Social consequences of antiretroviral therapy: preparing for the unexpected futures of HIV-positive children

Suubi + Adherence4Youth: a study protocol to optimize the Suubi Intervention for Adherence to HIV treatment for youth living with HIV in Uganda

BACKGROUND

Suubi is an evidenced based multi-component intervention that targets psychosocial and economic hardships to improve ART adherence, viral suppression, mental health, family financial stability, and family cohesion for adolescents living with HIV (ALHIV) in Uganda. Suubi was originally tested as a combined package of four components: 1) Financial Literacy Training; 2) incentivized matched Youth Savings Accounts with income-generating activities; 3) a manualized and visual-based intervention for ART adherence and stigma reduction; and 4) engagement with HIV treatment-experienced role models. However, it is unknown if each component in Suubi had a positive effect, how the components interacted, or if fewer components could have produced equivalent effects. Hence, the overall goal of this new study is to identify the most impactful and sustainable economic and psychosocial components across 48 health clinics in Uganda.

METHODS

A total of 576 ALHIV (aged 11-17 years at enrollment) will be recruited from 48 clinics and each clinic will be randomized to one of 16 study conditions. Each condition represents every possible combination of the 4 components noted above. Assessments will be conducted at baseline, 12, 24, 36 and 48- months post-intervention initiation. Using the multi-phase optimization strategy (MOST), we will identify the optimal combination of components and associated costs for viral suppression, as well as test key mediators and moderators of the component-viral suppression relationship.

DISCUSSION

The study is a shift in the paradigm of research to use new thinking to build/un-pack highly efficacious interventions that lead to new scientific knowledge in terms of understanding what drives an intervention's success and how to iterate on them in ways that are more efficient, affordable and scalable. The study advances intervention science for HIV care outcomes globally.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

This project was registered at clinicaltrials.gov (NCT05600621) on October, 31, 2022. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT05600621.

High Rates of Viral Suppression and Care Retention Among Youth Born Outside of the United States with Perinatally Acquired HIV

BACKGROUND

Youth born outside of the US with perinatally acquired HIV infection (YBoUS-PHIV) account for most children living with HIV in the US, but there are few data characterizing their care outcomes.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective study of YBoUS-PHIV receiving care across 3 HIV clinics in the Southeastern US between October 2018 and 2019. Primary outcomes were retention in care and viral suppression defined as (1) proportion of suppressed viral loads (VLs) and (2) having all VLs suppressed (definition 1 presented in the abstract). Primary predictors were age, adoption and disclosure status (full, partial and none/unknown). Multivariable logistic regression and χ 2 tests were used to test for associations with care outcomes. Analysis of disclosure status was restricted to youth greater than or equal to 12 years.

RESULTS

The cohort included 111 YBoUS-PHIV. Median age was 14 years (interquartile range, 12-18), 59% were female, and 79% were international adoptees. Overall, 84% of patients were retained in care, and 88% were virally suppressed at each VL measurement. Adopted youth were more likely to be virally suppressed than nonadopted youth [odds ratio (OR), 7.08; P < 0.01] although the association was not statistically significant in adjusted analysis (adjusted OR, 4.26; P = 0.07). Neither age nor adoption status was significantly associated with retention. Among 89 patients greater than or equal to 12 years, 74% were fully disclosed of their HIV status, 12% were partially disclosed, and 13% had not started the disclosure process. There was no significant difference in retention or viral suppression by disclosure status.

CONCLUSIONS

YBoUS-PHIV achieved high rates of retention and viral suppression. Adopted youth may be more likely to achieve viral suppression which may reflect the need for tailored interventions for nonadopted youth.

Suubi4Stigma study protocol: a pilot cluster randomized controlled trial to address HIV-associated stigma among adolescents living with HIV in Uganda

BACKGROUND

Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is heavily burdened by HIV, with 85% of the global new infections among adolescents happening in the region. With advances in medication and national policies promoting antiretroviral therapy (ART), children < 15 years living with HIV (CLWH) continue to grow with a chronic, highly stigmatized disease. Unfortunately, the stigma they experience results in much lower quality of life, including poor mental health and treatment outcomes. Family members also experience stigma and shame by virtue of their association with an HIV-infected family member. Yet, stigma-reduction interventions targeting CLWH and their families are very limited. The goal of this study is to address HIV-associated stigma among CLWH and their caregivers in Uganda.

