1
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Cheuka PM, Njaria P, Mayoka G, Funjika E. Emerging Drug Targets for Antimalarial Drug Discovery: Validation and Insights into Molecular Mechanisms of Function. J Med Chem 2024; 67:838-863. [PMID: 38198596 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.3c01828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2024]
Abstract
Approximately 619,000 malaria deaths were reported in 2021, and resistance to recommended drugs, including artemisinin-combination therapies (ACTs), threatens malaria control. Treatment failure with ACTs has been found to be as high as 93% in northeastern Thailand, and parasite mutations responsible for artemisinin resistance have already been reported in some African countries. Therefore, there is an urgent need to identify alternative treatments with novel targets. In this Perspective, we discuss some promising antimalarial drug targets, including enzymes involved in proteolysis, DNA and RNA metabolism, protein synthesis, and isoprenoid metabolism. Other targets discussed are transporters, Plasmodium falciparum acetyl-coenzyme A synthetase, N-myristoyltransferase, and the cyclic guanosine monophosphate-dependent protein kinase G. We have outlined mechanistic details, where these are understood, underpinning the biological roles and hence druggability of such targets. We believe that having a clear understanding of the underlying chemical interactions is valuable to medicinal chemists in their quest to design appropriate inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Mubanga Cheuka
- Department of Chemistry, School of Natural Sciences, University of Zambia, P.O. Box 32379, Lusaka 10101, Zambia
| | - Paul Njaria
- Department of Pharmacognosy and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Kenyatta University, P.O. Box 14548-00400, Nairobi 00100, Kenya
| | - Godfrey Mayoka
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacognosy, School of Pharmacy, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, P.O. Box 62000-00200, Nairobi 00100, Kenya
| | - Evelyn Funjika
- Department of Chemistry, School of Natural Sciences, University of Zambia, P.O. Box 32379, Lusaka 10101, Zambia
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2
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Wang QQ, He K, Aleem MT, Long S. Prenyl Transferases Regulate Secretory Protein Sorting and Parasite Morphology in Toxoplasma gondii. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24087172. [PMID: 37108334 PMCID: PMC10138696 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24087172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2023] [Revised: 04/01/2023] [Accepted: 04/07/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Protein prenylation is an important protein modification that is responsible for diverse physiological activities in eukaryotic cells. This modification is generally catalyzed by three types of prenyl transferases, which include farnesyl transferase (FT), geranylgeranyl transferase (GGT-1) and Rab geranylgeranyl transferase (GGT-2). Studies in malaria parasites showed that these parasites contain prenylated proteins, which are proposed to play multiple functions in parasites. However, the prenyl transferases have not been functionally characterized in parasites of subphylum Apicomplexa. Here, we functionally dissected functions of three of the prenyl transferases in the Apicomplexa model organism Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) using a plant auxin-inducible degron system. The homologous genes of the beta subunit of FT, GGT-1 and GGT-2 were endogenously tagged with AID at the C-terminus in the TIR1 parental line using a CRISPR-Cas9 approach. Upon depletion of these prenyl transferases, GGT-1 and GGT-2 had a strong defect on parasite replication. Fluorescent assay using diverse protein markers showed that the protein markers ROP5 and GRA7 were diffused in the parasites depleted with GGT-1 and GGT-2, while the mitochondrion was strongly affected in parasites depleted with GGT-1. Importantly, depletion of GGT-2 caused the stronger defect to the sorting of rhoptry protein and the parasite morphology. Furthermore, parasite motility was observed to be affected in parasites depleted with GGT-2. Taken together, this study functionally characterized the prenyl transferases, which contributed to an overall understanding of protein prenylation in T. gondii and potentially in other related parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiang-Qiang Wang
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health Security, School of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Kai He
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health Security, School of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Muhammad-Tahir Aleem
- Center for Gene Regulation in Health and Disease, Department of Biological, Geological and Environmental Sciences, College of Sciences and Health Professions, Cleveland State University, Cleveland, OH 44115, USA
| | - Shaojun Long
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health Security, School of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
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3
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Carlucci R, Di Gresia G, Mediavilla MG, Cricco JA, Tekwani BL, Khan SI, Labadie GR. Expanding the scope of novel 1,2,3-triazole derivatives as new antiparasitic drug candidates. RSC Med Chem 2023; 14:122-134. [PMID: 36760749 PMCID: PMC9890560 DOI: 10.1039/d2md00324d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2022] [Accepted: 10/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
We have previously shown that prenyl and aliphatic triazoles are interesting motifs to prepare new chemical entities for antiparasitic and antituberculosis drug development. In this opportunity a new series of prenyl-1,2,3-triazoles were prepared from isoprenyl azides and different alkynes looking for new antimalarial drug candidates. The compounds were prepared by copper(i) catalyzed dipolar cycloaddition of the isoprenyl azide equilibrium mixture providing exclusively 1,4-disubstituted 1,2,3-triazoles in a regiospecific fashion. The complete collection of 64 compounds was tested on chloroquine-sensitive (CQ sensitive), Sierra Leone (D6), and the chloroquine-resistant, Indochina (W2), strains of Plasmodium falciparum and those compounds which were not previously reported were also tested against Leishmania donovani, the causative agent for visceral leishmaniasis. Thirteen analogs displayed antimalarial activity with IC50 below 10 μM, while the antileishmanial activity of the newly reported analogs could not improve upon those previously reported. Compounds 1o and 1r were identified as the most promising antimalarial drug leads with IC50 below 3.0 μM for both CQ-sensitive and resistant P. falciparum strains with high selectivity index. Finally, a chemoinformatic in silico analysis was performed to evaluate physicochemical parameters, cytotoxicity risk and drug score. The validation of a bifunctional farnesyl/geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase PfFPPS/GGPPS as the potential target of the antimalarial activity of selected analogs should be further investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renzo Carlucci
- Instituto de Química Rosario (IQUIR) UNR, CONICET, Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario Suipacha 531 S2002LRK Rosario Argentina +54 341 4370477 +54 341 4370477
| | - Gabriel Di Gresia
- Instituto de Química Rosario (IQUIR) UNR, CONICET, Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario Suipacha 531 S2002LRK Rosario Argentina +54 341 4370477 +54 341 4370477
