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De Las Heras M, Lacasta D, Reséndiz RA, Rivas A, Garzianda A, de Miguel R, Ruiz H, Castells E, González V, Ferrer LM. Chronic pithomycotoxicosis associated with obstructive rhinopathy in sheep. Vet Pathol 2022; 59:950-959. [PMID: 35787065 DOI: 10.1177/03009858221109095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Pithomycotoxicosis (facial eczema) is a seasonal hepatogenous photosensitization of sheep caused by the ingestion of sporidesmin contained in the spores of the fungus Pithomyces chartarum. We describe 4 cases of obstructive rhinopathy associated with chronic pithomycotoxicosis naturally occurring in the north of Spain. Sheep were 5 to 7 years old and Latxa breed. A detailed clinical study was conducted together with computerized tomography examination and completed by necropsy and histopathology. All sheep developed a permanent narrowing of the nasal lumen close to the nostrils causing inspiratory dyspnea and snoring. Computerized tomography demonstrated a significant increase of soft tissue in the rostral nasal cavity. Elevated gamma-glutamyl transferase, alanine aminotransferase, and lipase were noted on serum biochemistry. At necropsy, liver atrophy and fibrosis associated with chronic pithomycotoxicosis was identified in 3 of the sheep. All sheep had whitish elevations and rough surfaces on the alar folds and areas adjacent to the nasal surfaces. Histopathologic assessments, which included histochemical and immunohistochemical techniques, of the nasal lesions identified moderate to severe arteriosclerosis in 21.5% to 61.9% of the small arteries evaluated with surrounding fibrosis and edema. No changes associated with hypersensitivity reactions were found. These lesions were similar to the ones described in blood vessels of the liver in chronic pithomycotoxicosis and in our cases. The results of this study suggest a direct action of the sporidesmin on the rostral nasal cavity. Further studies are needed to analyze the impact of the sporidesmin on the sheep nasal mucosa.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Ane Rivas
- Veterinary Practitioner, Basque Country, Spain
| | | | | | | | | | - Vicente González
- Centro de Investigación y Tecnología Agroalimentaria de Aragón, Zaragoza, Spain
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Manthorpe EM, Jerrett IV, Rawlin GT, Woolford L. Plant and Fungal Hepatotoxicities of Cattle in Australia, with a Focus on Minimally Understood Toxins. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:E707. [PMID: 33171661 PMCID: PMC7695254 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12110707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2020] [Revised: 11/04/2020] [Accepted: 11/05/2020] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Plant- and fungus-derived hepatotoxins are a major cause of disease and production losses in ruminants in Australia and around the world. Many are well studied and described in the literature; however, this is not the case for a number of hepatotoxicities with economic and animal welfare impacts, such as acute bovine liver disease (ABLD), brassica-associated liver disease (BALD) and Trema tomentosa, Argentipallium blandowskianum and Lythrum hyssopifolia toxicity. Additionally, significant overlap in the clinical presentation and pathology of these conditions can present a diagnostic challenge for veterinarians. This review summarizes the current and most recently published knowledge of common plant- and fungus-associated hepatotoxins affecting cattle in Australia, with a focus on the mechanisms of toxicity and distinguishing diagnostic features. Consolidation of the current understanding of hepatotoxic mechanisms in cattle provides insight into the potential mechanisms of lesser-known toxins, including cellular and subcellular targets and potential metabolic pathways. In the absence of specific etiological investigations, the study of epidemiological, clinical and pathological features of hepatotoxicity provides valuable insights into potential toxic mechanisms and is integral for the successful diagnosis and management of these conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eve M. Manthorpe
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Roseworthy, South Australia 5371, Australia;
| | - Ian V. Jerrett
- Department of Jobs, Precincts and Regions, Agribio, the Centre for AgriBioscience, Melbourne, Victoria 3083, Australia; (I.V.J.); (G.T.R.)