METHODS

This three-arm cluster randomized control trial, known as Suubi4Stigma, will evaluate the feasibility, acceptability, and preliminary impact of two evidence-based interventions: (1) group cognitive behavioral therapy (G-CBT) focused on cognitive restructuring and strengthening coping skills at the individual level and (2) a multiple family group (MFG) intervention that strengthens family relationships to address stigma among CLWH (N = 90, 10-14 years) and their families (dyads) in Uganda. Nine clinics will be randomized to one of three study arms (n = 3 clinics, 30 child-caregiver dyads each): (1) usual care; (2) G-CBT + usual care; and (3) MFG + usual care. Both treatment and control conditions  will be delivered over a 3-month period. Data will be collected at baseline (pre-intervention) and at 3 months and 6 months post-intervention initiation.

CONCLUSION

The primary aim of the proposed project is to address the urgent need for theoretically and empirically informed interventions that seek to reduce HIV-associated stigma and its negative impact on adolescent health and psychosocial well-being. As several countries in SSA grapple with care and support for CLWH, this study will lay the foundation for a larger intervention study investigating how HIV-associated stigma can be reduced to foster healthy child development-especially for CLWH as they transition through adolescence.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT04528732 ; Registered August 27, 2020.

Suubi+Adherence-Round 2: A study protocol to examine the longitudinal HIV treatment adherence among youth living with HIV transitioning into young adulthood in Southern Uganda

BACKGROUND

Youth living with HIV (YLHIV) in Sub-Saharan African (SSA) are less likely to adhere to antiretroviral therapy (ART) and other health-related regimens. As a consequence, YLHIV are not only at risk for health problems and mental health comorbidities, but are also at risk for cognitive deficits, including in areas of memory and executive functioning. The Suubi+Adherence study followed 702 adolescents (10-16 years of age) receiving bolstered standard of care and a family economic empowerment intervention comprising an incentivized youth financial savings account (YSA) augmented with financial literacy training (FLT) and peer mentorship. The study findings pointed to superior short-term viral suppression and positive adolescent health and mental health functioning among participants receiving the intervention. The original group of adolescents who received Suubi+Adherence are now transitioning into young adulthood. This paper presents a protocol for the follow-up phase titled Suubi+Adherence Round 2.

METHODS

The original cohort in Suubi+Adherence will be tracked for an additional five years (2020-2025). Specifically, the long term follow-up will allow to: 1) ascertain the extent to which the short term outcomes identified in the first 6 years of the intervention are maintained as the same group transitions through young adulthood; and 2) address new scientific questions regarding ART adherence; HIV care engagement; protective health behaviors; and the potential of FEE to mitigate the development of HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders in YLHIV. Additionally, the team examines the potential mechanisms through which the observed long-term outcomes happen. Moreover, the Suubi+Adherence-Round 2 adds a qualitative component and extends the cost effectiveness component.

DISCUSSION

Guided by asset and human development theories, Suubi+Adherence-R2 will build on the recently concluded Suubi+Adherence study to conduct one of the largest and longest running studies of YLHIV in SSA as they transition into young adulthood. The study will address new scientific questions regarding long-term ART adherence, HIV care engagement, protective health behaviors, and the potential of FEE to mitigate the development of HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders in YLHIV. The findings may inform efforts to improve HIV care among Uganda's YLHIV, with potential replicability in other low-resource countries.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov , ID: NCT01790373.

Suubi+Adherence study protocol: A family economic empowerment intervention addressing HIV treatment adherence for perinatally infected adolescents

BACKGROUND

Globally, 1.8 million children<15 years are living with HIV. Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), as a region, is heavily burdened by HIV, with 90% of new infections among children happening there. Within SSA, Uganda has an HIV prevalence of 7.2% among 15-49-year-olds, with high prevalence in Masaka region (12%). Uganda also reports unprecedented numbers of perinatally HIV-infected children, with close to 150,000 children (ages 0-14) living with HIV (CLHA). However adherence to antiretroviral therapy (ART) among children and youth is poor, and has been attributed to economic insecurity, including lack of finances for transportation to clinic appointments, inadequate meals to support medication consumption, and resource prioritization towards school expenses. Yet, few programs aimed at addressing ART adherence have applied combination interventions to address economic stability and ART Adherence within the traditional framework of health education and HIV care. This paper describes a study protocol for a 5-year, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) funded, cluster randomized-controlled trial to evaluate a combination intervention, titled Suubi + Adherence, aimed at improving ART adherence among HIV perinatally infected adolescents (ages 10-16 at study enrollment) in Uganda.

METHODS

Suubi + Adherence was evaluated via a two-arm cluster randomized-controlled trial design in 39 health clinics, with a total enrollment of 702 HIV + adolescents (ages 10-16 at enrollment). The study addresses two primary outcomes: 1) adherence to HIV treatment regimen and 2) HIV knowledge and attitudes. Secondary outcomes include family functioning, sexual risk-taking behavior, and financial savings behavior. For potential scale-up, cost effectiveness analysis was employed to compare the relative costs and outcomes associated with each study arm: family economic strengthening comprising matched savings accounts, financial management training and small business development, all intended for family economic security versus bolstered usual care (SOC) comprising enhanced adherence sessions to ensure more standardized and sufficient adherence counseling.