| | - María Gabriela Mediavilla
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario (IBR), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET) - Universidad Nacional de Rosario (UNR) Suipacha 531 S2002LRK Rosario Argentina
| | - Julia A Cricco
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario (IBR), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET) - Universidad Nacional de Rosario (UNR) Suipacha 531 S2002LRK Rosario Argentina
| | - Babu L Tekwani
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Division of Scientific Platforms, Southern Research Birmingham AL 35205 USA
| | - Shabana I Khan
- National Center for Natural Products Research & Department of Biomolecular Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi University MS 38677 USA
| | - Guillermo R Labadie
- Instituto de Química Rosario (IQUIR) UNR, CONICET, Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario Suipacha 531 S2002LRK Rosario Argentina +54 341 4370477 +54 341 4370477
- Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario Suipacha 531 S2002LRK Rosario Argentina
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4
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Bofill Verdaguer I, Sussmann RAC, Santiago VF, Palmisano G, Moura GC, Mesquita JT, Yamaguchi LF, Kato MJ, Katzin AM, Crispim M. Isoprenoid alcohols utilization by malaria parasites. Front Chem 2022; 10:1035548. [PMID: 36531309 PMCID: PMC9751614 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2022.1035548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2022] [Accepted: 11/15/2022] [Indexed: 05/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum is the etiological agent of human malaria, one of the most widespread diseases in tropical and subtropical regions. Drug resistance is one of the biggest problems in controlling the disease, which leads to the need to discover new antimalarial compounds. One of the most promissory drugs purposed is fosmidomycin, an inhibitor of the biosynthesis of isoprene units by the methylerythritol 4-phosphate (MEP) pathway, which in some cases failed in clinical studies. Once formed, isoprene units are condensed to form longer structures such as farnesyl and geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate, which are necessary for Heme O and A formation, ubiquinone, and dolichyl phosphate biosynthesis as well as for protein isoprenylation. Even though the natural substrates of polyprenyl transferases and synthases are polyprenyl pyrophosphates, it was already demonstrated that isoprenoid alcohols (polyprenols) such as farnesol (FOH) and geranylgeraniol (GGOH) can rescue parasites from fosmidomycin. This study better investigated how this rescue phenomenon occurs by performing drug-rescue assays. Similarly, to FOH and GGOH, it was observed that phytol (POH), a 20-carbon plant isoprenoid, as well as unsaponifiable lipid extracts from foods rescue parasites from the antimalarial effect of fosmidomycin. Contrarily, neither dolichols nor nonaprenol rescue parasites from fosmidomycin. Considering this, here we characterized the transport of FOH, GGOH, and POH. Once incorporated, it was observed that these substances are phosphorylated, condensed into longer isoprenoid alcohols, and incorporated into proteins and dolichyl phosphates. Through proteomic and radiolabelling approaches, it was found that prenylated proteins are naturally attached to several isoprenoids, derived from GGOH, dolichol, and POH if exogenously added. Furthermore, the results suggest the presence of at least two promiscuous protein prenyltransferases in the parasite: one enzyme which can use FPP among other unidentified substrates and another enzyme that can use GGPP, phytyl pyrophosphate (PPP), and dolichols, among other substrates not identified here. Thus, further evidence was obtained for dolichols and other isoprenoid products attached to proteins. This study helps to better understand the apicoplast-targeting antimalarial mechanism of action and a novel post-translational modification of proteins in P. falciparum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ignasi Bofill Verdaguer
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences of the University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Rodrigo A C Sussmann
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences of the University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- Center for Environmental Sciences, Institute of Humanities, Arts and Sciences, Federal University of Southern Bahia, Bahia, Brazil
| | - Verônica Feijoli Santiago
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences of the University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Giuseppe Palmisano
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences of the University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Gabriel Cândido Moura
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences of the University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Juliana Tonini Mesquita
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences of the University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Lydia Fumiko Yamaguchi
- Department of Fundamental Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Massuo Jorge Kato
- Department of Fundamental Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Alejandro Miguel Katzin
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences of the University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Marcell Crispim
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences of the University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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5
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Counihan NA, Chernih HC, de Koning-Ward TF. Post-translational lipid modifications in Plasmodium parasites. Curr Opin Microbiol 2022; 69:102196. [PMID: 36037636 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2022.102196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2022] [Revised: 07/15/2022] [Accepted: 07/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Most eukaryotic proteins undergo post-translational modifications (PTMs) that significantly alter protein properties, regulate diverse cellular processes and increase proteome complexity. Among these PTMs, lipidation plays a unique and key role in subcellular trafficking, signalling and membrane association of proteins through altering substrate function, and hydrophobicity via the addition and removal of lipid groups. Three prevalent classes of lipid modifications in Plasmodium parasites include prenylation, myristoylation, and palmitoylation that are important for regulating parasite-specific molecular processes. The enzymes that catalyse these lipid attachments have also been explored as potential drug targets for antimalarial development. In this review, we discuss these lipidation processes in Plasmodium spp. and the methodologies that have been used to identify these modifications in the deadliest species of malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum. We also discuss the development status of inhibitors that block these pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalie A Counihan
- School of Medicine, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria, Australia; The Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - Hope C Chernih
- School of Medicine, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria, Australia; The Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - Tania F de Koning-Ward
- School of Medicine, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria, Australia; The Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria, Australia.
