to RPA190, encoding the largest subunit of polymerase I. These genes are divergently transcribed and may thus share upstream regulatory elements ensuring their co-regulation.

The association of three subunits with yeast RNA polymerase is stabilized by A14

RNA polymerase I of Saccharomyces cerevisiae is composed of 14 subunits. All of the corresponding genes have been cloned with the exception of the RPA14 gene encoding A14, a specific polypeptide of this enzyme. We report the cloning and the characterization of RPA14. The A14 polypeptide was separated from the other RNA polymerase I subunits by reverse-phase high pressure liquid chromatography and digested with proteinase K. Based on the amino acid sequence of one of the resulting peptides, a degenerate oligonucleotide was synthesized and used to isolate the RPA14 gene from a yeast subgenomic DNA library. RPA14 is a single copy gene that maps to chromosome IV and is flanked by CYP1 and HOM2. Disruption of RPA14 is not lethal, but growth of the rpa14::URA3 mutant strain is impaired at 37 and 38 degrees C. RNA polymerase I was purified from the rpa14::URA3 strain. After two purification steps, the enzyme did not contain the subunits A14, ABC23, and A43. This form of the enzyme was not active in a nonspecific in vitro transcription assay. These results demonstrate that A14 is a genuine subunit of RNA polymerase I and suggest that A14 plays a role in the stability of a subgroup of subunits.

RNA polymerase II subunit RPB9 is required for accurate start site selection

The diverse functions of Saccharomyces cerevisiae RNA polymerase II are partitioned among its 12 subunits, designated RPB1-RPB12. Although multiple functions have been assigned to the three largest subunits, RPB1, RPB2, and RPB3, the functions of the remaining smaller subunits are unknown. We have determined the function of one of the smaller subunits, RPB9, by demonstrating that it is necessary for accurate start site selection. Transcription in the absence of RPB9 initiates farther upstream at new and previously minor start sites both at the CYC1 promoter in vitro and at the CYC1, ADH1, HIS4, H2B-1, and RPB6 promoters in vivo. Immunoprecipitation of RNA polymerase II from cells lacking the RPB9 gene revealed that all of the remaining 11 subunits are assembled into the enzyme, suggesting that the start site defect is attributable solely to the absence of RPB9. In support of this hypothesis, we have shown that addition of wild-type recombinant RPB9 completely corrects for the start site defect seen in vitro. A mutated recombinant RPB9 protein, with an alteration in a metal-binding domain required for high temperature growth and accurate start site selection in vivo, was at least 10-fold less effective at correcting the start site defect in vitro. RPB9 appears to play a unique role in transcription initiation, as the defects revealed in its absence are distinct from those seen with mutants in RNA polymerase subunit RPB1 and factor e (TFIIB), two other yeast proteins also involved in start site selection.

The fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe rpb6 gene encodes the common phosphorylated subunit of RNA polymerase and complements a mutation in the corresponding gene of Saccharomyces cerevisiae

A single-copy gene, homologous to the RPB6 gene from Saccharomyces cerevisiae, encoding a small phosphorylated subunit common to all three forms of nuclear DNA-dependent RNA polymerase was isolated from the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe. Its cDNA copy consists of an open reading frame of 142 codons and encodes an acidic protein (predicted pI 4.1) with a M(r) of 15,730. The genomic copy of Sz. pombe rpb6 contains an intron (219 nucleotides) located at codon 92, a position which does not correspond to the single intron of the S. cerevisiae gene. The sequencing of both genomic and cDNA copies of rpb6 allowed us to determine the probable positions of the start and stop of rpb6 transcription and to identify a putative TATA box. The primary structures of the Sz. pombe and S. cerevisiae Rpb6 proteins have 60.7% identity, with the same general organization: a highly acidic N-terminal region followed by a short basic region and a C terminus featuring a putative heptad Leu repeat. The C-terminal half of the sequence is particularly well conserved and, therefore, probably contains the most important functional domain. Moreover, a heterospecific complementation test showed that rpb6 from Sz. pombe fully complements a complete deletion of its S. cerevisiae homologue.

Halobacterial S9 operon contains two genes encoding proteins homologous to subunits shared by eukaryotic RNA polymerases I, II, and III

One key component of the eukaryotic transcriptional apparatus is the multisubunit enzyme RNA polymerase II. We have discovered that two of the subunits shared by the three nuclear RNA polymerases in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, RPB6 and RPB10, have counterparts among the Archaea.

The TATA-binding protein: a general transcription factor in eukaryotes and archaebacteria

The TATA-binding protein TBP appears to be essential for all transcription in eukaryotic cell nuclei, which suggests that its function was established early in evolution. Archaebacteria constitute a kingdom of organisms distinct from eukaryotes and eubacteria. Archaebacterial gene regulatory sequences often map to TATA box-like motifs. Here it is shown that the archaebacterium Pyrococcus woesei expresses a protein with structural and functional similarity to eukaryotic TBP molecules. This suggests that TBP's role in transcription was established before the archaebacterial and eukaryotic lineages diverged and that the transcription systems of archaebacteria and eukaryotes are fundamentally homologous.