| | - Grant T. Rawlin
- Department of Jobs, Precincts and Regions, Agribio, the Centre for AgriBioscience, Melbourne, Victoria 3083, Australia; (I.V.J.); (G.T.R.)
| | - Lucy Woolford
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Roseworthy, South Australia 5371, Australia;
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Davidson CS. HEPATOTOXICITY OF FOODS: A CONSIDERATION OF THE HEPATOTOXICITY OF A FEW PHANEROGAMS AND CRYPTOGRAMS; THEIR POSSIBLE INFLUENCE IN THE PATHOGENESIS OF CIRRHOSIS AND HEPATOMA*,†. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2014. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1963.tb57099.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Collett MG. Bile duct lesions associated with turnip (Brassica rapa) photosensitization compared with those due to sporidesmin toxicosis in dairy cows. Vet Pathol 2013; 51:986-91. [PMID: 24280939 DOI: 10.1177/0300985813513042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Cattle grazing turnips or other brassica forage crops occasionally develop hepatogenous photosensitization. In New Zealand, cases of bovine photosensitization associated with such crops frequently occur during late summer and fall, and this coincides with the facial eczema (sporidesmin toxicosis) "season." Clinical chemistry findings in acute photosensitization cases associated with both brassica and facial eczema include marked serum elevations in γ-glutamyl transferase and glutamate dehydrogenase activities. Distinctive bile duct lesions of "subacute" turnip photosensitization in 2 cows, comprising microscopic cholangiectasis with concentric periductal fibrosis of small bile ducts, and a spectrum of changes from bile duct necrosis progressing to obliterative sclerosis are described. These bile duct lesions are compared with those in 3 cases of "subacute" facial eczema in adult cows, where medium-sized and larger ducts tend to be involved and bile duct hyperplasia and portal fibrosis are more prominent, often leading to bridging between neighboring portal triads.
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Affiliation(s)
- M G Collett
- Institute of Veterinary, Animal and Biomedical Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
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Smith BL, Briggs LR, Embling PP, Hawkes AD, Towers NR. Urinary excretion of immunoreactive sporidesmin metabolites in sheep in relation to factors influencing susceptibility to sporidesmin intoxication. N Z Vet J 2005; 47:13-9. [PMID: 16032061 DOI: 10.1080/00480169.1999.36101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
AIM To study the urinary disposition of orally administered sporidesmins A and D in sheep and identify factors influencing their kinetics, particularly the influence of breeding for resistance and susceptibility to sporidesmin, the mycotoxin responsible for the hepatogenous photosensitisation, facial eczema. METHODS A competitive ELISA was used to monitor urinary output of immunoreactive metabolites after the intraruminal administration, to female Romney sheep, of either sporidesmin A or sporidesmin D, the nontoxic analogue. Preliminary characterisation of metabolites was carried out using HPLC with fractions monitored by ELISA. RESULTS Maximum urinary excretion rates of immunoreactive metabolites occurred 2-8 h after dosing with sporidesmin D and 15-30 h after dosing with sporidesmin A. Sporidesmin D caused no liver injury, as detected by changes in serum enzyme activity, while the liver injury caused by sporidesmin A was greatest for the sheep with the highest cumulative output of metabolite. When sporidesmin D was administered in two separate doses to sheep bred for either resistance or susceptibility to facial eczema, the variability of metabolic output between sheep within groups was much less after the second dose. The mean urinary metabolite excretion was greater for the susceptible than the resistant sheep but the difference was not significant. Potentiation (caused by pre-administration of small doses of sporidesmin A) resulted in a more severe reaction to the dosed sporidesmin A. Urinary output of metabolite was less in the potentiated than in the unpotentiated sheep. When resistant and susceptible sheep were dosed with sporidesmin A after potentiation there was no difference between them in their cumulative totals or excretion rates of immunoreactive metabolites. However, the volume of urine produced by the susceptible sheep was lower and less variable than the resistant sheep and consequently the concentration of their urinary metabolites was higher. Preliminary ELISA examination of HPLC-fractionated urine from a sheep dosed with sporidesmin A indicated the presence of several metabolites of sporidesmin. CONCLUSION Sporidesmin A and metabolites are rapidly excreted in urine but not as rapidly as sporidesmin D and its metabolites. Only minor differences between sheep bred for resistance and susceptibility were seen. Potentiation caused a more severe reaction to sporidesmin A and less urinary excretion of the sporidesmin and its metabolites. CLINICAL RELEVANCE This work is part of a programme with the aim of identifying FE-resistant animals without the need for sporidesmin dosing.