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6
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Mathews ES, Jezewski AJ, Odom John AR. Protein Prenylation and Hsp40 in Thermotolerance of Plasmodium falciparum Malaria Parasites. mBio 2021; 12:e0076021. [PMID: 34182772 PMCID: PMC8262983 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00760-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2021] [Accepted: 06/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
During its complex life cycle, the malaria parasite survives dramatic environmental stresses, including large temperature shifts. Protein prenylation is required during asexual replication of Plasmodium falciparum, and the canonical heat shock protein 40 protein (HSP40; PF3D7_1437900) is posttranslationally modified with a 15-carbon farnesyl isoprenyl group. In other organisms, farnesylation of Hsp40 orthologs controls their localization and function in resisting environmental stress. In this work, we find that plastidial isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) synthesis and protein farnesylation are required for malaria parasite survival after cold and heat shock. Furthermore, loss of HSP40 farnesylation alters its membrane attachment and interaction with proteins in essential pathways in the parasite. Together, this work reveals that farnesylation is essential for parasite survival during temperature stress. Farnesylation of HSP40 may promote thermotolerance by guiding distinct chaperone-client protein interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily S. Mathews
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Andrew J. Jezewski
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, USA
| | - Audrey R. Odom John
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
- Division of Infectious Disease, Department of Pediatrics, Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
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7
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Surana K, Chaudhary B, Diwaker M, Sharma S. Benzophenone: a ubiquitous scaffold in medicinal chemistry. MEDCHEMCOMM 2018; 9:1803-1817. [PMID: 30542530 DOI: 10.1039/c8md00300a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2018] [Accepted: 08/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The benzophenone scaffold represents a ubiquitous structure in medicinal chemistry because it is found in several naturally occurring molecules which exhibit a variety of biological activities, such as anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and antiviral. In addition, various synthetic benzophenone motifs are present in marketed drugs. They also represent important ingredients in perfumes and can act as photoinitiators. This review will provide an overview of benzophenone moieties with medicinal aspects synthesized in the last 15 years and will cover the most potent molecule in each report. In this review, only benzophenones with substitutions on their aryl rings, i.e. diphenyl ketone analogues, have been covered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khemchand Surana
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry , National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research , Ahmedabad (NIPER-A) , Gandhinagar , Gujarat - 382355 , India .
| | - Bharatkumar Chaudhary
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry , National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research , Ahmedabad (NIPER-A) , Gandhinagar , Gujarat - 382355 , India .
| | - Monika Diwaker
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry , National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research , Ahmedabad (NIPER-A) , Gandhinagar , Gujarat - 382355 , India .
| | - Satyasheel Sharma
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry , National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research , Ahmedabad (NIPER-A) , Gandhinagar , Gujarat - 382355 , India .
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8
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Mathews ES, Odom John AR. Tackling resistance: emerging antimalarials and new parasite targets in the era of elimination. F1000Res 2018; 7. [PMID: 30135714 PMCID: PMC6073090 DOI: 10.12688/f1000research.14874.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria remains a significant contributor to global human mortality, and roughly half the world’s population is at risk for infection with
Plasmodium spp. parasites. Aggressive control measures have reduced the global prevalence of malaria significantly over the past decade. However, resistance to available antimalarials continues to spread, including resistance to the widely used artemisinin-based combination therapies. Novel antimalarial compounds and therapeutic targets are greatly needed. This review will briefly discuss several promising current antimalarial development projects, including artefenomel, ferroquine, cipargamin, SJ733, KAF156, MMV048, and tafenoquine. In addition, we describe recent large-scale genetic and resistance screens that have been instrumental in target discovery. Finally, we highlight new antimalarial targets, which include essential transporters and proteases. These emerging antimalarial compounds and therapeutic targets have the potential to overcome multi-drug resistance in ongoing efforts toward malaria elimination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily S Mathews
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Audrey R Odom John
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA.,Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
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9
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Jiang H, Zhang X, Chen X, Aramsangtienchai P, Tong Z, Lin H. Protein Lipidation: Occurrence, Mechanisms, Biological Functions, and Enabling Technologies. Chem Rev 2018; 118:919-988. [PMID: 29292991 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.6b00750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 263] [Impact Index Per Article: 43.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Protein lipidation, including cysteine prenylation, N-terminal glycine myristoylation, cysteine palmitoylation, and serine and lysine fatty acylation, occurs in many proteins in eukaryotic cells and regulates numerous biological pathways, such as membrane trafficking, protein secretion, signal transduction, and apoptosis. We provide a comprehensive review of protein lipidation, including descriptions of proteins known to be modified and the functions of the modifications, the enzymes that control them, and the tools and technologies developed to study them. We also highlight key questions about protein lipidation that remain to be answered, the challenges associated with answering such questions, and possible solutions to overcome these challenges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Jiang
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell University , Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
| | - Xiaoyu Zhang
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell University , Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
| | - Xiao Chen
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell University , Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
| | - Pornpun Aramsangtienchai
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell University , Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
| | - Zhen Tong
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell University , Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
| | - Hening Lin
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell University , Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
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10
