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Zheng CW, Long M, Luo YH, Long X, Bi Y, Zhou D, Zhou C, Rittmann BE. Reductive destruction of multiple nitrated energetics over palladium nanoparticles in the H 2-based membrane catalyst-film reactor (MCfR). JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2022; 423:127055. [PMID: 34523494 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.127055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2021] [Revised: 07/31/2021] [Accepted: 08/04/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Nitrated energetics are widespread contaminants due to their improper disposal from ammunition facilities. Different classes of nitrated energetics commonly co-exist in ammunition wastewater, but co-removal of the classes has hardly been documented. In this study, we evaluated the catalytic destruction of three types of energetics using palladium (Pd0) nano-catalysts deposited on H2-transfer membranes in membrane catalyst-film reactors (MCfRs). This work documented nitro-reduction of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT), as well as, for the first time, denitration of hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX) and pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN) over Pd0 at ambient temperature. The catalyst-specific activity was 20- to 90-fold higher than reported for other catalyst systems. Nitrite (NO2-) released from RDX and PETN also was catalytically reduced to dinitrogen gas (N2). Continuous treatment of a synthetic wastewater containing TNT, RDX, and PETN (5 mg/L each) for more than 20 hydraulic retention times yielded removals higher than 96% for all three energetics. Furthermore, the concentrations of NO2- and NH4+ were below the detection limit due to subsequent NO2- reduction with > 99% selectivity to N2. Thus, the MCfR provides a promising strategy for sustainable catalytic removal of co-existing energetics in ammunition wastewater.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen-Wei Zheng
- Biodesign Swette Center for Environmental Biotechnology, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
| | - Min Long
- Biodesign Swette Center for Environmental Biotechnology, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
| | - Yi-Hao Luo
- Biodesign Swette Center for Environmental Biotechnology, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
| | - Xiangxing Long
- Biodesign Swette Center for Environmental Biotechnology, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA; Nanosystems Engineering Research Center for Nanotechnology-Enabled Water Treatment, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
| | - Yuqiang Bi
- Biodesign Swette Center for Environmental Biotechnology, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA; Nanosystems Engineering Research Center for Nanotechnology-Enabled Water Treatment, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
| | - Dandan Zhou
- Engineering Lab for Water Pollution Control and Resources Recovery of Jilin Province, School of Environment, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, China
| | - Chen Zhou
- Biodesign Swette Center for Environmental Biotechnology, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA.
| | - Bruce E Rittmann
- Biodesign Swette Center for Environmental Biotechnology, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
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Raut SS, Kamble SP, Kulkarni PS. Improved photocatalytic efficiency of TiO 2 by doping with tungsten and synthesizing in ionic liquid: precise kinetics-mechanism and effect of oxidizing agents. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2021; 28:17532-17545. [PMID: 33400106 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-020-12107-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2020] [Accepted: 12/14/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The degradation of nitroaromatics/toxic energetic compounds contaminated water is a major cause of concern. W-doped TiO2 nanoparticles (NPs) were synthesized in ionic liquid, ethyl methyl imidazolium dicyanamide (EMIM-DCA) by a solvothermal method. The developed NPs were sintered at 500 °C and characterized by UV-Vis-DRS, FT-IR, FE-SEM, XRD, XPS, and BET techniques. The 30-40-nm-sized NPs were subjected to photocatalytic degradation of the toxic energetic compound, tetryl (2,4,6-trinitrophenylmethylnitramine) under UV-Vis light. Various operating parameters such as the effect of concentration of catalyst, pH of feed phase, oxidizing agents, and recycling of catalyst were studied in detail. For the first time, the degradation-mechanism pathway and kinetics of tetryl were evaluated. The degradation products were precisely analyzed by using HPLC, GC-MS, and TOC techniques. The USEPA has prescribed a drinking water limit of 0.02 mg L-1, and it was found that 0.5 g of 4% W-TiO2 could totally degrade tetryl (50 mg L-1) within 8 h. The kinetic rate constant of 4% W-TiO2 was 0.356 h-1, whereas pure TiO2 showed 0.207 h-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandesh S Raut
- Energy and Environment Laboratory, Department of Applied Chemistry, Defence Institute of Advanced Technology (DU), Ministry of Defence, Pune, 411025, India
| | - Sanjay P Kamble
- Chemical Engineering and Process Development Division, National Chemical Laboratory (NCL), CSIR, Pune, 411008, India
| | - Prashant S Kulkarni
- Energy and Environment Laboratory, Department of Applied Chemistry, Defence Institute of Advanced Technology (DU), Ministry of Defence, Pune, 411025, India.
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Ariyarathna T, Ballentine M, Vlahos P, Smith RW, Cooper C, Böhlke JK, Fallis S, Groshens TJ, Tobias C. Degradation of RDX (Hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine) in contrasting coastal marine habitats: Subtidal non-vegetated (sand), subtidal vegetated (silt/eel grass), and intertidal marsh. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 745:140800. [PMID: 32721618 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2020] [Revised: 06/28/2020] [Accepted: 07/05/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Hundreds of explosive-contaminated marine sites exist globally, many of which contain the common munitions constituent hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX). Quantitative information about RDX transformation in coastal ecosystems is essential for management of many of these sites. Isotopically labelled RDX containing 15N in all 3 nitro groups was used to track the fate of RDX in three coastal ecosystem types. Flow-through mesocosms representing subtidal vegetated (silt/eel grass), subtidal non-vegetated (sand) and intertidal marsh ecosystems were continuously loaded with isotopically labelled RDX for 16-17 days. Sediment, pore-water and overlying surface water were analyzed to determine the distribution of RDX, nitroso-triazine transformation products (NXs) and nitrogen containing complete mineralization products, including ammonium, nitrate+nitrite, nitrous oxide and nitrogen gas. The marsh, silt, and sand ecotypes transformed 94%, 90% and 76% of supplied RDX, respectively. Total dissolved NXs accounted for 2%-4% of the transformed 15N-RDX. The majority of RDX transformation in the water column was by mineralization to inorganic N (dissolved and evaded; 64%-78% of transformed 15N-RDX). RDX was mineralized primarily to N2O (62-74% of transformed 15N-RDX) and secondarily to N2 (1-2% of transformed 15N-RDX) which exchanged with the atmosphere. Transformation of RDX was favored in carbon-rich lower redox potential sediments of the silt and marsh mesocosms where anaerobic processes of iron and sulfate reduction were most prevalent. RDX was most persistent in the carbon-poor sand mesocosm. Partitioning of 15N derived from RDX onto sediment and suspended particulates was negligible in the overall mass balance of RDX transformation (2%-3% of transformed 15N-RDX). The fraction of 15N derived from RDX that was sorbed or assimilated in sediment was largest in the marsh mesocosm (most organic carbon), and smallest in the sand mesocosm (largest grain size and least organic carbon). Sediment redox conditions and available organic carbon stores affect the fate of RDX in different coastal marine habitats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thivanka Ariyarathna
- University of Connecticut, Department of Marine Sciences, 1084 Shennecossett Road, Groton, CT 06340, United States of America.