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Affiliation(s)
- B L Smith
- Toxinology and Food Safety Research Group, Ruakura Research Centre, New Zealand Pastoral Agriculture Research Institute, Hamilton
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Waring P, Egan M, Braithwaite A, Mullbacher A, Sjaarda A. Apoptosis induced in macrophages and T blasts by the mycotoxin sporidesmin and protection by Zn2+ salts. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF IMMUNOPHARMACOLOGY 1990; 12:445-57. [PMID: 1697287 DOI: 10.1016/0192-0561(90)90028-l] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Incubation of 48 h concanavalin A stimulated spleen cells (T blasts) and murine peritoneal macrophages with the mycotoxin sporidesmin results in DNA fragmentation characteristic of apoptosis. Morphological changes, particularly condensed chromatin, observed following incubation of these cells with sporidesmin and the immunotoxin gliotoxin and related epipolythiodioxopiperazines (ETP) also show changes characteristic of apoptosis. The presence of Zn2+ salts in the culture medium at concentrations non toxic to the cells over the time period studied protects against DNA damage and morphological change. Interaction between Zn2+ and the reduced form of a simple ETP compound assessed by spectral changes demonstrated the formation of a weak complex between the two molecules. Complex formation between zinc and thiol however was insufficient to prevent oxidative damage to plasmid DNA in vitro by inhibiting auto-oxidation of the reduced ETP compound because of the looseness of the interaction. Cd2+, which appears to form a tighter complex with the dithiol does inhibit cleavage of plasmid DNA. These results establish that the toxicity of sporidesmin may be due in part to its ability to induce apoptosis or programmed cell death in sensitive cells. In addition the immunotoxin gliotoxin and related compounds have now been shown to induce the same characteristic morphological changes in cells of haemopoietic origin. The inhibition of apoptosis induced by ETP compounds by Zn2+ appears to be due to direct inhibition of apoptosis rather than Zn2+ acting as an antioxidant. These results demonstrate the inhibition of apoptosis induced by ETP compounds by Zn2+ and suggest an alternate explanation for the known prophylactic effect of Zn2+ on sporidesmin induced tissue damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Waring
- Division of Cell Biology, John Curtin School of Medical Research, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
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Waring P, Eichner RD, Müllbacher A. The chemistry and biology of the immunomodulating agent gliotoxin and related epipolythiodioxopiperazines. Med Res Rev 1988; 8:499-524. [PMID: 2461498 DOI: 10.1002/med.2610080404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- P Waring
- Department of Microbiology, John Curtin School of Medical Research, Australian National University, Canberra, A.C.T
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McSherry BJ, Valli VE. Veterinary clinical pathology 1888-1988. J Comp Pathol 1988; 99:27-40. [PMID: 3062052 DOI: 10.1016/0021-9975(88)90102-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- B J McSherry
- Department of Pathology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Canada