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Suazo KF, Schaber C, Palsuledesai CC, Odom John AR, Distefano MD. Global proteomic analysis of prenylated proteins in Plasmodium falciparum using an alkyne-modified isoprenoid analogue. Sci Rep 2016; 6:38615. [PMID: 27924931 PMCID: PMC5141570 DOI: 10.1038/srep38615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2016] [Accepted: 11/09/2016] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Severe malaria due to Plasmodium falciparum infection remains a serious threat to health worldwide and new therapeutic targets are highly desirable. Small molecule inhibitors of prenyl transferases, enzymes that catalyze the post-translational isoprenyl modifications of proteins, exhibit potent antimalarial activity. The antimalarial actions of prenyltransferase inhibitors indicate that protein prenylation is required for malaria parasite development. In this study, we used a chemical biology strategy to experimentally characterize the entire complement of prenylated proteins in the human malaria parasite. In contrast to the expansive mammalian and fungal prenylomes, we find that P. falciparum possesses a restricted set of prenylated proteins. The prenylome of P. falciparum is dominated by Rab GTPases, in addition to a small number of prenylated proteins that also appear to function primarily in membrane trafficking. Overall, we found robust experimental evidence for a total of only thirteen prenylated proteins in P. falciparum, with suggestive evidence for an additional two probable prenyltransferase substrates. Our work contributes to an increasingly complete picture of essential, post-translational hydrophobic modifications in blood-stage P. falciparum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kiall F Suazo
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455 USA
| | - Chad Schaber
- Departments of Pediatrics and of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110 USA
| | | | - Audrey R Odom John
- Departments of Pediatrics and of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110 USA
| | - Mark D Distefano
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455 USA
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11
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Genome-wide association analysis identifies genetic loci associated with resistance to multiple antimalarials in Plasmodium falciparum from China-Myanmar border. Sci Rep 2016; 6:33891. [PMID: 27694982 PMCID: PMC5046179 DOI: 10.1038/srep33891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2016] [Accepted: 09/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Drug resistance has emerged as one of the greatest challenges facing malaria control. The recent emergence of resistance to artemisinin (ART) and its partner drugs in ART-based combination therapies (ACT) is threatening the efficacy of this front-line regimen for treating Plasmodium falciparum parasites. Thus, an understanding of the molecular mechanisms that underlie the resistance to ART and the partner drugs has become a high priority for resistance containment and malaria management. Using genome-wide association studies, we investigated the associations of genome-wide single nucleotide polymorphisms with in vitro sensitivities to 10 commonly used antimalarial drugs in 94 P. falciparum isolates from the China-Myanmar border area, a region with the longest history of ART usage. We identified several loci associated with various drugs, including those containing pfcrt and pfdhfr. Of particular interest is a locus on chromosome 10 containing the autophagy-related protein 18 (ATG18) associated with decreased sensitivities to dihydroartemisinin, artemether and piperaquine – an ACT partner drug in this area. ATG18 is a phosphatidylinositol-3-phosphate binding protein essential for autophagy and recently identified as a potential ART target. Further investigations on the ATG18 and genes at the chromosome 10 locus may provide an important lead for a connection between ART resistance and autophagy.
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12
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Wang YC, Distefano MD. Synthetic isoprenoid analogues for the study of prenylated proteins: Fluorescent imaging and proteomic applications. Bioorg Chem 2016; 64:59-65. [PMID: 26709869 PMCID: PMC4731301 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2015.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2015] [Revised: 12/01/2015] [Accepted: 12/10/2015] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Protein prenylation is a posttranslational modification catalyzed by prenyltransferases involving the attachment of farnesyl or geranylgeranyl groups to residues near the C-termini of proteins. This irreversible covalent modification is important for membrane localization and proper signal transduction. Here, the use of isoprenoid analogues for studying prenylated proteins is reviewed. First, experiments with analogues containing small fluorophores that are alternative substrates for prenyltransferases are described. Those analogues have been useful for quantifying binding affinity and for the production of fluorescently labeled proteins. Next, the use of analogues that incorporate biotin, bioorthogonal groups or antigenic moieties is described. Such probes have been particularly useful for identifying proteins that are naturally prenylated within mammalian cells. Overall, the use of isoprenoid analogues has contributed significantly to the understanding of protein prenlation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yen-Chih Wang
- Departments of Chemistry and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Mark D Distefano
- Departments of Chemistry and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA.
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Abstract
Apicomplexan parasites include some of the most prevalent and deadly human pathogens. Novel antiparasitic drugs are urgently needed. Synthesis and metabolism of isoprenoids may present multiple targets for therapeutic intervention. The apicoplast-localized methylerythritol phosphate (MEP) pathway for isoprenoid precursor biosynthesis is distinct from the mevalonate (MVA) pathway used by the mammalian host, and this pathway is apparently essential in most Apicomplexa. In this review, we discuss the current field of research on production and metabolic fates of isoprenoids in apicomplexan parasites, including the acquisition of host isoprenoid precursors and downstream products. We describe recent work identifying the first MEP pathway regulator in apicomplexan parasites, and introduce several promising areas for ongoing research into this well-validated antiparasitic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leah Imlay
- Department of Molecular Microbiology Washington University School of Medicine St. Louis, MO 63110 USA
| | - Audrey R Odom
- Department of Pediatrics Washington University School of Medicine St. Louis, MO 63110 USA & Department of Molecular Microbiology Washington University School of Medicine St. Louis, MO 63110 USA
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14
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Wang YC, Dozier JK, Beese LS, Distefano MD. Rapid analysis of protein farnesyltransferase substrate specificity using peptide libraries and isoprenoid diphosphate analogues. ACS Chem Biol 2014; 9:1726-35. [PMID: 24841702 PMCID: PMC4136699 DOI: 10.1021/cb5002312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
![]()
Protein farnesytransferase (PFTase)
catalyzes the farnesylation
of proteins with a carboxy-terminal tetrapeptide sequence denoted
as a Ca1a2X box. To explore the specificity
of this enzyme, an important therapeutic target, solid-phase peptide
synthesis in concert with a peptide inversion strategy was used to
prepare two libraries, each containing 380 peptides. The libraries
were screened using an alkyne-containing isoprenoid analogue followed
by click chemistry with biotin azide and subsequent visualization
with streptavidin-AP. Screening of the CVa2X and CCa2X libraries with Rattus norvegicus PFTase revealed reaction by many known recognition sequences as
well as numerous unknown ones. Some of the latter occur in the genomes
of bacteria and viruses and may be important for pathogenesis, suggesting
new targets for therapeutic intervention. Screening of the CVa2X library with alkyne-functionalized isoprenoid substrates
showed that those prepared from C10 or C15 precursors
gave similar results, whereas the analogue synthesized from a C5 unit gave a different pattern of reactivity. Lastly, the
substrate specificities of PFTases from three organisms (R. norvegicus, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and Candida albicans) were compared
using CVa2X libraries. R. norvegicus PFTase was found to share more peptide substrates with S. cerevisiae PFTase than with C.