DISCUSSION

This study aims to advance knowledge and inform the development of the next generation of programs aimed at increasing adherence to HIV treatment for HIV + adolescents in low-resource regions such as SSA. To our knowledge, the proposed study is the first to integrate and test family economic empowerment and stability-focused interventions for HIV + adolescents in Uganda (and much of SSA)-so families would have the necessary finances to manage HIV/AIDS as a chronic illness. The study would provide crucial evidence about the effects of an economic empowerment program on short and long-term impact, which is essential if such interventions are to be taken to scale.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

This trial was registered with ClinicalTrials.gov (registration number: NCT01790373) on 13 February 2013.

Familial silence surrounding HIV and non-disclosure of HIV status to older children and adolescents

Increasing numbers of children with HIV are surviving to adolescence and beyond, many of whom are orphaned. Disclosure of childrens' and adolescents' HIV status has been shown to improve adherence and retention in HIV treatment programmes. We investigated caregiving arrangements and intra-familial experience of HIV and its relationship to HIV disclosure to older children and adolescents. Children aged 6–15 years, newly diagnosed with HIV infection or previously diagnosed but not engaged in HIV care, were recruited from seven primary care clinics in Harare, Zimbabwe. Their caregivers responded to a nurse-led questionnaire. Family history of HIV, disclosure of HIV status to the child and reasons for non-disclosure were ascertained. The association between sociodemographics, caregiving, family HIV history and other characteristics and non-disclosure of HIV status to the child was determined using univariate and multivariate logistic regression. We recruited 385 participants, median age = 11 years (IQR: 9–13); 52% were female. Disclosure had occurred in 79% of children aged 11–15 years and 19% of children aged 6–10 years. Age under 11 years (adjusted OR [aOR] = 18.89, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 10.64–33.55; p < 0.001), being male [aOR]= 2.56, 95% CI = 1.49–4.54; p = 0.001, being unaware of the parents’ HIV status [aOR]= 32.42, 95% CI = 13.19–79.71; p < 0.001, and being newly diagnosed [aOR]= 2.52, 95% CI = 1.29–4.91; p = 0.007, were independently associated with non-disclosure. Disclosure outside of the family occurred infrequently and included friends of family (7%), school teacher (8%), school headmaster (4%) and church pastor (6%). High non-disclosure rates were present as well as a lack of discussion about HIV within the family. Disclosure outside of family was low reflecting difficulty in caregivers’ ability to discuss HIV with their child or surrounding community. HIV programmes need to support families in the disclosure process.

COMMUNICATION IN THE CONTEXT OF FAMILY CAREGIVING: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY OF UGANDAN CHILDREN ON ANTIRETROVIRAL THERAPY

It is important to consider the complexities of family dynamics when deciding when and how to communicate with HIV-infected children about their illness and treatment. Previous research has focused on providers' and caregivers' perspectives on whether, when and how to disclose HIV/AIDS diagnosis and treatment to HIV-infected children. From the perspective of HIV-infected children, communication does not mean just giving information about illness and treatment, but also encompasses emotional and material care. This paper places communication within the broader framework of caregiving in family situations. This exploratory study was conducted in Jinja district, Uganda, between November 2011 and December 2012. Through participant observation and in-depth interviews, communication by, and with, HIV-infected children in the context of family situations was explored from the perspectives of 29 HIV-infected children aged 8-17 years on antiretroviral therapy (ART) using content thematic analysis. Children's communication with caregivers about their illness and treatment varied depending on whom they were living with and the nature of caregiving. Although a mother's care was considered best, children described others who cared 'like a mother'. For some, caregiving was distributed among several relatives and non-relatives, while others felt they had hardly anyone to care for them. Caregiving from the children's perspective involved emotional support, expressed verbally and explicitly in messages of concern, encouragement conveyed in reminders to take medicines, attention when sick and confidential conversations about the challenges of having HIV and taking ART. Caregiving was also communicated implicitly in acts of provision of food/drinks to take with medicines, counting pills to confirm they had taken the medicines and accompanying children to treatment centres. Children's communication about their health and medicines and the care they received was to a large extent shaped by the nature of their relatedness to their caregivers, the extent to which caregiving was dispersed among several people and who else in the household was infected with HIV and on medication.

Reproductive health and lifestyle factors associated with health-related quality of life among perinatally HIV-infected adolescents in Uganda

Background

With increased survival of perinatally HIV - infected adolescents due to antiretroviral therapy (ART), the focus of HIV care has shifted to health-related quality of life (HRQoL) as a measure of disease progression, effects of ART co-morbidity and prognosis. We assessed factors associated with better HRQoL in perinatally HIV -infected adolescents in Uganda by determining the associations between sexual and reproductive health (SRH) or lifestyle experiences on HRQoL.