| | - Mark Ballentine
- University of Connecticut, Department of Marine Sciences, 1084 Shennecossett Road, Groton, CT 06340, United States of America
| | - Penny Vlahos
- University of Connecticut, Department of Marine Sciences, 1084 Shennecossett Road, Groton, CT 06340, United States of America
| | - Richard W Smith
- University of Connecticut, Department of Marine Sciences, 1084 Shennecossett Road, Groton, CT 06340, United States of America
| | - Christopher Cooper
- University of Connecticut, Department of Marine Sciences, 1084 Shennecossett Road, Groton, CT 06340, United States of America
| | - J K Böhlke
- U.S. Geological Survey, 431 National Center, Reston, VA 20192, United States of America
| | - Stephen Fallis
- Naval Air Warfare Center Weapons Division, Chemistry Division, China Lake, CA 93555, United States of America
| | - Thomas J Groshens
- Naval Air Warfare Center Weapons Division, Chemistry Division, China Lake, CA 93555, United States of America
| | - Craig Tobias
- University of Connecticut, Department of Marine Sciences, 1084 Shennecossett Road, Groton, CT 06340, United States of America
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Cecconet D, Sabba F, Devecseri M, Callegari A, Capodaglio AG. In situ groundwater remediation with bioelectrochemical systems: A critical review and future perspectives. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2020; 137:105550. [PMID: 32086076 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2020.105550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2019] [Revised: 01/15/2020] [Accepted: 02/03/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Groundwater contamination is an ever-growing environmental issue that has attracted much and undiminished attention for the past half century. Groundwater contamination may originate from both anthropogenic (e.g., hydrocarbons) and natural compounds (e.g., nitrate and arsenic); to tackle the removal of these contaminants, different technologies have been developed and implemented. Recently, bioelectrochemical systems (BES) have emerged as a potential treatment for groundwater contamination, with reported in situ applications that showed promising results. Nitrate and hydrocarbons (toluene, phenanthrene, benzene, BTEX and light PAHs) have been successfully removed, due to the interaction of microbial metabolism with poised electrodes, in addition to physical migration due to the electric field generated in a BES. The selection of proper BESs relies on several factors and problems, such as the complexity of groundwater and subsoil environment, scale-up issues, and energy requirements that need to be accounted for. Modeling efforts could help predict case scenarios and select a proper design and approach, while BES-based biosensing could help monitoring remediation processes. In this review, we critically analyze in situ BES applications for groundwater remediation, focusing in particular on different proposed setups, and we identify and discuss the existing research gaps in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniele Cecconet
- Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Pavia, Via Adolfo Ferrata 3, 27100 Pavia, Italy.
| | - Fabrizio Sabba
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Matyas Devecseri
- Department of Sanitary and Environmental Engineering, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Műegyetem rkp. 3, 1111 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Arianna Callegari
- Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Pavia, Via Adolfo Ferrata 3, 27100 Pavia, Italy
| | - Andrea G Capodaglio
- Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Pavia, Via Adolfo Ferrata 3, 27100 Pavia, Italy
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Ariyarathna T, Ballentine M, Vlahos P, Smith RW, Cooper C, Böhlke JK, Fallis S, Groshens TJ, Tobias C. Tracing the cycling and fate of the munition, Hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine in a simulated sandy coastal marine habitat with a stable isotopic tracer, 15N-[RDX]. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 647:369-378. [PMID: 30086489 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.07.404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2018] [Revised: 07/26/2018] [Accepted: 07/29/2018] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Coastal marine habitats become contaminated with the munitions constituent, Hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-trazine (RDX), via military training, weapon testing and leakage of unexploded ordnance. This study used 15N labeled RDX in simulated aquarium-scale coastal marine habitat containing seawater, sediment, and biota to track removal pathways from surface water including sorption onto particulates, degradation to nitroso-triazines and mineralization to dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN). The two aquaria received continuous RDX inputs to maintain a steady state concentration (0.4 mg L-1) over 21 days. Time series RDX and nitroso-triazine concentrations in dissolved (surface and porewater) and sorbed phases (sediment and suspended particulates) were analyzed. Distributions of DIN species (ammonium, nitrate + nitrite and dissolved N2) in sediments and overlying water were also measured along with geochemical variables in the aquaria. Partitioning of RDX and RDX-derived breakdown products onto surface sediment represented 13% of the total added 15N as RDX (15N-[RDX]) equivalents after 21 days. Measured nitroso-triazines in the aquaria accounted for 6-13% of total added 15N-[RDX]. 15N-labeled DIN was found both in the oxic surface water and hypoxic porewaters, showing that RDX mineralization accounted for 34% of the 15N-[RDX] added to the aquaria over 21 days. Labeled ammonium (15NH4+, found in sediment and overlying water) and nitrate + nitrite (15NOX, found in overlying water only) together represented 10% of the total added 15N-[RDX]. The production of 15N labeled N2 (15N2), accounted for the largest individual sink during the transformation of the total added 15N-[RDX] (25%). Hypoxic sediment was the most favorable zone for production of N2, most of which diffused through porous sediments into the water column and escaped to the atmosphere.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thivanka Ariyarathna
- University of Connecticut, Department of Marine Sciences, 1084 Shennecossett Road, Groton, CT 06340, United States of America.
| | - Mark Ballentine
- University of Connecticut, Department of Marine Sciences, 1084 Shennecossett Road, Groton, CT 06340, United States of America
| | - Penny Vlahos
- University of Connecticut, Department of Marine Sciences, 1084 Shennecossett Road, Groton, CT 06340, United States of America
| | - Richard W Smith
- University of Connecticut, Department of Marine Sciences, 1084 Shennecossett Road, Groton, CT 06340, United States of America
| | - Christopher Cooper
- University of Connecticut, Department of Marine Sciences, 1084 Shennecossett Road, Groton, CT 06340, United States of America
| | - J K Böhlke
- U.S. Geological Survey, 431 National Center, Reston, VA 20192, United States of America
| | - Stephen Fallis
- Naval Air Warfare Center Weapons Division, Chemistry Division, China Lake, CA 93555, United States of America
| | - Thomas J Groshens
- Naval Air Warfare Center Weapons Division, Chemistry Division, China Lake, CA 93555, United States of America
| | - Craig Tobias
- University of Connecticut, Department of Marine Sciences, 1084 Shennecossett Road, Groton, CT 06340, United States of America
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Raut SS, Adpa SK, Jambhale A, Abhyankar AC, Kulkarni PS. Enhanced Photocatalytic Activity of Magnetic BaFe12O19 Nanoplatelets than TiO2 with Emphasis on Reaction Kinetics, Mechanism, and Reusability. Ind Eng Chem Res 2018. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.8b02859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sandesh S. Raut
- Energy and Environment Laboratory, Department of Applied Chemistry, Defence Institute of Advanced Technology (DU), Ministry of Defence, Pune 411 025, India
| | - Santhosh Kumar Adpa
- Magnetic Materials Laboratory, Department of Materials Engineering, Defence Institute of Advanced Technology (DU), Ministry of Defence, Pune 411 025, India
| | - Amruta Jambhale
- Magnetic Materials Laboratory, Department of Materials Engineering, Defence Institute of Advanced Technology (DU), Ministry of Defence, Pune 411 025, India
| | - Ashutosh C. Abhyankar
- Magnetic Materials Laboratory, Department of Materials Engineering, Defence Institute of Advanced Technology (DU), Ministry of Defence, Pune 411 025, India
| | - Prashant S. Kulkarni
- Energy and Environment Laboratory, Department of Applied Chemistry, Defence Institute of Advanced Technology (DU), Ministry of Defence, Pune 411 025, India
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7
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Torralba-Sanchez TL, Kuo DTF, Allen HE, Di Toro DM. Bioconcentration factors and plant-water partition coefficients of munitions compounds in barley. CHEMOSPHERE 2017; 189:538-546. [PMID: 28961539 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.09.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2016] [Revised: 09/04/2017] [Accepted: 09/12/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Plants growing in the soils at military ranges and surrounding locations are exposed, and potentially able to uptake, munitions compounds (MCs). The extent to which a compound is transferred from the environment into organisms such as plants, referred to as bioconcentration, is conventionally measured through uptake experiments with field/synthetic soils. Multiple components/phases that vary among different soil types and affect the bioavailability of the MC, however, hinder the ability to separate the effects of soil characteristics from the MC chemical properties on the resulting plant bioconcentration. To circumvent the problem, this work presents a protocol to measure steady state bioconcentration factors (BCFs) for MCs in barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) using inert laboratory sand rather than field/synthetic soils. Three MCs: 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT), 2,4-dinitrotoluene (2,4-DNT), and 2,4-dinitroanisole (2,4-DNAN), and two munition-like compounds (MLCs): 4-nitroanisole (4-NAN) and 2-methoxy-5-nitropyridine (2-M-5-NPYNE) were evaluated. Approximately constant plant biomass and exposure concentrations were achieved within a one-month period that produced steady state log BCF values: 0.62 ± 0.02, 0.70 ± 0.03, 1.30 ± 0.06, 0.52 ± 0.03, and 0.40 ± 0.05 L kgplant dwt-1 for TNT, 2,4-DNT, 2,4-DNAN, 4-NAN, and 2-M-5-NPYNE, respectively. Furthermore, results suggest that the upper-bounds of the BCFs can be estimated within an order of magnitude by measuring the partitioning of the compounds between barley biomass and water. This highlights the importance of partition equilibrium as a mechanism for the uptake of MCs and MLCs by barley from interstitial water. The results from this work provide chemically meaningful data for prediction models able to estimate the bioconcentration of these contaminants in plants.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Dave T F Kuo
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA; Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China; City University of Hong Kong Shenzhen Research Institute, Shenzhen 518057, China
| | - Herbert E Allen
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA
| | - Dominic M Di Toro
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA.