albicans PFTase. In general, this method is a highly
efficient strategy for rapidly probing the specificity of this important
enzyme.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yen-Chih Wang
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Jonathan K. Dozier
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Lorena S. Beese
- Department
of Biochemistry, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina 27710, United States
| | - Mark D. Distefano
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
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Abstract
Despite a century of control and eradication campaigns, malaria remains one of the world's most devastating diseases. Our once-powerful therapeutic weapons are losing the war against the Plasmodium parasite, whose ability to rapidly develop and spread drug resistance hamper past and present malaria-control efforts. Finding new and effective treatments for malaria is now a top global health priority, fuelling an increase in funding and promoting open-source collaborations between researchers and pharmaceutical consortia around the world. The result of this is rapid advances in drug discovery approaches and technologies, with three major methods for antimalarial drug development emerging: (i) chemistry-based, (ii) target-based, and (iii) cell-based. Common to all three of these approaches is the unique ability of structural biology to inform and accelerate drug development. Where possible, SBDD (structure-based drug discovery) is a foundation for antimalarial drug development programmes, and has been invaluable to the development of a number of current pre-clinical and clinical candidates. However, as we expand our understanding of the malarial life cycle and mechanisms of resistance development, SBDD as a field must continue to evolve in order to develop compounds that adhere to the ideal characteristics for novel antimalarial therapeutics and to avoid high attrition rates pre- and post-clinic. In the present review, we aim to examine the contribution that SBDD has made to current antimalarial drug development efforts, covering hit discovery to lead optimization and prevention of parasite resistance. Finally, the potential for structural biology, particularly high-throughput structural genomics programmes, to identify future targets for drug discovery are discussed.
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16
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Targeting lipid biosynthesis and salvage in apicomplexan parasites for improved chemotherapies. Nat Rev Microbiol 2013; 11:823-35. [DOI: 10.1038/nrmicro3139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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Kaur J, Dutta S, Chang KP, Singh N. A member of the Ras oncogene family, RAP1A, mediates antileishmanial activity of monastrol. J Antimicrob Chemother 2013; 68:1071-80. [PMID: 23292345 PMCID: PMC3625431 DOI: 10.1093/jac/dks507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives To investigate the mode of action of monastrol in intracellular Leishmania. Methods Microarray experiments were conducted on an Affymetrix GeneChip® Human Genome U133 Plus 2.0 Array, to determine the genes that encode proteins related to pathological alterations of cell signalling pathways in intracellular Leishmania amastigotes in response to monastrol treatment. Results Monastrol induced unprenylated Rap1A in intracellular Leishmania when exposed to this anticancer drug at the IC50 (10 μM). Monastrol, known to cause mitotic arrest in cancer cells, inhibited Rap1A prenylation (geranylgeranylation) in intracellular Leishmania, which resulted in blockade at the G1 phase of the cell cycle. Growth inhibition, rather than apoptosis, was found to be the mechanism by which monastrol displays antileishmanial activity. Conclusions Prenylation inhibitors (unprenylation) of cell signalling pathways can be exploited in Leishmania parasites as novel therapeutic tools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaspreet Kaur
- Drug Target Discovery & Development Division, Central Drug Research Institute (CSIR), Chattar Manzil Palace, Lucknow, India
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18
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Isoprenoid biosynthesis inhibition disrupts Rab5 localization and food vacuolar integrity in Plasmodium falciparum. EUKARYOTIC CELL 2012; 12:215-23. [PMID: 23223036 DOI: 10.1128/ec.00073-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The antimalarial agent fosmidomycin is a validated inhibitor of the nonmevalonate isoprenoid biosynthesis (methylerythritol 4-phosphate [MEP]) pathway in the malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum. Since multiple classes of prenyltransferase inhibitors kill P. falciparum, we hypothesized that protein prenylation was one of the essential functions of this pathway. We found that MEP pathway inhibition with fosmidomycin reduces protein prenylation, confirming that de novo isoprenoid biosynthesis produces the isoprenyl substrates for protein prenylation. One important group of prenylated proteins is small GTPases, such as Rab family members, which mediate cellular vesicular trafficking. We have found that Rab5 proteins dramatically mislocalize upon fosmidomycin treatment, consistent with a loss of protein prenylation. Fosmidomycin treatment caused marked defects in food vacuolar morphology and integrity, consistent with a defect in Rab-mediated vesicular trafficking. These results provide insights to the biological functions of isoprenoids in malaria parasites and may assist the rational selection of secondary agents that will be useful in combination therapy with new isoprenoid biosynthesis inhibitors.