Methods

In a cross-sectional study, data on SRH, lifestyle experiences, socio demographic factors, communication with parents on sexuality and satisfaction of SRH services in ART clinics were collected from 614 HIV perinatally infected adolescents aged 10–19 using an interviewer-administered survey questionnaire. HRQoL data were collected using the Medical Outcomes Study HIV Health Survey instrument (MOS-HIV). Factors associated with better HRQoL were analysed using multiple logistic regression.

Results

The mean age was 16.2 ± 2.1 years, 362 (58.8 %) were females and 210 (34.2 %) were sexually active. Adolescents on ART were twice likely to present with better physical health (AOR = 2.07, 95 % CI: 1.24–3.46) and four times more likely to present with better mental health (AOR = 3.9, 95 % CI: 2.22–6.92) than those who were not on ART. There were no statistically significant associations between SRH (ever had sex, ever been pregnant, condom use, contraceptive use) or life style factors and physical health or mental health. Those with secondary or tertiary education were more likely to present with a better mental health (AOR = 5.3, 95 % CI: 1.86–15.41) compared those who had attained primary or no education. Participants who desired to have a child in future more likely (AOR 1.7, 95 % CI: 1.05–3.00) to present with a better mental health. Lack of communication with guardians on sexuality (AOR = 0.6, 95 % CI: 0.40–0.89), or dissatisfaction with SRH services (AOR 0.34, 95 % CI: 0.18–0.62) were associated with poorer mental health.

Conclusion

Among perinatally HIV-infected adolescents in Uganda, being on ART was associated with better physical and mental health while lack of communication with guardians on sexuality or dissatisfaction with SRH services was associated with poor mental health. Adolescents with pregnancy intentions were more likely to have a better mental health.

What am I 'living' with? Growing up with HIV in Uganda and Zimbabwe

As paediatric HIV treatment has become increasingly available across the world, the global perinatally infected cohort is ageing. However, we know surprisingly little about what it is like to grow up with HIV in resource-stretched settings. We draw on findings from a prospective, qualitative study with HIV-positive children, their carers and healthcare workers from four clinics in Uganda and Zimbabwe to examine children's experiences of living with HIV on treatment. We consider how the HIV experience is made in a symbiotic relationship between children, carers and healthcare workers and shaped by broader discourses. Despite the radical development in prognosis for children, their experience of HIV is largely constructed in relation to a language of 'sickness' through the promotion of medicalised talk and the recounting of past illness stories. This narrow narrative framework both reflects and reproduces core dimensions of the lived experience of growing up with HIV, which emphasises an absence of resilient healthiness in the face of ongoing vulnerability and risk. The challenges that children encounter in articulating alternative narratives that prioritise the relative buoyancy of their health is indicative of the broader uncertainty that exists around the future for these children at this point in the epidemic.

Adapting Evidence-Based Interventions to Meet the Needs of Adolescents Growing Up with HIV in South Africa: The VUKA Case Example

The VUKA family program is one of the only evidence-based interventions to promote positive psychosocial outcomes in South African HIV-infected pre- and early adolescents and their families. In this paper, we discuss the collaborative process by which a multidisciplinary team of clinicians, researchers, counselors, and artists/educators and families adapted and developed VUKA for this population using community-based participatory research methods. We describe the intervention and explore lessons learned that may be applicable across contexts related to international collaboration and adapting evidence-based interventions so that they are likely to be acceptable, feasible, and effective in a given setting and country context.

"Let's talk about sex": a qualitative study of Rwandan adolescents' views on sex and HIV

Objective

This qualitative study explored the views and experiences of adolescents with perinatally acquired HIV in Kigali, Rwanda, regarding sex, love, marriage, children and hope for the future.

Design

The study enrolled 42 adolescents who had received combination antiretroviral therapy for at least 12 months, and a selection of their primary caregivers. Study methods included 3 multiple day workshops consisting of role-playing and focus group discussions (FGDs) with adolescents, 8 in-depth interviews with adolescents, and one FGD with caregivers.

Results

The adolescents reported experiencing similar sexual needs and dilemmas as most other adolescents, but with an added layer of complexity due to fears related to HIV transmission and/or rejection by partners. They desired more advice from their parents/caregivers on these topics. Although they struggled with aspects of sex, love, marriage and having children, most agreed that they would find love, be married and have children in the future. The two most discussed HIV-related anxieties were how and when to disclose to a (potential) sex/marriage partner and whether to have children. However, most adolescents felt that they had a right to love and be loved, and were aware of prevention-of-mother-to-child-transmission (PMTCT) options in Rwanda. Adolescents generally spoke about their future role in society in a positive manner.