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Chatterjee S, Deb U, Datta S, Walther C, Gupta DK. Common explosives (TNT, RDX, HMX) and their fate in the environment: Emphasizing bioremediation. CHEMOSPHERE 2017; 184:438-451. [PMID: 28618276 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2017] [Revised: 05/10/2017] [Accepted: 06/03/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Explosive materials are energetic substances, when released into the environment, contaminate by posing toxic hazards to environment and biota. Throughout the world, soils are contaminated by such contaminants either due to manufacturing operations, military activities, conflicts of different levels, open burning/open detonation (OB/OD), dumping of munitions etc. Among different forms of chemical explosives, 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT), hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX), and octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro- 1,3,5,7-tetrazocine (HMX) are most common. These explosives are highly toxic as USEPA has recommended restrictions for lifetime contact through drinking water. Although, there are several utilitarian aspects in anthropogenic activities, however, effective remediation of explosives is very important. This review article emphasizes the details of appropriate practices to ameliorate the contamination. Critical evaluation has also been made to encompass the recent knowledge and advancement about bioremediation and phytoremediation of explosives (especially TNT, RDX and HMX) along with the molecular mechanisms of biodegradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soumya Chatterjee
- Defence Research Laboratory, DRDO, Post Bag No. 02, Tezpur, 784001, Assam, India
| | - Utsab Deb
- Defence Research Laboratory, DRDO, Post Bag No. 02, Tezpur, 784001, Assam, India
| | - Sibnarayan Datta
- Defence Research Laboratory, DRDO, Post Bag No. 02, Tezpur, 784001, Assam, India
| | - Clemens Walther
- Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Universität Hannover, Institut für Radioökologie und Strahlenschutz (IRS), Herrenhäuser Str. 2, Gebäude 4113, 30419, Hannover, Germany
| | - Dharmendra K Gupta
- Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Universität Hannover, Institut für Radioökologie und Strahlenschutz (IRS), Herrenhäuser Str. 2, Gebäude 4113, 30419, Hannover, Germany.
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Coutris C, Macken AL, Collins AR, El Yamani N, Brooks SJ. Marine ecotoxicity of nitramines, transformation products of amine-based carbon capture technology. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2015; 527-528:211-219. [PMID: 25958368 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.04.119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2015] [Revised: 04/27/2015] [Accepted: 04/29/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
In the context of reducing CO2 emissions to the atmosphere, chemical absorption with amines is emerging as the most advanced technology for post-combustion CO2 capture from exhaust gases of fossil fuel power plants. Despite amine solvent recycling during the capture process, degradation products are formed and released into the environment, among them aliphatic nitramines, for which the environmental impact is unknown. In this study, we determined the acute and chronic toxicity of two nitramines identified as important transformation products of amine-based carbon capture, dimethylnitramine and ethanolnitramine, using a multi-trophic suite of bioassays. The results were then used to produce the first environmental risk assessment for the marine ecosystem. In addition, the in vivo genotoxicity of nitramines was studied by adapting the comet assay to cells from experimentally exposed fish. Overall, based on the whole organism bioassays, the toxicity of both nitramines was considered to be low. The most sensitive response to both compounds was found in oysters, and dimethylnitramine was consistently more toxic than ethanolnitramine in all bioassays. The Predicted No Effect Concentrations for dimethylnitramine and ethanolnitramine were 0.08 and 0.18 mg/L, respectively. The genotoxicity assessment revealed contrasting results to the whole organism bioassays, with ethanolnitramine found to be more genotoxic than dimethylnitramine by three orders of magnitude. At the lowest ethanolnitramine concentration (1mg/L), 84% DNA damage was observed, whereas 100mg/L dimethylnitramine was required to cause 37% DNA damage. The mechanisms of genotoxicity were also shown to differ between the two compounds, with oxidation of the DNA bases responsible for over 90% of the genotoxicity of dimethylnitramine, whereas DNA strand breaks and alkali-labile sites were responsible for over 90% of the genotoxicity of ethanolnitramine. Fish exposed to >3mg/L ethanolnitramine had virtually no DNA left in their red blood cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire Coutris
- Norwegian Institute for Water Research (NIVA), Gaustadalléen 21, 0349 Oslo, Norway; Department of Soil Quality and Climate, Bioforsk, Høgskoleveien 7, 1430 Ås, Norway.