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19
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Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE Cysteine residues of proteins participate in the catalysis of biochemical reactions, are crucial for redox reactions, and influence protein structure by the formation of disulfide bonds. Covalent posttranslational modifications (PTMs) of cysteine residues are important mediators of redox regulation and signaling by coupling protein activity to the cellular redox state, and moreover influence stability, function, and localization of proteins. A diverse group of protozoan and metazoan parasites are a major cause of diseases in humans, such as malaria, African trypanosomiasis, leishmaniasis, toxoplasmosis, filariasis, and schistosomiasis. RECENT ADVANCES Human parasites undergo dramatic morphological and metabolic changes while they pass complex life cycles and adapt to changing environments in host and vector. These processes are in part regulated by PTMs of parasitic proteins. In human parasites, posttranslational cysteine modifications are involved in crucial cellular events such as signal transduction (S-glutathionylation and S-nitrosylation), redox regulation of proteins (S-glutathionylation and S-nitrosylation), protein trafficking and subcellular localization (palmitoylation and prenylation), as well as invasion into and egress from host cells (palmitoylation). This review focuses on the occurrence and mechanisms of these cysteine modifications in parasites. CRITICAL ISSUES Studies on cysteine modifications in human parasites are so far largely based on in vitro experiments. FUTURE DIRECTIONS The in vivo regulation of cysteine modifications and their role in parasite development will be of great interest in order to understand redox signaling in parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esther Jortzik
- Interdisciplinary Research Center, Justus Liebig University, Giessen, Germany
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Lipophilic analogs of zoledronate and risedronate inhibit Plasmodium geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase (GGPPS) and exhibit potent antimalarial activity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2012; 109:4058-63. [PMID: 22392982 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1118215109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
We report the results of an in vitro screening assay targeting the intraerythrocytic form of the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum using a library of 560 prenyl-synthase inhibitors. Based on "growth-rescue" and enzyme-inhibition experiments, geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase (GGPPS) is shown to be a major target for the most potent leads, BPH-703 and BPH-811, lipophilic analogs of the bone-resorption drugs zoledronate and risedronate. We determined the crystal structures of these inhibitors bound to a Plasmodium GGPPS finding that their head groups bind to the [Mg(2+)](3) cluster in the active site in a similar manner to that found with their more hydrophilic parents, whereas their hydrophobic tails occupy a long-hydrophobic tunnel spanning both molecules in the dimer. The results of isothermal-titration-calorimetric experiments show that both lipophilic bisphosphonates bind to GGPPS with, on average, a ΔG of -9 kcal mol(-1), only 0.5 kcal mol(-1) worse than the parent bisphosphonates, consistent with the observation that conversion to the lipophilic species has only a minor effect on enzyme activity. However, only the lipophilic species are active in cells. We also tested both compounds in mice, finding major decreases in parasitemia and 100% survival. These results are of broad general interest because they indicate that it may be possible to overcome barriers to cell penetration of existing bisphosphonate drugs in this and other systems by simple covalent modification to form lipophilic analogs that retain their enzyme-inhibition activity and are also effective in vitro and in vivo.
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21
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Jordão FM, Kimura EA, Katzin AM. Isoprenoid biosynthesis in the erythrocytic stages of Plasmodium falciparum. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2012; 106 Suppl 1:134-41. [PMID: 21881768 DOI: 10.1590/s0074-02762011000900018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2011] [Accepted: 06/15/2011] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The development of new drugs is one strategy for malaria control. Biochemical pathways localised in the apicoplast of the parasite, such as the synthesis of isoprenic precursors, are excellent targets because they are different or absent in the human host. Isoprenoids are a large and highly diverse group of natural products with many functions and their synthesis is essential for the parasite's survival. During the last few years, the genes, enzymes, intermediates and mechanisms of this biosynthetic route have been elucidated. In this review, we comment on some aspects of the methylerythritol phosphate pathway and discuss the presence of diverse isoprenic products such as dolichol, ubiquinone, carotenoids, menaquinone and isoprenylated proteins, which are biosynthesised during the intraerythrocytic stages of Plasmodium falciparum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabiana Morandi Jordão
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
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22
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van der Meer JY, Hirsch AKH. The isoprenoid-precursor dependence of Plasmodium spp. Nat Prod Rep 2012; 29:721-8. [DOI: 10.1039/c2np20013a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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23
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24
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Rached FB, Ndjembo‐Ezougou C, Chandran S, Talabani H, Yera H, Dandavate V, Bourdoncle P, Meissner M, Tatu U, Langsley G. Construction of a
Plasmodium falciparum
Rab‐interactome identifies CK1 and PKA as Rab‐effector kinases in malaria parasites. Biol Cell 2011; 104:34-47. [PMID: 22188458 PMCID: PMC3437490 DOI: 10.1111/boc.201100081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2011] [Accepted: 10/28/2011] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Fathia Ben Rached
- Institut Cochin, Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, CNRS (UMR 8104), 75014 Paris, France
- Inserm U1016, Paris 75014, France
- Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris 75013, France
| | - Carinne Ndjembo‐Ezougou
- Institut Cochin, Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, CNRS (UMR 8104), 75014 Paris, France
- Inserm U1016, Paris 75014, France
- Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris 75013, France
| | - Syama Chandran
- Department of Biochemistry, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, 560012 Karnataka, India
| | - Hana Talabani
- Institut Cochin, Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, CNRS (UMR 8104), 75014 Paris, France
- Inserm U1016, Paris 75014, France
- Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris 75013, France
| | - Hélène Yera