Conclusion

Strengthening the life skills of HIV-positive adolescents, especially around HIV disclosure and reduction of HIV transmission, as well as the support skills of parents/caregivers, may not only reduce onward HIV transmission but also improve quality of life by reducing anxiety.

Enhancing the Emotional Wellbeing of Perinatally HIV Infected Youth across Global Contexts

Increased access to antiretroviral treatment worldwide makes it more possible for children diagnosed with HIV before their 15^th birthday to age into adolescence and beyond. Many HIV+ youth navigate stressors including poverty and resource scarcity, which may converge to produce emotional distress. For over a decade, CHAMP (Collaborative HIV Prevention and Adolescent Mental Health Project) investigators partnered with youth, caregivers, providers and community stakeholders to address the health, mental health and risk taking behaviors of perinatally HIV-infected youth. This paper explores the mental health needs of aging cohorts of HIV+ youth, across three global contexts, New York (U.S.), Buenos Aires (Argentina), and KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa), to inform the development and implementation of combination HIV care and prevention supports for HIV+ youth.

METHODS

Analysis of data pooled across three countries involving HIV+ early adolescents and their caregivers over time (baseline and three month follow-up) was conducted. Univariate and multivariate analyses were applied to data from standardized measures used across sites to identify mental health needs of youth participants. The impact of the site specific versions of a family-strengthening intervention, CHAMP+U.S., CHAMP+Argentina, CHAMP+SA, was also examined relative to a randomized standard of care (SOC) comparison condition.

RESULTS

Analyses revealed mental health resilience in a large proportion of HIV+ youth, particularly behavioral functioning and overall mental health. Yet, significant numbers of caregivers across country contexts reported impaired child emotional and prosocial wellbeing. Significant site differences emerged at baseline. Involvement in the CHAMP+ Family Program was related to significant improvement in emotional wellbeing and a trend towards enhanced prosocial behavior relative to SOC across global sites.

CONCLUSIONS

Ongoing partnerships with youth, family and provider stakeholders across global sites helped to tailor programs like CHAMP+ to specific contextual needs. This has global intervention research and care implications as cohorts of HIV+ children age into adolescence.

"I have grown up controlling myself a lot." Fear and misconceptions about sex among adolescents vertically-infected with HIV in Tanzania

With increased access to HIV treatment throughout Africa, a generation of HIV positive children is now transitioning to adulthood while living with a chronic condition requiring lifelong medication, which can amplify the anxieties of adolescence. This qualitative study explored how adolescents in Tanzania with HIV experience their nascent sexuality, as part of an evaluation of a home-based care programme. We interviewed 14 adolescents aged 15-19 who had acquired HIV perinatally, 10 of their parents or other primary caregivers, and 12 volunteer home-based care providers who provided support, practical advice, and referrals to clinical services. Adolescents expressed unease about their sexuality, fearing that sex and relationships were inappropriate and hazardous, given their HIV status. They worried about having to disclose their status to partners, the risks of infecting others and for their own health. Thus, many anticipated postponing or avoiding sex indefinitely. Caregivers and home-based care providers reinforced negative views of sexual activity, partly due to prevailing misconceptions about the harmful effects of sex with HIV. The adolescents had restricted access to accurate information, appropriate guidance, or comprehensive reproductive health services and were likely to experience significant unmet need as they initiated sexual relationships. Care programmes could help to reduce this gap by facilitating open communication about sexuality between adolescents and their caregivers, providers, and HIV-positive peers.

Perinatally acquired HIV infection in adolescents from sub-Saharan Africa: a review of emerging challenges

Worldwide, more than three million children are infected with HIV, 90% of whom live in sub-Saharan Africa. As the HIV epidemic matures and antiretroviral treatment is scaled up, children with HIV are reaching adolescence in large numbers. The growing population of adolescents with perinatally acquired HIV infection living within this region presents not only unprecedented challenges but also opportunities to learn about the pathogenesis of HIV infection. In this Review, we discuss the changing epidemiology of paediatric HIV and the particular features of HIV infection in adolescents in sub-Saharan Africa. Longstanding HIV infection acquired when the immune system is not developed results in distinctive chronic clinical complications that cause severe morbidity. As well as dealing with chronic illness, HIV-infected adolescents have to confront psychosocial issues, maintain adherence to drugs, and learn to negotiate sexual relationships, while undergoing rapid physical and psychological development. Context-specific strategies for early identification of HIV infection in children and prompt linkage to care need to be developed. Clinical HIV care should integrate age-appropriate sexual and reproductive health and psychological, educational, and social services. Health-care workers will need to be trained to recognise and manage the needs of these young people so that the increasing numbers of children surviving to adolescence can access quality care beyond specialist services at low-level health-care facilities.