| | - Ailbhe L Macken
- Norwegian Institute for Water Research (NIVA), Gaustadalléen 21, 0349 Oslo, Norway
| | - Andrew R Collins
- Department of Nutrition, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Oslo, P.O. 1046 Blindern, 0316 Oslo, Norway
| | - Naouale El Yamani
- Department of Nutrition, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Oslo, P.O. 1046 Blindern, 0316 Oslo, Norway
| | - Steven J Brooks
- Norwegian Institute for Water Research (NIVA), Gaustadalléen 21, 0349 Oslo, Norway
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10
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Ballentine M, Tobias C, Vlahos P, Smith R, Cooper C. Bioconcentration of TNT and RDX in coastal marine biota. ARCHIVES OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY 2015; 68:718-28. [PMID: 25451633 DOI: 10.1007/s00244-014-0104-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2014] [Accepted: 11/03/2014] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
The bioconcentration factor (BCF) was measured for 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) and hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX) in seven different marine species of varying trophic levels. Time series and concentration gradient treatments were used for water column and tissue concentrations of TNT, RDX, and their environmentally important derivatives 2-amino-4,6-dintrotoluene (2-ADNT) and 4-amino-2,6-dinitrotoluene (4-ADNT). BCF values ranged from 0.0031 to 484.5 mL g(-1) for TNT and 0.023 to 54.83 mL g(-1) for RDX. The use of log K ow value as an indicator was evaluated by adding marine data from this study to previously published data. For the munitions in this study, log K ow value was a good indicator in the marine environment. The initial uptake and elimination rates of TNT and RDX for Fucus vesiculosus were 1.79 and 0.24 h(-1) for TNT and 0.50 and 0.0035 h(-1) for RDX respectively. Biotransformation was observed in all biota for both TNT and RDX. Biotransformation of TNT favored 4-ADNT over 2-ADNT at ratios of 2:1 for F. vesiculosus and 3:1 for Mytilus edulis. Although RDX derivatives were measureable, the ratios of RDX derivatives were variable with no detectable trend. Previous approaches for measuring BCF in freshwater systems compare favorably with these experiments with marine biota, yet significant gaps on the ultimate fate of munitions within the biota exist that may be overcome with the use stable isotope-labeled munitions substrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Ballentine
- Department of Marine Sciences, University of Connecticut, 1080 Shennocossett Road, Groton, CT, 06340, USA,
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Smith RW, Tobias C, Vlahos P, Cooper C, Ballentine M, Ariyarathna T, Fallis S, Groshens TJ. Mineralization of RDX-derived nitrogen to N2 via denitrification in coastal marine sediments. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2015; 49:2180-7. [PMID: 25594316 DOI: 10.1021/es505074v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX) is a common constituent of military explosives. Despite RDX contamination at numerous U.S. military facilities and its mobility to aquatic systems, the fate of RDX in marine systems remains largely unknown. Here, we provide RDX mineralization pathways and rates in seawater and sediments, highlighting for the first time the importance of the denitrification pathway in determining the fate of RDX-derived N. (15)N nitro group labeled RDX ((15)N-[RDX], 50 atom %) was spiked into a mesocosm simulating shallow marine conditions of coastal Long Island Sound, and the (15)N enrichment of N2 (δ(15)N2) was monitored via gas bench isotope ratio mass spectrometry (GB-IRMS) for 21 days. The (15)N tracer data were used to model RDX mineralization within the context of the broader coastal marine N cycle using a multicompartment time-stepping model. Estimates of RDX mineralization rates based on the production and gas transfer of (15)N2O and (15)N2 ranged from 0.8 to 10.3 μmol d(-1). After 22 days, 11% of the added RDX had undergone mineralization, and 29% of the total removed RDX-N was identified as N2. These results demonstrate the important consideration of sediment microbial communities in management strategies addressing cleanup of contaminated coastal sites by military explosives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard W Smith
- University of Connecticut , Department of Marine Sciences 1080 Shennocossett Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
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Bhosale VK, Patil NV, Kulkarni PS. Treatment of energetic material contaminated wastewater using ionic liquids. RSC Adv 2015. [DOI: 10.1039/c4ra17271j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Extraction of energetic materials such as TNT, tetryl and picric acid from contaminated water by using ionic liquids is demonstrated for the treatment of energetic materials from several contaminated sources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vikas K. Bhosale
- Energy and Environment Laboratory
- Department of Applied Chemistry
- Defence Institute of Advanced Technology
- Deemed University
- Pune-411025
| | - Nitin V. Patil
- Energy and Environment Laboratory
- Department of Applied Chemistry
- Defence Institute of Advanced Technology
- Deemed University
- Pune-411025
| | - Prashant S. Kulkarni
- Energy and Environment Laboratory
- Department of Applied Chemistry
- Defence Institute of Advanced Technology
- Deemed University
- Pune-411025
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13
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Smith RW, Vlahos P, Tobias C, Ballentine M, Ariyarathna T, Cooper C. Removal rates of dissolved munitions compounds in seawater. CHEMOSPHERE 2013; 92:898-904. [PMID: 23623038 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2013.02.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2012] [Revised: 01/28/2013] [Accepted: 02/21/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
The historical exposure of coastal marine systems to munitions compounds is of significant concern due to the global distribution of impacted sites and known toxicological effects of nitroaromatics. In order to identify specific coastal regions where persistence of these chemicals should be of concern, it is necessary to experimentally observe their behavior under a variety of realistic oceanographic conditions. Here, we conduct a mesocosm scale pulse addition experiment to document the behavior of two commonly used explosives, 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) and hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX) in simulated marine systems containing water and sediments collected from Long Island Sound, CT. The addition of sediments and sediment grain-size had a major influence on the loss rates of all compounds detected. RDX and reduced TNT products were removed from seawater only in the presence of sediment, and TNT degraded significantly faster in the presence of sediment. Both compounds were removed from the system faster with decreasing grain-size. Based on these findings and a thorough review of the literature, we hypothesize that in addition to bacterial abundance and nutrient availability, TNT removal rates in coastal marine waters may be controlled by sorption and rapid surface-mediated bacterial transformation, while RDX removal rates are controlled by diffusion into sedimentary anoxic regions and subsequent anaerobic bacterial breakdown. A comparison of published removal rates of RDX and TNT highlights the extreme variability in measured degradation rates and identifies physicochemical variables that covary with the breakdown of these munitions compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard W Smith
- University of Connecticut, Department of Marine Sciences, 1080 Shennocossett Road, Groton, CT 06340, USA.
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14
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Anaerobic bioremediation of RDX by ovine whole rumen fluid and pure culture isolates. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2012; 97:3699-710. [DOI: 10.1007/s00253-012-4172-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2012] [Revised: 05/04/2012] [Accepted: 05/10/2012] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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15
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Duringer JM, Morrie Craig A, Smith DJ, Chaney RL. Uptake and transformation of soil [14C]-trinitrotoluene by cool-season grasses. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2010; 44:6325-6330. [PMID: 20666491 DOI: 10.1021/es903671n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
This study investigated the fate and uptake of [(14)C]-TNT from soil into orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata), perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne), and tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea) over a one year period in a greenhouse-controlled environment. Pots (n = 4 for each grass, containing 10 mg cold TNT/kg soil + 1.2 mg [(14)C]-TNT/kg soil and controls with no TNT) were exposed to light and temperature conditions typical of June at 45 degrees N for 369 days. Three plant harvests were made (63, 181, and 369 days), and soil and plant materials were monitored for [(14)C]-TNT and metabolite concentrations. The 11.2 mg/kg TNT dose was not phytotoxic to the plant species tested. Continual uptake of TNT into grass blades was observed over the one-year period, with a total accumulation of 1.3%, 0.9%, and 0.8% of the initial soil [(14)C]-TNT dose for orchard grass, perennial ryegrass, and tall fescue, respectively. All [(14)C]-TNT residue in plant material was incorporated as bound residue. At final harvest, radioactivity was concentrated most highly in the root > crown > blade for all species. Soil TNT was gradually reduced to aminodinitro-toluenes and then further to an unidentified metabolite(s). Overall, orchardgrass appeared to be the most efficient species at taking up TNT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer M Duringer
- Department of Environmental and Molecular Toxicology, Oregon State University, 139 Oak Creek Building, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, USA.