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Towers NR, Stratton GC. Serum gamma-glutamyltransferase as a measure of sporidesmin-induced liver damage in sheep. N Z Vet J 1978; 26:109-12. [PMID: 27740 DOI: 10.1080/00480169.1978.34508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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Millar KR, Hodges RT, Sheppard AD, Hammington MW. Clinical and biochemical changes in sheep inoculated with Leptospira interrogans serotype pomona. N Z Vet J 1977; 25:203-7. [PMID: 275721 DOI: 10.1080/00480169.1977.34407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Zimmermann JL, Carlton WW, Tuite J. Mycotoxicosis produced in mice by cultural products of an isolate of Aspergillus ochraceus. FOOD AND COSMETICS TOXICOLOGY 1976; 14:571-5. [PMID: 1017773 DOI: 10.1016/s0015-6264(76)80011-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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Caple IW, Vandergraaff R, Malmo J. Letter: Use of sulphobromophthalein liver function tests in cows with facial eczema. Aust Vet J 1976; 52:192-3. [PMID: 938360 DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-0813.1976.tb09477.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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Harvey DG, Obeid HM. The application of certain liver function tests including serum alkaline phosphatase estimations to domesticated animals in the Sudan. THE BRITISH VETERINARY JOURNAL 1974; 130:544-55. [PMID: 4447874 DOI: 10.1016/s0007-1935(17)35741-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Lohrey E, Tapper B, Hove EL. Photosensitization of albino rats fed on lucerne-protein concentrate. Br J Nutr 1974; 31:159-66. [PMID: 4820970 DOI: 10.1079/bjn19740021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
1. The photosensitizing effect of leaf-protein concentrate (LPC) prepared from lucerne (Medicago sativa) was demonstrated when it was included in the diet of albino rats at concentrations between 40 and 480 g/kg diet.2. Skin lesions of varying severity up to the sloughing of ears and tails occurred when such rats were illuminated with natural daylight through window-glass or with simulated daylight from a bank of lamps having emission maxima at 410, 437 and 660 nm and with approximately 4% of the energy of summer sunlight.3. Protein concentrates prepared from ryegrass (Lolium multiforum) and a crude chlorophyll extract of spinach (Spinacea oleracea) did not cause these effects.4. Extracts from blood plasma and livers of rats given lucerne LPC contained pheophorbide-a and two other unidentified green pigments, but no detectable phylloerythrin or chlorophyll. Extracts from the blood of rats given ryegrass LPC had no detectable pheophorbide or other chlorophyll-derived pigments.5. The lucerne LPC given to the rats contained relatively large amounts of pheophorbide-a among a variety of pigments. The ryegrass LPC and the spinach extracts had only small amounts of this pigment relative to the other chlorophyll-type pigments.6. These findings indicate that pheophorbide-a and related pigments are the agents responsible for the photosensitization of the rats. Possible explanations of their presence in lucerne LPC are discussed.
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Gopinath C, Ford EJ. Location of liver injury and extent of bilirubinaemia in experimental liver lesions. Vet Pathol 1972; 9:99-108. [PMID: 4602270 DOI: 10.1177/030098587200900203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Reports on experimental hepatotoxicities in domestic animals were reviewed in order to investigate the relationship between the location of liver lesions and hyperbilirubinaemia. A purely centrilobular lesion tends to produce little effect on bilirubin concentration in the circulation. A mild to moderate hyperbilirubinaemia is predictable if a centrilobular lesion is extensive enough to include cells of the outer zones, however, even an apparently mild periportal liver lesion, but one that affects the integrity of cell membranes, results in a marked rise in bilirubin concentration in the circulation.