Understanding the mental health of youth living with perinatal HIV infection: lessons learned and current challenges

Introduction

Across the globe, children born with perinatal HIV infection (PHIV) are reaching adolescence and young adulthood in large numbers. The majority of research has focused on biomedical outcomes yet there is increasing awareness that long-term survivors with PHIV are at high risk for mental health problems, given genetic, biomedical, familial and environmental risk. This article presents a review of the literature on the mental health functioning of perinatally HIV-infected (PHIV+) adolescents, corresponding risk and protective factors, treatment modalities and critical needs for future interventions and research.

Methods

An extensive review of online databases was conducted. Articles including: (1) PHIV+ youth; (2) age 10 and older; (3) mental health outcomes; and (4) mental health treatment were reviewed. Of 93 articles identified, 38 met inclusion criteria, the vast majority from the United States and Europe.

Results

These studies suggest that PHIV+ youth experience emotional and behavioural problems, including psychiatric disorders, at higher than expected rates, often exceeding those of the general population and other high-risk groups. Yet, the specific role of HIV per se remains unclear, as uninfected youth with HIV exposure or those living in HIV-affected households displayed similar prevalence rates in some studies, higher rates in others and lower rates in still others. Although studies are limited with mixed findings, this review indicates that child-health status, cognitive function, parental health and mental health, stressful life events and neighbourhood disorder have been associated with worse mental health outcomes, while parent–child involvement and communication, and peer, parent and teacher social support have been associated with better function. Few evidence-based interventions exist; CHAMP+, a mental health programme for PHIV+ youth, shows promise across cultures.

Conclusions

This review highlights research limitations that preclude both conclusions and full understanding of aetiology. Conversely, these limitations present opportunities for future research. Many PHIV+ youth experience adequate mental health despite vulnerabilities. However, the focus of research to date highlights the identification of risks rather than positive attributes, which could inform preventive interventions. Development and evaluation of mental health interventions and preventions are urgently needed to optimize mental health, particularly for PHIV+ youth growing up in low-and-middle income countries.

When HIV-positive children grow up: a critical analysis of the transition literature in developed countries

Young people with perinatally acquired HIV are routinely problematized in the research literature as inadequately equipped to manage transition to adolescent sexuality and adult clinical care without comprehensive interventions, partly because of challenges associated with adolescence itself, and partly because of neurocognitive and psychosocial dysfunctions commonly attributed to these children. However, little is actually known about this population, given their recent emergence in the HIV epidemic. Using critical discourse analysis, we argue that several problematic assumptions operate in this literature, hampering the objective of understanding these young people. Our analysis can contribute to a reframing of future research on HIV-positive adolescents, by encouraging greater attunement to the experiences of the adolescents themselves and to the discursive meanings that underpin research agendas, so that different and more productive questions can be asked and answered.

Determinants of Adherence to Antiretroviral Therapy among HIV-Infected Patients in Africa

Background. There are only a few comprehensive studies of adherence to ART and its challenges in Africa. This paper aims to assess the evidence on the challenges and prospects of ART adherence in sub-Saharan Africa. Methods. The authors reviewed original and review articles involving HIV-positive individuals that measured adherence to ART and its predictors in the past decade. Findings. Against expectations, sub-Saharan Africa patients have similar or higher adherence levels compared to those of developed countries. The challenges to ART adherence include factors related to patients and their families, socioeconomic factors, medication, and healthcare systems. Conclusion. Despite good adherence and program-related findings, antiretroviral treatment is challenged by a range of hierarchical and interrelated factors. There is substantial room for improvement of ART programs in sub-Sahara African countries.

Debunking common barriers to pediatric HIV disclosure

As HIV-positive children continue to gain more access to antiretroviral therapy and survive into young adulthood, caregivers face the difficult process of disclosing a child's HIV status to that child. Although disclosure has many proven benefits for mental health, psychosocial development, caregiver well-being, treatment adherence and future planning, such a process is still often met with resistance. This article discusses the main reasons given for delaying or avoiding disclosure of a child's HIV status. Each barrier to disclosure is discussed and debunked as an insufficient reason to delay the positive benefits that the disclosure process has shown to produce. HIV disclosure is a critical and multifaceted issue in children. Such a process has been shown to best involve a multi-disciplinary support team that assists caregivers in continually adapting the disclosure discussion to meet the developmental needs and understanding of each individual child over time.