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17
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Lewis J, Martel R, Trépanier L, Ampleman G, Thiboutot S. Quantifying the transport of energetic materials in unsaturated sediments from cracked unexploded ordnance. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY 2009; 38:2229-2236. [PMID: 19875778 DOI: 10.2134/jeq2009.0019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Dissolved explosive species have been found in the groundwater under military training areas. These explosives are thought to originate from munitions although the mechanism of transport to the groundwater is poorly understood. This study was conducted to determine whether ruptured unexploded ordnance may be a viable source term for these explosives. The rupturing effect of one 81 mm-mortar exploding in close proximity to another 81-mm mortar was observed and the resulting contaminants were collected. These contaminants were then subjected to leaching experiments on repacked, jack drill compacted unsaturated sediment columns in a climate controlled laboratory. The mortars which were exposed to nearby explosions were shown to be susceptible to rupturing rather than sympathetically detonating under certain conditions. The ruptured mortars released up to 166+/-2 g of pulverized explosive residues (largely Composition B) and the results from the subsequent leaching tests showed that this explosive residue is highly mobile in unsaturated sandy soil. Up to 4.45+/-1.00 g of dissolved explosive contamination was transported through the unsaturated soil columns during the first year of infiltration. The results indicate the mass of transported explosive residue dissolved in the leachate was primarily caused by the preferential dissolution of explosive contaminants having a grain size under 0.125 mm. Surface or near-surface unexploded ordnance (UXO) on live fire ranges may therefore be significant sources of explosive environmental contamination after they have been exposed to other rounds which explode nearby.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey Lewis
- Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique-Centre Eau, Terre et Environnement, Québec City, Quebec, Canada.
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18
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Biosensor-based on-site explosives detection using aptamers as recognition elements. Anal Bioanal Chem 2008; 391:1793-800. [PMID: 18504560 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-008-2150-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2007] [Revised: 04/16/2008] [Accepted: 04/18/2008] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Reliable observation, detection and characterisation of polluted soil are of major concern in regions with military activities in order to prepare efficient decontamination. Flexible on-site analysis may be facilitated by biosensor devices. With use of fibre-optic evanescent field techniques, it has been shown that immunoaffinity reactions can be used to determine explosives sensitively. Besides antibodies as molecular recognition elements, high-affinity nucleic acids (aptamers) can be employed. Aptamers are synthetically generated and highly efficient binding molecules that can be derived for any ligand, including small organic molecules like drugs, explosives or derivatives thereof. In this paper we describe the development of specific aptamers detecting the explosives molecule TNT. The aptamers are used as a sensitive capture molecule in a fibre-optic biosensor. In addition, through the biosensor measurements the aptamers could be characterised. The advantages of the aptamer biosensor include its robustness, its ability to discriminate between different explosives molecules while being insensitive to other chemical entities in natural soil and its potential to be incorporated into a portable device. Results can be obtained within minutes. The measurement is equally useful for soil that has been contaminated for a long time and for urgent hazardous spills.
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Ryu H, Han JK, Jung JW, Bae B, Nam K. Human health risk assessment of explosives and heavy metals at a military gunnery range. ENVIRONMENTAL GEOCHEMISTRY AND HEALTH 2007; 29:259-69. [PMID: 17508257 DOI: 10.1007/s10653-007-9101-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
In this research, a risk assessment was undertaken in order to develop the remediation and management strategy of a contaminated gunnery site, where a nearby flood controlling reservoir is under construction. Six chemicals, including explosives and heavy metals, posing potential risk to environmental and human health, were targeted in this study. A site-specific conceptual site model was constructed, based on effective, reasonable exposure pathways, to avoid any overestimation of the risk. Also, conservative default values were adapted to prevent underestimation of the risk when site-specific values were not available. The risks posed by the six contaminants were calculated using the API's Decision Support System for Exposure and Risk Assessment, with several assumptions. In the crater-formed-area (Ac), the non-carcinogenic risks (i.e., HI values) of tri-nitro-toluene (TNT) and Cd were slightly larger than 1, but for RDX (Royal Demolition Explosives) was over 50. The total non-carcinogenic risk of the whole gunnery range was calculated to be 62.5, which was a significantly high value. The carcinogenicity of Cd was estimated to be about 10(-3), while that for Pb was about 5 x 10(-4), which greatly exceeded the generally acceptable carcinogenic risk level of 10(-4)-10(-6). It was concluded from the risk assessment that there is an immediate need for remediation of both carcinogens and non-carcinogens before construction of the reservoir. However, for a more accurate risk assessment, further specific estimations of the changes in environmental conditions due to the construction of the reservoir will be required; and more over, the effects of the pollutants to the ecosystem will also need to be evaluated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyerim Ryu
- Department of Civil, Urban and Geosystem Engineering, Seoul National University, 151-744, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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Gao Y, Yu XZ, Wu SC, Cheung KC, Tam NFY, Qian PY, Wong MH. Interactions of rice (Oryza sativa L.) and PAH-degrading bacteria (Acinetobacter sp.) on enhanced dissipation of spiked phenanthrene and pyrene in waterlogged soil. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2006; 372:1-11. [PMID: 17081596 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2006.09.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2006] [Revised: 09/19/2006] [Accepted: 09/19/2006] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
The effects of cultivation of rice (Oryza sativa L.) and PAH-degrading bacteria (Acinetobacter sp.) separately, and in combination, on the dissipation of spiked phenanthrene and pyrene (0, 50+50, 100+100, 200+200 mg kg(-1)) in waterlogged soil were studied using pot trials. The population of introduced PAH-degrading bacteria remained at 10(5) CFU g(-1) dry soil after 20 days of treatment with Acinetobacter sp. only, but increased to 10(6) when planted with rice simultaneously. Shoot and root biomass of rice when grown alone was adversely affected by spiked PAHs, but significantly increased by 2-55% and 8-409%, respectively, when inoculated with Acinetobacter sp.. Phenanthrene and pyrene concentrations in roots ranged from 1-27 and 20-98 mg kg(-1), respectively, while their concentrations in shoots were generally lower than 0.2 mg kg(-1). The dissipation of phenanthrene was mainly due to abiotic loss as 70-78% phenanthrene was lost from the control soil at the end of 80 days, while removal of 86-87% phenanthrene had been achieved after 40 days in the treatment co-cultivated with Acinetobacter sp. and rice. Compared with the control where only 6-15% of pyrene was removed from soil, a much higher dissipation of pyrene (43-62%) was attained for the treatments co-cultivated with Acinetobacter sp. and rice at the end of 80 days. The results demonstrated that co-cultivation of rice and PAH-degrading bacteria may have a great potential to accelerate the bioremediation process of PAH-contaminated soil under waterlogged conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Gao
- Croucher Institute for Environmental Sciences and Department of Biology, Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong, China