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Harvey DG. The routine estimation of serum cholesterol with special reference to low concentrations. THE BRITISH VETERINARY JOURNAL 1971; 127:327-45. [PMID: 5558722 DOI: 10.1016/s0007-1935(17)37485-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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Budiarso IT, Carlton WW, Tuite JF. Phototoxic syndrome induced in mice by rice cultures of Penicillium viridicatum and exposure to sunlight. PATHOLOGIA VETERINARIA 1970; 7:531-46. [PMID: 5522893 DOI: 10.1177/030098587000700608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
A hepatogenous phototoxic syndrome was induced in mice by the feeding of rice cultures of P. viridicaunn and exposure to sunlight. The pathologic changes in the livers and skin were similar to those described in facial eczema of sheep in New Zealand and Bermuda-grass and alfalfa-hay toxicoses in the United States of America. The phototoxic syndrome was characterized by congestion of the pinna followed by erythema and edema of the cars, muzzle, paws, and tail, occasionally accompanied by alopecia. In some mice the tip of the ears became gangrenous and sloughed. Keratitis and keratoeonus leading to blindness occurred. The incidence of phototoxic reactions was higher in older mice and in those subjected to delayed exposure to sunlight. Aspermatogenesis and formation of syncytial spermatids occurred in some mice.
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Mortimer PH, Stanbridge TA. Changes in biliary secretion following sporidesmin poisoning in sheep. J Comp Pathol 1969; 79:267-75. [PMID: 5779039 DOI: 10.1016/0021-9975(69)90016-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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Leaver DD, Hore DE. FACIAL ECZEMA OF SHEEP: THE DETECTION OF SUBCLINICAL LIVER DAMAGE. Aust Vet J 1967. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-0813.1967.tb08890.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Glenn BL, Panciera RJ, Monlux AW. A HEPATOGENOUS PHOTOSENSITIVITY DISEASE OF CATTLE. II. HISTOPATHOLOGY AND PATHOGENESIS OF THE HEPATIC LESIONS. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1965; 2:49-67. [PMID: 14287520 DOI: 10.1177/030098586500200104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The progressive development of the hepatic lesions which occurred in an alfalfa hay-induced photosensitivity disease of cattle was studied by means of multiple liver biopsies from 20 animals and by necropsy of 7 animals killed at different stages of the disease. Lesions of visceral organs were confined to the liver and biliary system. The hepatic lesions were characterized by a diffuse, acutely developing cholangitis and pericholangitis leading to occlusion of the small ducts. The chief sites of involvement were interlobular ducts of small and medium size. Subsequent proliferation of bile ducts and connective tissue in the portal tracts occurred in proportion to the intensity and duration of the cholangitis, but was never extreme. The toxin causing these lesions is unknown, but since they are confined almost exclusively to the biliary tract it can be speculated that it is concentrated and excreted via biliary secretion without being adequately detoxified in the liver. The hepatic lesions of the alfalfa hay-induced disease in catle are strikingly similar to those observed in “facial eczema” of sheep. There is little similarity of the lesions to those observed in the other major hepatogenous photosensitivity diseases.
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The Experimental Intoxication of Sheep with Sporidesmin, a Metabolic Product of Pithomyces chartarum. Res Vet Sci 1963. [DOI: 10.1016/s0034-5288(18)34895-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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The Comparative Activity of Some Enzymes in Sheep, Cattle and Rats—Normal Serum and Tissue Levels and Changes During Experimental Liver Necrosis. Res Vet Sci 1962. [DOI: 10.1016/s0034-5288(18)34899-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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The Experimental Intoxication of Sheep with Sporidesmin, A Metabolic Product of Pithomyces chartarum. Res Vet Sci 1962. [DOI: 10.1016/s0034-5288(18)34900-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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RIMINGTON C, SLATER TF, SPECTOR WG, STRAULI U, WILLOUGHBY DA. Sporidesmin Poisoning in the Rat. Nature 1962; 194:1152-3. [PMID: 14492315 DOI: 10.1038/1941152a0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Done J, Mortimer P, Taylor A. The Experimental Intoxication of Sheep with Sporidesmin, a Metabolic Product of Pithomyces chartarum. Res Vet Sci 1962. [DOI: 10.1016/s0034-5288(18)34915-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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The Experimental Intoxication of Sheep with Sporidesmin, a Metabolic Product of Pithomyces chartarum. Res Vet Sci 1962. [DOI: 10.1016/s0034-5288(18)34914-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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