Family-based HIV prevention and intervention services for youth living in poverty-affected contexts: the CHAMP model of collaborative, evidence-informed programme development

Family-based interventions with children who are affected by HIV and AIDS are not well established. The Collaborative HIV Prevention and Adolescent Mental Health Program (CHAMP) represents one of the few evidence-based interventions tested in low-income contexts in the US, Caribbean and South Africa. This paper provides a description of the theoretical and empirical bases of the development and implementation of CHAMP in two of these countries, the US and South Africa. In addition, with the advent of increasing numbers of children infected with HIV surviving into adolescence and young adulthood, a CHAMP+ family-based intervention, using the founding principles of CHAMP, has been developed to mitigate the risk influences associated with being HIV positive.

Challenges faced by health workers in providing counselling services to HIV-positive children in Uganda: a descriptive study

Background

The delivery of HIV counselling and testing services for children remains an uphill task for many health workers in HIV-endemic countries, including Uganda. We conducted a descriptive study to explore the challenges of providing HIV counselling and testing services to children in Uganda.

Methods

A descriptive study was conducted in the districts of Kampala and Kabarole in Uganda. The data were collected using semi-structured individual interviews and focus group discussions with health workers who are involved in the care of HIV-positive children. Key informant interviews were conducted with the administrators of the 10 study healthcare institutions. Quantitative data were summarized using frequency tables, while qualitative data were analyzed using the content thematic approach.

Results

Counselling children was reported to be a difficult exercise due to some children being unable to express themselves, being dependent on adults for their care, being fearful, and requiring more time to open up during counselling. This was compounded by some caretakers' unwillingness and difficulty to disclose the HIV status of their children. Other issues about the caretakers were: lack of consistency in caretakers; old age; sickness; and poverty. Health workers mentioned the following as some of the challenges they face in the delivery of HIV counselling and testing services for children: lack of counselling skills; failure to cope with the knowledge demand; difficulty to facilitate disclosure; heavy work load; and lack of other support services. Institutions were found to be constrained by limited space and lack of antiretrovirals for children.

Conclusions

The major challenges in the delivery of paediatric HIV services were related to the knowledge gap in paediatric HIV and the lack of counselling skills, as well as health system-related constraints. There is a need to train health workers in child-counselling skills, especially in the issues of disclosure, sexuality and sexual abuse, as well as in addressing fears related to death and an uncertain future, in order to improve paediatric HIV care. Provision of child-friendly services, guidelines and antiretroviral formulations for children may provide a window of hope to improve HIV counselling and testing services for children.

Survey of children accessing HIV services in a high prevalence setting: time for adolescents to count?

OBJECTIVE

To establish the proportion of adolescents among children infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in Zimbabwe who receive HIV care and support, and what clinic staff perceives to be the main problems faced by HIV-infected children and adolescents.

METHODS

In July 2008, we sent a questionnaire to all 131 facilities providing HIV care in Zimbabwe. In it we requested an age breakdown of the children (aged 0-19 years) registered for care and asked what were the two major problems faced by younger children (0-5 years) and adolescents (10-19 years).

FINDINGS

Nationally, 115 (88%) facilities responded. In 98 (75%) that provided complete data, 196 032 patients were registered and 24 958 (13%) of them were children. Of children under HIV care, 33% were aged 0-4 years; 25%, 5-9 years; 25%, 10-14 years; and 17%, 15-19 years. Staff highlighted differences in the problems most commonly faced by younger children and adolescents. For younger children, such problems were malnutrition and lack of appropriate drugs (cited by 46% and 40% of clinics, respectively); for adolescents they concerned psychosocial issues and poor drug adherence (cited by 56% and 36%, respectively).

CONCLUSION

Interventions for the large cohort of adolescents who are receiving HIV care in Zimbabwe need to target the psychosocial concerns and poor drug adherence reported by staff as being the main concerns in this age group.

Care and secrecy: being a mother of children living with HIV in Burkina Faso

Home care has become a central component of the response to the HIV/AIDS epidemic, displacing caregiving work onto women. While increasing interest has been paid to HIV/AIDS care with a focus on ailing adults and orphan foster care, the issue of caring for children living with HIV has received little attention in the social sciences. Based on ethnographic material gathered in Burkina Faso between November 2005 and December 2006, the aim of this paper was to gain understanding of women who mother and care for children living with HIV in resource-limited countries. The study involved participant observation in community-based organizations in Burkina Faso and semi-structured interviews with 20 women mothering HIV-positive children as well as 15 children infected with HIV, aged between 8 and 18 years. In daily care mothers face many great challenges, ranging from the routine of pill-taking to disturbing discussions with children asking questions about their health or treatment. The results also show how HIV/AIDS-related stigma adds an additional layer to the burden of care, compelling mothers to deal with the tension between secrecy surrounding the disease and the openness required in providing care and receiving social support. As mothers live in fear of disclosure, they have to develop concealment strategies around children's treatment and the nature of the disease. Conversely, some mothers may share their secret with kin members, close relatives or their children to gain social support. As HIV/AIDS care is shaped by secrecy, these findings shed light on mothers' isolation in child care within a context of changing patterns of family bonds and lack of formal psychosocial support addressing child-related issues. Finally, women's engagement in child care invites us to look beyond the essentialist approach of women's vulnerability conveyed by international discourse to characterise the situation of women facing the HIV/AIDS impact.