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21
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Adamia G, Ghoghoberidze M, Graves D, Khatisashvili G, Kvesitadze G, Lomidze E, Ugrekhelidze D, Zaalishvili G. Absorption, distribution, and transformation of TNT in higher plants. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2006; 64:136-45. [PMID: 16002139 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2005.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2004] [Revised: 04/27/2005] [Accepted: 05/08/2005] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The ability of eight species of plants to assimilate 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) was investigated. Glycine max (soybean), in particular, demonstrated rapid assimilation of high concentrations of this explosive. Penetration and localization of [1-(14)C]-TNT in plant root cells and leaves were studied via electron microscopic autoradiography. TNT was shown to be localized primarily on membrane structures involved in the transportation of nicotinamide coenzymes (membranes of endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, plastids). [1-(14)C]-TNT in roots was incorporated mainly in low-molecular-weight metabolites; however, in stems and leaves, the radiocarbon was incorporated in biopolymers. Enzymatic transformation of TNT in roots was studied, and it was found that degradation involved mainly nitroreductase acting on the TNT nitro groups. The process was intensified in the presence of electron donors--NADH and NADPH. Nitroreductase activity was revealed in root cell cytosol and expression was strongly induced by plant cultivation on TNT-containing media. Oxidation of [C(3)H(3)]TNT by peroxidase and phenoloxidase was also studied. In contrast to the strongly induced nitroreductase, levels of these enzymes changed very little with TNT addition. This suggests that the main pathway of TNT transformation in plant cells is nitro group reduction. A plant's nitroreductase activity and its ability to incorporate TNT from aqueous solutions were correlated in four plants that were studied. The results suggest that plant nitroreductase activity may serve as a good biochemical indicator of plants that can be used for phytoremediation of soils contaminated with TNT.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Adamia
- Durmishidze Institute of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Georgian Academy of Sciences, Davit Agmasheneblis Kheivani, 10th km. Tbilisi 0159, GA
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Cruz-Uribe O, Rorrer GL. Uptake and biotransformation of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) by microplantlet suspension culture of the marine red macroalgaPortieria hornemannii. Biotechnol Bioeng 2006; 93:401-12. [PMID: 16187335 DOI: 10.1002/bit.20712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Microplantlets of the marine red macroalga Portieria hornemannii efficiently removed the explosive compound 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) from seawater. Photosynthetic, axenic microplantlets (1.2 g FW/L) were challenged with enriched seawater medium containing dissolved TNT at concentrations of 1.0, 10, and 50 mg/L. At 22 degrees C and initial TNT concentrations of 10 mg/L or less, TNT removal from seawater was 100% within 72 h, and the first-order rate constant for TNT removal ranged from 0.025 to 0.037 L/gFW h under both illuminated conditions (153 microE/m(2)s, 14:10 LD photoperiod) and dark conditions. Two immediate products of TNT biotransformation, 2-amino-4,6-dinitrotoluene and 4-amino-2,6-dintrotoluene, were identified in the liquid culture medium, with a maximum material balance recovery of 29 mole%. Only trace levels of these products and residual TNT were found within the fresh cell biomass. Removal of TNT by P. hornemannii microplantlets at initial concentrations of 1.0 or 10 mg/L did not affect the respiration rate. At an initial TNT concentration of 10 mg/L, net photosynthesis decreased towards zero, commensurate with the removal of dissolved TNT from seawater, whereas at an initial TNT concentration of 1.0 mg/L, the net photosynthesis rate was not affected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Octavio Cruz-Uribe
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Oregon State University, Corvallis, 97331, USA
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Nepovim A, Hebner A, Soudek P, Gerth A, Thomas H, Smrcek S, Vanek T. Degradation of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene by selected helophytes. CHEMOSPHERE 2005; 60:1454-61. [PMID: 16054915 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2005.01.073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2004] [Revised: 01/17/2005] [Accepted: 01/18/2005] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Four emergent plants (helophytes, synonyms emersion macrophytes, marsh plants, etc.) Phragmites australis, Juncus glaucus, Carex gracillis and Typha latifolia were successfully used for degradation of TNT (2,4,6-trinitrotoluene) under in vitro conditions. The plants took up and transformed more than 90% of TNT from the medium within ten days of cultivation. The most efficient species was Ph. australis which took up 98% of TNT within ten days. The first stable degradation products 4-amino-2,6-dinitrotoluene (4-ADNT) and 2-amino-4,6-dinitrotoluene (2-ADNT) were identified and analysed during the cultivation period. [14C] TNT was used for the detection of TNT degradation products and their compartmentalization in plant tissues after two weeks of cultivation. Forty one percent of 14C was detected as insoluble or bound in cell structures: 34% in roots and 8% in the aerial parts. These results open the perspective of using the above-mentioned plants for the remediation of TNT contaminated waters.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Nepovim
- Department of Plant Tissue Cultures, Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, AS CR, Flemingovo nám. 2, 166 10 Praha 6, Czech Republic
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Van Aken B, Yoon JM, Just CL, Schnoor JL. Metabolism and mineralization of hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine inside poplar tissues (Populus deltoides x nigra DN-34). ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2004; 38:4572-4579. [PMID: 15461165 DOI: 10.1021/es049837a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Poplar tissue cultures and leaf crude extracts (Populus deltoides x nigra DN-34) were exposed to [U-14C]hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX) and incubated under light and in the dark. Poplar tissue cultures were able to partially reduce RDX to hexahydro-1-nitroso-3,5-dinitro-1,3,5-triazine (MNX) and hexahydro-1,3-dinitroso-5-nitro-1,3,5-triazine (DNX), regardless of the presence or absence of light. However, further transformation of RDX, MNX, and DNX required exposure to light and resulted in the formation of formaldehyde (CH2O), methanol (CH3OH), and carbon dioxide (CO2). Similarly, transformation of RDX by poplar leaf crude extracts required exposure to light. Neither reduction of RDX to MNX and DNX nor mineralization into CO2 were recorded in crude extracts, even when exposed to light, suggesting that both processes were light-independent and required intact plant cells. Control experiments without plant material showed that RDX was partially transformed abiotically, by the sole action of light, but to a lesser extent than in the presence of plant crude extracts, suggesting the intervention of plant subcellular structures through a light-mediated mechanism. Poplar tissue cultures were also shown to mineralize 14CH2O and 14CH3OH, regardless of the presence or absence of light. These results suggest that transformation of [U-14C]RDX by plant tissue cultures may occur through a three-step process, involving (i) a light-independent reduction of RDX to MNX and DNX by intact plant cells; (ii) a plant/light-mediated breakdown of the heterocyclic ring of RDX, MNX, or DNX into C1-labeled metabolites (CH2O and CH3OH); and (iii) a further light-independent mineralization of C1-labeled metabolites by intact plant cells. This is the first time that a significant mineralization of RDX into CO2 by light-exposed plant tissue cultures is reported.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benoit Van Aken
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, 4105 Seamans Center, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, USA.