- Institut Cochin, Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, CNRS (UMR 8104), 75014 Paris, France
- Inserm U1016, Paris 75014, France
| | - Vrushali Dandavate
- Department of Biochemistry, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, 560012 Karnataka, India
| | - Pierre Bourdoncle
- Institut Cochin, Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, CNRS (UMR 8104), 75014 Paris, France
- Inserm U1016, Paris 75014, France
- Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris 75013, France
| | - Markus Meissner
- Division of Infection and Immunity and Wellcome Centre for Parasitology, Faculty of Biomedical and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Utpal Tatu
- Department of Biochemistry, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, 560012 Karnataka, India
| | - Gordon Langsley
- Institut Cochin, Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, CNRS (UMR 8104), 75014 Paris, France
- Inserm U1016, Paris 75014, France
- Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris 75013, France
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Chemical rescue of malaria parasites lacking an apicoplast defines organelle function in blood-stage Plasmodium falciparum. PLoS Biol 2011; 9:e1001138. [PMID: 21912516 PMCID: PMC3166167 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.1001138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 319] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2011] [Accepted: 07/22/2011] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Plasmodium spp parasites harbor an unusual plastid organelle called the apicoplast. Due to its prokaryotic origin and essential function, the apicoplast is a key target for development of new anti-malarials. Over 500 proteins are predicted to localize to this organelle and several prokaryotic biochemical pathways have been annotated, yet the essential role of the apicoplast during human infection remains a mystery. Previous work showed that treatment with fosmidomycin, an inhibitor of non-mevalonate isoprenoid precursor biosynthesis in the apicoplast, inhibits the growth of blood-stage P. falciparum. Herein, we demonstrate that fosmidomycin inhibition can be chemically rescued by supplementation with isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP), the pathway product. Surprisingly, IPP supplementation also completely reverses death following treatment with antibiotics that cause loss of the apicoplast. We show that antibiotic-treated parasites rescued with IPP over multiple cycles specifically lose their apicoplast genome and fail to process or localize organelle proteins, rendering them functionally apicoplast-minus. Despite the loss of this essential organelle, these apicoplast-minus auxotrophs can be grown indefinitely in asexual blood stage culture but are entirely dependent on exogenous IPP for survival. These findings indicate that isoprenoid precursor biosynthesis is the only essential function of the apicoplast during blood-stage growth. Moreover, apicoplast-minus P. falciparum strains will be a powerful tool for further investigation of apicoplast biology as well as drug and vaccine development.
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In vitro and in vivo antiplasmodial activities of risedronate and its interference with protein prenylation in Plasmodium falciparum. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2011; 55:2026-31. [PMID: 21357292 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01820-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
The increasing resistance of malarial parasites to almost all available drugs calls for the identification of new compounds and the detection of novel targets. Here, we establish the antimalarial activities of risedronate, one of the most potent bisphosphonates clinically used to treat bone resorption diseases, against blood stages of Plasmodium falciparum (50% inhibitory concentration [IC50] of 20.3±1.0 μM). We also suggest a mechanism of action for risedronate against the intraerythrocytic stage of P. falciparum and show that protein prenylation seems to be modulated directly by this drug. Risedronate inhibits the transfer of the farnesyl pyrophosphate group to parasite proteins, an effect not observed for the transfer of geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate. Our in vivo experiments further demonstrate that risedronate leads to an 88.9% inhibition of the rodent parasite Plasmodium berghei in mice on the seventh day of treatment; however, risedronate treatment did not result in a general increase of survival rates.
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Ayong L, DaSilva T, Mauser J, Allen CM, Chakrabarti D. Evidence for prenylation-dependent targeting of a Ykt6 SNARE in Plasmodium falciparum. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2011; 175:162-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2010.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2010] [Revised: 11/01/2010] [Accepted: 11/05/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Artz JD, Wernimont AK, Dunford JE, Schapira M, Dong A, Zhao Y, Lew J, Russell RGG, Ebetino FH, Oppermann U, Hui R. Molecular characterization of a novel geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate synthase from Plasmodium parasites. J Biol Chem 2010; 286:3315-22. [PMID: 21084289 PMCID: PMC3030337 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m109.027235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
We present here a study of a eukaryotic trans-prenylsynthase from the malaria pathogen Plasmodium vivax. Based on the results of biochemical assays and contrary to previous indications, this enzyme catalyzes the production of geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (GGPP) rather than farnesyl pyrophosphate (FPP). Structural analysis shows that the product length is constrained by a hydrophobic cavity formed primarily by a set of residues from the same subunit as the product as well as at least one other from the dimeric partner. Furthermore, Plasmodium GGPP synthase (GGPPS) can bind nitrogen-containing bisphosphonates (N-BPs) strongly with the energetically favorable cooperation of three Mg2+, resulting in inhibition by this class of compounds at IC50 concentrations below 100 nm. In contrast, human and yeast GGPPSs do not accommodate a third magnesium atom in the same manner, resulting in their insusceptibility to N-BPs. This differentiation is in part attributable to a deviation in a conserved motif known as the second aspartate-rich motif: whereas the aspartates at the start and end of the five-residue motif in FFPP synthases and P. vivax GGPPSs both participate in the coordination of the third Mg2+, an asparagine is featured as the last residue in human and yeast GGPPSs, resulting in a different manner of interaction with nitrogen-containing ligands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer D Artz
- Structural Genomics Consortium, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5G 1L7, Canada
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29
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Seeber F, Soldati-Favre D. Metabolic Pathways in the Apicoplast of Apicomplexa. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2010; 281:161-228. [DOI: 10.1016/s1937-6448(10)81005-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