Facing adolescence and adulthood: the importance of mental health care in the global pediatric AIDS epidemic

With the increasing global accessibility of antiretrovirals, many HIV-positive children now face a future once thought impossible. As these children grow, they face unique psychosocial stressors that differ from any previous chronic or incurable childhood illness. Studies have already described an increased prevalence of mental health disorders among this population. In addition, other studies have illustrated the known future health consequences of adverse childhood experiences, similar but not related to the HIV/AIDS epidemic. This article connects these studies and predicts the grave future health consequences likely to be faced if pediatric mental health care is not addressed. Practical solutions are described that often go hand-in-hand with the current global scale-up of antiretroviral accessibility. These include scaling-up mental health services, educating communities, supporting school-based programs, promoting the role of nongovernmental organizations, and strengthening families and the community to provide a safe and secure home environment for children. HIV-positive children are likely to face future physical and psychological health consequences related to the psychosocial challenges they face as children if mental health care is not made a priority in the current global fight against AIDS.

Success with antiretroviral treatment for children in Kigali, Rwanda: experience with health center/nurse-based care

BACKGROUND

Although a number of studies have shown good results in treating children with antiretroviral drugs (ARVs) in hospital settings, there is limited published information on results in pediatric programs that are nurse-centered and based in health centers, in particular on the psychosocial aspects of care.

METHODS

Program treatment and outcome data were reported from two government-run health centers that were supported by Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) in Kigali, Rwanda between October 2003 and June 2007. Interviews were held with health center staff and MSF program records were reviewed to describe the organization of the program. Important aspects included adequate training and supervision of nurses to manage ARV treatment. The program also emphasized family-centered care addressing the psychosocial needs of both caregivers and children to encourage early diagnosis, good adherence and follow-up.

RESULTS

A total of 315 children (< 15 years) were started on ARVs, at a median age of 7.2 years (range: 0.7-14.9). Sixty percent were in WHO clinical stage I/II, with a median CD4% of 14%. Eighty-nine percent (n = 281) started a stavudine-containing regimen, mainly using the adult fixed-dose combination. The median follow-up time after ARV initiation was 2 years (interquartile range 1.2-2.6). Eighty-four percent (n = 265) of children were still on treatment in the program. Thirty (9.5%) were transferred out, eight (2.6%) died and 12 (3.8%) were lost to follow-up. An important feature of the study was that viral loads were done at a median time period of 18 months after starting ARVs and were available for 87% of the children. Of the 174 samples, VL was < 400 copies/ml in 82.8% (n = 144). Two children were started on second-line ARVs. Treatment was changed due to toxicity for 26 children (8.3%), mainly related to nevirapine.

CONCLUSION

This report suggests that providing ARVs to children in a health center/nurse-based program is both feasible and very effective. Adequate numbers and training of nursing staff and an emphasis on the psychosocial needs of caregivers and children have been key elements for the successful scaling-up of ARVs at this level of the health system.

Mental health and disclosure of HIV status in Zambian adolescents with HIV infection: implications for peer-support programs

OBJECTIVES

To examine emotional and behavioural difficulties in HIV positive Zambian adolescents and to determine the relationship between disclosure of HIV status and mental health.

DESIGN

A cross-sectional survey.

METHODS

Participants were 127 HIV positive adolescents aged 11 to 15 years recruited through clinics in the Lusaka region. Mental health was assessed using the youth report version of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Caregivers completed the parent SDQ. Sixty-two participants were invited for a semi-structured interview which probed views on attending a peer support group.

RESULTS

Compared to a British community sample participants had increased mental health problems (OR, 2.1), particularly emotional symptoms (OR = 3.6) and peer problems (OR = 7.1). The majority of children (n = 94) were receiving antiretroviral (ARV) treatment, but only 48 children (37.8%) had their HIV status disclosed. Those who had not had their HIV status disclosed were younger (P < 0.001) and less likely to be receiving ARV treatment (P < 0.001). Controlling for these factors they were also more likely to score in the abnormal range of the emotional difficulties subscale (OR = 2.63, 95% CI: 1.11 to 6.26). Of 38 interviews transcribed, content analysis showed that only 3 children were opposed to participation in a peer-group program, with the majority (23/38) expressing reasoned and positive responses, regardless of disclosure status.

CONCLUSION

High rates of emotional and peer problems were found in this sample but disclosure of HIV status did not have a negative effect on mental health. Interventions to promote disclosure could facilitate access to emotional and peer support.