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Mezzari MP, Van Aken B, Yoon JM, Just CL, Schnoor JL. Mathematical modeling of RDX and HMX metabolism in poplar (Populus deltoides x Populus nigra, DN34) tissue culture. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHYTOREMEDIATION 2004; 6:323-345. [PMID: 15696705 DOI: 10.1080/16226510490888839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Three mathematical models were developed based on a fate study as an approach to define transformation pathways of hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX) and octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine (HMX) within plant cells. [U-14C]RDX and [U-14C]HMX were added in Murashige and Skoog (MS) liquid media containing Populus deltoides x P. nigra (DN34) tissue cultures. Radioactivity of samples was analyzed using HPLC, a bio-oxidizer and liquid scintillation counter. Based on information collected, transformation pathways of nitramine compounds were fitted with the raw data obtained and using a modified "green liver" model. Ordinary differential equations were developed and simulations were performed with MicroMath Scientist version 2.0 (MicroMath Inc., St. Louis, MO, USA). The three models, with different sequential transformation processes, were tested in order to support the raw data (model I) and the assumptions of the modified "green liver" model (models II and III). The results showed a high correlation between the collected data and the simulated concentrations for all models. Thus, the simplest model developed (model I) is the best model description of these particular results. The results obtained suggest that the principle of parsimony should be applied. The "green liver"-based models also demonstrated a reliable approach for the investigation of degradation pathways of nitramines within plant cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa P Mezzari
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, USA
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Schoenmuth BW, Pestemer W. Dendroremediation of trinitrotoluene (TNT). Part 2: fate of radio-labelled TNT in trees. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2004; 11:331-9. [PMID: 15506637 DOI: 10.1007/bf02979648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND, AIM AND SCOPE Problems of long-term existence of the environmental contaminant 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) and necessities for the use of trees ('dendroremediation') in sustainable phytoremediation strategies for TNT are described in the first part of this paper. Aims of the second part are estimation of [14C]-TNT uptake, localisation of TNT-derived radioactivity in mature tree tissues, and the determination of the degree of TNT-degradation during dendroremediation processes. METHODS Four-year-old trees of hybrid willow (Salix spec., clone EW-20) and of Norway spruce (Picea abies) were cultivated in sand or ammunition plant soil (AP-soil) in wick supplied growth vessels. Trees were exposed to a single pulse application with water solved [U-14C]-TNT reaching a calculated initial concentration of 5.2 mg TNT per kg dry soil. Two months after application overall radioactivity and extractability of 14C were determined in sand/soil, roots, stem-wood, stem-bark, branches, leaves, needles, and Picea May sprouts. Root extracts were analysed by radio TLC. RESULTS 60 days after [14C]-TNT application, recovered 14C is accumulated in roots (70% for sand variants, 34% for AP-soil variant). 15-28% of 14C remained in sand and 61% in AP-soil. 3.3 to 14.4% of 14C were located in aboveground tree portions. Above-ground distribution of 14C differed considerably between the angiosperm Salix and the gymnosperm Picea. In Salix, nearly half of above-ground-14C was detected in bark-free wood, whereas in Picea older needles contained most of the above-ground-14C (54-69%). TNT was readily transformed in tree tissue. Approximately 80% of 14C was non-extractably bound in roots, stems, wood, and leaves or needles. Only quantitatively less important stem-bark of Salix and Picea and May shoots of Picea showed higher extraction yields (up to 56%). DISCUSSION Pulse application of [14C]-TNT provided evidence for the first time that after TNT-exposure, in tree root extracts, no TNT and none of the known metabolites, mono-amino-dinitrotoluenes (ADNT), diaminonitrotoluenes (DANT), trinitrobenzene (TNB) and no dinitrotoluenes (DNTs) were present. Extractable portions of 14C were small and contained at least three unknown metabolites (or groups) for Salix. In Picea, four extractable metabolites (or groups) were detected, where only one metabolite (or group) seemed to be identical for Salix and Picea. All unknown extractables were of a very polar nature. CONCLUSIONS Results of complete TNT-transformation in trees explain some of our previous findings with 'cold analytics', where no TNT and no ADNT-metabolites could be found in tissues of TNT-exposed Salix and Populus clones. It is concluded that 'cold' tissue analysis of tree organs is not suited for quantitative success control of phytoremediation in situ. RECOMMENDATIONS AND OUTLOOK Both short rotation Salicaceae trees and conifer forests possess a dendroremediation potential for TNT polluted soils. The degradation capacity and the large biomass of adult forest trees with their woody compartments of roots and stems may be utilized for detoxification of soil xenobiotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernd W Schoenmuth
- Institute for Ecotoxicology and Ecochemistry in Plant Protection, Federal Biological Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry (BBA), Koenigin-Luise-Str. 19, D-14195 Berlin, Germany.
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Schoenmuth BW, Pestemer W. Dendroremediation of trinitrotoluene (TNT). Part 1: Literature overview and research concept. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2004; 11:273-8. [PMID: 15341318 DOI: 10.1007/bf02979637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND, AIM AND SCOPE For decades, very large areas of former military sites have been contaminated diffusely with the persistent nitroaromatic explosive 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT). The recalcitrance of the environmental hazard TNT is to a great extent due to its particulate soil existence, which leads to slow but continuous leaching processes. Although improper handling during the manufacture of TNT seems to be a problem of the past in developed countries, environmental deposition of TNT and other explosives is still going on unfortunately, resulting from thousands of unexploded ordnance or low order explosions at munitions test areas and at current battlefields. OBJECTIVE Sustainable phytoremediation strategies for explosives in Germany, which intend to use trees to decontaminate soil and groundwater ('dendroremediation'), have to consider that most of the former German military sites are already covered with woodlands, mainly with conifer stands. Therefore, parallel investigation of the remediation potential is necessary for both of the selected hybrids of fast growing broadleaf trees, which are waiting for planting and forest conifers, which have already proven for decades that they are able to grow on explosive contaminated sites. MAIN FEATURES A short literature review is given regarding phytoremediation of TNT with herbaceous plants and some general aspects of dendroremediation are discussed. Furthermore, an overview of our TNT-dendroremediation research network is introduced, which has the strategic goal to make dendroremediation more calculable for a series of potent trees for site-adapted in situ application and for the assessment of tree remediation potentials in natural attenuation processes. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Some of our methods, results and conclusions yet unpublished are presented. For a preliminary calculation of area-related annual TNT dendroremediation potential of five-year-old trees, the following values were assessed: Salix EW-13 6.0, Salix EW-20 8.5, Populus ZP-007 4.2, Betula pendula 5.2, Picea abies 1.9 and Pinus sylvestris 0.8 g m(-2) a(-1). For a 45-year-old spruce forest, an annual natural attenuation potential of 4.2 g TNT m(-2) a(-1) was found. CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATIONS AND PERSPECTIVE: Our main results deliver quantitative proposals for dendroremediation strategies in situ and provide decision aids. Also aspects of growth of raw materials for energy production are considered. Our dendroremediation research concept for TNT and its congeners can be easily completed for other trees of interest and it can also be applied to herbaceous plants. Knowing the current bottlenecks of phytoremediation and considering the known environmental behaviour of other contaminants, elements of our methodological approach may be easily adapted to those pollutant groups, e.g. for pesticides, pharmaceuticals, PAHs, chlorinated recalcitrants and, with some restrictions, to inorganics and to multiple contaminations. Our dynamical dendrotolerance test systems will help to predict tree growth on polluted areas. To provide some light into the black box of TNT dendroremediation, experimental data regarding the uptake, distribution and degradation of [14C]-TNT in mature tree tissues will be reported in the second part of this publication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernd W Schoenmuth
- Institute for Ecotoxicology and Ecochemistry in Plant Protection, Federal Biological Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry (BBA), Koenigin-Luise-Str. 19, D-14195 Berlin, Germany.
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Lynch JC, Brannon JM, Delfino JJ. Dissolution rates of three high explosive compounds: TNT, RDX, and HMX. CHEMOSPHERE 2002; 47:725-734. [PMID: 12079068 DOI: 10.1016/s0045-6535(02)00035-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Incidental exposure to high explosive compounds can cause subtle health effects to which a population could be more susceptible than injury by detonation. Proper source characterization is a key requirement in the conduct of risk assessments. For nonvolatile solid explosives, dissolution is one of the primary mechanisms that controls fate and transport, resulting in exposure to these compounds remote from their source. To date, information describing dissolution rates of high explosives has been sparse. The objective of this study was to determine the dissolution rates of three high explosive compounds, 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT), hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX), and octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine (HMX), in dilute aqueous solutions as a function of temperature, surface area, and energy input. To determine each variable's impact on dissolution rate, experiments were performed where one variable was changed while the other two were held constant. TNT demonstrated the fastest dissolution rate followed by HMX and then RDX. Dissolution rate correlation equations were developed for each explosive compound incorporating the three aforementioned variables, independently, and collectively in one correlation equation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason C Lynch
- Department of Environmental Engineering Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville 32611-6450, USA.