Molecular characterization of the largest subunit of Plasmodium falciparum RNA polymerase I

Plasmodium species possess developmentally regulated ribosomal RNA (rRNA) genes. This report describes the expression and gene structure of the largest subunit of P. falciparum RNA polymerase I (RNAPI), which is responsible for the synthesis of rRNA. The RNAPI largest subunit gene was present as a single copy gene on chromosome 9. Three exons encode the 2910-amino acid RNAPI polypeptide (340 140 Da). A comparison of Plasmodium, Trypanosoma, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae nuclear RNAP largest subunits identified conserved amino acid positions and class-specific amino acid positions. Novel amino acid insertions were found between RNAPI conserved regions A and B (region A'), D and DE1 (region D'), DE2 and E (region DE2'), and F and G (region F'). Leucine zipper domains were found within regions D', DE2, and DE2'. A novel serine-rich repeat domain, a domain with homology to the C-terminal domain of eukaryotic upstream binding factor (UBF), and 4 highly conserved casein kinase II (CKII) Ser/Thr phosphorylation motifs were found within a 127-amino acid sub-region of enlarged region F'. The novel RNAPI serine-rich repeat contained a conserved motif, Ser-X3-Ser, which was also identified in the serine-rich repeat domains of the P. falciparum RNAPII and RNAPIII largest subunits, as well as within a highly homologous serine-rich repeat from trophozoite antigen R45. The results of this molecular analysis indicate that phosphorylation and dephosphorylation mechanisms regulate the activity of P. falciparum RNAPI.

RPB7, one of two dissociable subunits of yeast RNA polymerase II, is essential for cell viability

The Saccharomyces cerevisiae RNA polymerase II subunit gene RPB7 was isolated and sequenced. RPB7 is a single copy gene whose sequence predicts a 19,000 Dalton protein of 171 amino acids. RPB7 is known to dissociate from RNA polymerase II as an RPB4/RPB7 subcomplex in vitro. RPB7 also appears to interact with RNA polymerase II in a manner dependent upon RPB4, since RNA polymerase II purified from cells lacking RPB4 also lacks RPB7. Previous results have demonstrated that deletion of the RPB4 results in slow growth and cold- and temperature-sensitivity. In contrast, deletion of the RPB7 gene revealed that it is essential for cell growth and viability. Loss of both the RPB4 and the RPB7 genes causes lethality. These results suggest that RPB7 contributes to the function of RNA polymerase II in the absence of RPB4 either in a manner independent of its association with the enzyme or by directly binding to the enzyme in a manner independent of its association with RPB4.

The TATA-binding protein and associated factors are components of pol III transcription factor TFIIIB

RNA polymerases I, II, and III require the TATA-binding protein (TBP) to initiate promoter-specific transcription. We have separated HeLa TBP into four phosphocellulose fractions that elicit polymerase specificity in supplying TBP activity to TBP-depleted pol II and pol III transcription reactions. Polymerase specificity might arise in part through distinct TBP-associated factors (TAFs), which have recently been identified in pol I and II transcription. However, the requirement for pol III TAFs has not been established. Here we show that classical pol III transcription involves a minimum of two novel TAFs: TAF-172 and TAF-L. Not only does TAF-172 activate pol III transcription, but it also inhibits the binding of TBP to the TATA box, thereby repressing pol II transcription. The TBP-TAF-172-TAF-L complex can replace TFIIIB both in transcription reactions reconstituted with TFIIIC and in template commitment assays. Thus SL1, TFIID, and TFIIIB might be functionally similar TBP-TAF complexes that direct pol I, II, and III transcription, respectively.

A yeast TFIIB-related factor involved in RNA polymerase III transcription

A suppressor gene was identified, which in high copy number rescues a temperature-sensitive mutation in yeast TATA-binding protein (TBP). Suppression was allele specific because the suppressor did not rescue the temperature-sensitive phenotype of another TBP mutant. This suppressor gene encodes a 596-amino-acid protein of which the amino-terminal half is homologous to the Pol II-specific factor TFIIB. Disruption of this gene, termed BRF1, showed it to be essential for growth of yeast. Deletion of sequences at either the amino or carboxyl terminus of BRF1 gave both temperature- and cold-sensitive phenotypes. These temperature- and cold-sensitive strains were used to prepare extracts deficient in BRF1 activity and were tested for transcriptional activity by RNA polymerases I, II, and III in vitro. BRF1-deficient extracts are defective in Pol III transcription and can be reconstituted for Pol III transcription by the addition of recombinant BRF1. Western analysis shows that BRF1 is present in TFIIIB but not the TFIIIC fraction, suggesting that it is a component of TFIIIB. We propose that BRF1 plays a role in Pol III initiation analogous to the role played by TFIIB for Pol II in its interaction with TBP and polymerase. The identification of a Pol III-specific TFIIB-like factor extends the previously noted similarity of transcriptional initiation by the three nuclear polymerases.