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Van Aken B, Agathos SN. Biodegradation of nitro-substituted explosives by white-rot fungi: a mechanistic approach. ADVANCES IN APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY 2002; 48:1-77. [PMID: 11677677 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-2164(01)48000-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- B Van Aken
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, USA
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Affiliation(s)
- C E French
- Institute of Cell and Molecular Biology, University of Edinburgh, Mayfield Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JR, UK.
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Groom CA, Halasz A, Paquet L, Morris N, Olivier L, Dubois C, Hawari J. Accumulation of HMX (octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine) in indigenous and agricultural plants grown in HMX-contaminated anti-tank firing-range soil. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2002; 36:112-118. [PMID: 11811476 DOI: 10.1021/es0110729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
To investigate their potential for phytoremediation, selected agricultural and indigenous terrestrial plants were examined fortheir capacity to accumulate and degrade the explosive octahydro-1 ,3,5,7-tetra nitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine (HMX). Plant tissue and soil extracts were analyzed for the presence of HMX and possible degradative metabolites using high-performance liquid chromatography with diode-array UV detection (HPLC-UV), micellar electrokinetic chromatography with diode-array UV detection (MEKC-UV), and HPLC with electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (LC-MS). The pattern of HMX accumulation for alfalfa (Medicago sativa), bush bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), canola (Brassica rapa), wheat (Triticum aestivum), and perennial ryegrass (Loliumperenne) grown in a controlled environment on contaminated soil from an anti-tank firing range was similar to that observed for plants (wild bergamot (Monarda fistulosa), western wheat grass (Agropyron smithii), brome grass (Bromus sitchensis), koeleria (Koeleria gracilis), goldenrod (Solidago sp.), blueberry (Vaccinium sp.), anemone (Anemone sp.), common thistle (Circium vulgare), wax-berry (Symphoricarpos albus), western sage (Artemisia gnaphalodes), and Drummond's milk vetch (Astragalus drummondii)) collected from the range. No direct evidence of plant-mediated HMX (bio)chemical transformation was provided by the available analytical methods. Traces of mononitroso-HMX were found in contaminated soil extracts and were also observed in leaf extracts. The dominant mechanism for HMX translocation and accumulation in foliar tissue was concluded to be aqueous transpirational flux and evaporation. The accumulation of HMX in the leaves of most of the selected species to levels significantly above soil concentration is relevant to the assessment of both phytoremediation potential and environmental risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carl A Groom
- Biotechnology Research Institute, National Research Council Canada, Montreal, Quebec
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Snellinx Z, Nepovím A, Taghavi S, Vangronsveld J, Vanek T, van der Lelie D. Biological remediation of explosives and related nitroaromatic compounds. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2002; 9:48-61. [PMID: 11885418 DOI: 10.1007/bf02987316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Nitroaromatics form an important group of recalcitrant xenobiotics. Only few aromatic compounds, bearing one nitro group as a substituent of the aromatic ring, are produced as secondary metabolites by microorganisms. The majority of nitroaromatic compounds in the biosphere are industrial chemicals such as explosives, dyes, polyurethane foams, herbicides, insecticides and solvents. These compounds are generally recalcitrant to biological treatment and remain in the biosphere, where they constitute a source of pollution due to both toxic and mutagenic effects on humans, fish, algae and microorganisms. However, relatively few microorganisms have been described as being able to use nitroaromatic compounds as nitrogen and/or carbon and energy source. The best-known nitroaromatic compound is the explosive TNT (2,4,6-trinitrotoluene). This article reviews the bioremediation strategies for TNT-contaminated soil and water. It comes to the following conclusion: The optimal remediation strategy for nitroaromatic compounds depends on many site-specific factors. Composting and the use of reactor systems lend themselves to treating soils contaminated with high levels of explosives (e.g. at former ammunition production facilities, where areas with a high contamination level are common). Compared to composting systems, bioreactors have the major advantage of a short treatment time, but the disadvantage of being more labour intensive and more expensive. Studies indicate that biological treatment systems, which are based on the activity of the fungus Phanerochaete chrysosporium or on Pseudomonas sp. ST53, might be used as effective methods for the remediation of highly contaminated soil and water. Phytoremediation, although not widely used now, has the potential to become an important strategy for the remediation of soil and water contaminated with explosives. It is best suited where contaminant levels are low (e.g. at military sites where pollution is rather diffuse) and where larger contaminated surfaces or volumes have to be treated. In addition, phytoremediation can be used as a polishing method after other remediation treatments, such as composting or bioslurry, have taken place. This in-situ treatment method has the advantage of lower treatment costs, but has the disadvantage of a considerable longer treatment time. In order to improve the cost-efficiency, phytoremediation of nitroaromatics (and other organic xenobiotics) could be combined with bio-energy production. This requires, however, detailed knowledge on the fate of the contaminants in the plants as well as the development of efficient treatment methods for the contaminated biomass that minimise the spreading of the contaminants into the environment during post harvest treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zita Snellinx
- Flemish Institute for Technological Research (Vito), Boeretang 200, 2400 Mol, Belgium
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Esteve-Núñez A, Caballero A, Ramos JL. Biological degradation of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2001; 65:335-52, table of contents. [PMID: 11527999 PMCID: PMC99030 DOI: 10.1128/mmbr.65.3.335-352.2001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 322] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Nitroaromatic compounds are xenobiotics that have found multiple applications in the synthesis of foams, pharmaceuticals, pesticides, and explosives. These compounds are toxic and recalcitrant and are degraded relatively slowly in the environment by microorganisms. 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (TNT) is the most widely used nitroaromatic compound. Certain strains of Pseudomonas and fungi can use TNT as a nitrogen source through the removal of nitrogen as nitrite from TNT under aerobic conditions and the further reduction of the released nitrite to ammonium, which is incorporated into carbon skeletons. Phanerochaete chrysosporium and other fungi mineralize TNT under ligninolytic conditions by converting it into reduced TNT intermediates, which are excreted to the external milieu, where they are substrates for ligninolytic enzymes. Most if not all aerobic microorganisms reduce TNT to the corresponding amino derivatives via the formation of nitroso and hydroxylamine intermediates. Condensation of the latter compounds yields highly recalcitrant azoxytetranitrotoluenes. Anaerobic microorganisms can also degrade TNT through different pathways. One pathway, found in Desulfovibrio and Clostridium, involves reduction of TNT to triaminotoluene; subsequent steps are still not known. Some Clostridium species may reduce TNT to hydroxylaminodinitrotoluenes, which are then further metabolized. Another pathway has been described in Pseudomonas sp. strain JLR11 and involves nitrite release and further reduction to ammonium, with almost 85% of the N-TNT incorporated as organic N in the cells. It was recently reported that in this strain TNT can serve as a final electron acceptor in respiratory chains and that the reduction of TNT is coupled to ATP synthesis. In this review we also discuss a number of biotechnological applications of bacteria and fungi, including slurry reactors, composting, and land farming, to remove TNT from polluted soils. These treatments have been designed to achieve mineralization or reduction of TNT and immobilization of its amino derivatives on humic material. These approaches are highly efficient in removing TNT, and increasing amounts of research into the potential usefulness of phytoremediation, rhizophytoremediation, and transgenic plants with bacterial genes for TNT removal are being done.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Esteve-Núñez
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Cellular Biology of Plants, Estación Experimental del Zaidín, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas, Apdo Correos 419, E-18008 Granada, Spain
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