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30
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da Silva CHTDP, da Silva VB, Resende J, Rodrigues PF, Bononi FC, Benevenuto CG, Taft CA. Computer-aided drug design and ADMET predictions for identification and evaluation of novel potential farnesyltransferase inhibitors in cancer therapy. J Mol Graph Model 2009; 28:513-23. [PMID: 20074987 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmgm.2009.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2009] [Revised: 11/29/2009] [Accepted: 11/30/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
We have used various computational methodologies including molecular dynamics, density functional theory, virtual screening, ADMET predictions and molecular interaction field studies to design and analyze four novel potential inhibitors of farnesyltransferase (FTase). Evaluation of two proposals regarding their drug potential as well as lead compounds have indicated them as novel promising FTase inhibitors, with theoretically interesting pharmacotherapeutic profiles, when compared to the very active and most cited FTase inhibitors that have activity data reported, which are launched drugs or compounds in clinical tests. One of our two proposals appears to be a more promising drug candidate and FTase inhibitor, but both derivative molecules indicate potentially very good pharmacotherapeutic profiles in comparison with Tipifarnib and Lonafarnib, two reference pharmaceuticals. Two other proposals have been selected with virtual screening approaches and investigated by us, which suggest novel and alternatives scaffolds to design future potential FTase inhibitors. Such compounds can be explored as promising molecules to initiate a research protocol in order to discover novel anticancer drug candidates targeting farnesyltransferase, in the fight against cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Henrique Tomich de Paula da Silva
- Departamento de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. do Café, s/n, Monte Alegre, 14040-903, Ribeirão Preto-SP, Brazil
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31
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Kohring K, Wiesner J, Altenkämper M, Sakowski J, Silber K, Hillebrecht A, Haebel P, Dahse HM, Ortmann R, Jomaa H, Klebe G, Schlitzer M. Development of Benzophenone-Based Farnesyltransferase Inhibitors as Novel Antimalarials. ChemMedChem 2008; 3:1217-31. [DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.200800043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Fletcher S, Cummings CG, Rivas K, Katt WP, Hornéy C, Buckner FS, Chakrabarti D, Sebti SM, Gelb MH, Van Voorhis WC, Hamilton AD. Potent, Plasmodium-selective farnesyltransferase inhibitors that arrest the growth of malaria parasites: structure-activity relationships of ethylenediamine-analogue scaffolds and homology model validation. J Med Chem 2008; 51:5176-97. [PMID: 18686940 DOI: 10.1021/jm800113p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
New chemotherapeutics are urgently needed to combat malaria. We previously reported on a novel series of antimalarial, ethylenediamine-based inhibitors of protein farnesyltransferase (PFT). In the current study, we designed and synthesized a series of second generation inhibitors, wherein the core ethylenediamine scaffold was varied in order to examine both the homology model of Plasmodium falciparum PFT (PfPFT) and our predicted inhibitor binding mode. We identified several PfPFT inhibitors (PfPFTIs) that are selective for PfPFT versus the mammalian isoform of the enzyme (up to 136-fold selectivity), that inhibit the malarial enzyme with IC50 values down to 1 nM, and that block the growth of P. falciparum in infected whole cells (erythrocytes) with ED50 values down to 55 nM. The structure-activity data for these second generation, ethylenediamine-inspired PFT inhibitors were rationalized by consideration of the X-ray crystal structure of mammalian PFT and the homology model of the malarial enzyme.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven Fletcher
- Department of Chemistry, Yale University, 225 Prospect Street, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, USA
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Moreno SNJ, Li ZH. Anti-infectives targeting the isoprenoid pathway of Toxoplasma gondii. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2008; 12:253-63. [PMID: 18269336 DOI: 10.1517/14728222.12.3.253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Isoprenoids are an extensive group of natural products with diverse structures consisting of various numbers of five carbon isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP) units. OBJECTIVE We review here what is known about the isoprenoid pathway in T. gondii. METHODS Recent primary literature is reviewed. RESULTS/CONCLUSION Genomic evidence points toward the presence of a 1-deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate/2-C-methyl-D-erythritol 4-phosphate (DOXP/MEP) pathway, similar to the one found in plants, which will produce isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP). The DOXP/MEP pathway has been validated as a target in the related Apicomplexan parasite Plasmodium. The DOXP/MEP pathway in Toxoplasma has not been characterized. Downstream in the pathway, the enzyme farnesyl diphosphate synthase (FPPS) has a central role in forming important intermediates since farnesyl diphosphate (FPP) is a precursor of critical molecules with fundamental biological function such as dolichols, heme a, cholesterol, farnesylated proteins and others. Strong evidence indicates that this enzyme is a valid target for drugs since bisphosphonates, which are specific FPPS inhibitors, inhibited parasite growth in vitro and in vivo. Our hypothesis is that the isoprenoid pathway constitutes a major novel target for the treatment of toxoplasmosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia N J Moreno
- University of Georgia, Department of Cellular Biology and Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases, 500 D. W. Brooks Dr, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA.
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Bolchi C, Pallavicini M, Rusconi C, Diomede L, Ferri N, Corsini A, Fumagalli L, Pedretti A, Vistoli G, Valoti E. Peptidomimetic inhibitors of farnesyltransferase with high in vitro activity and significant cellular potency. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2007; 17:6192-6. [PMID: 17889533 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2007.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2007] [Revised: 09/05/2007] [Accepted: 09/05/2007] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
2-o-Tolyl or 2-o-anisyl substituted 4-hydroxy- and 4-carboxybenzamides of methionine, etherified and amidified with 2-hydroxymethyl- and 2-aminomethylpyridodioxane, respectively, are described as inhibitors of Ras protein farnesyltransferase (FTase). Of the sixteen compounds, resulting from the substitution pattern of benzamide and the configuration of the two stereocenters, seven inhibited FTase activity with potencies in the nanomolar range. They were all 2-oxymethylpyridodioxane ethers and, among them, the four o-tolyl substituted stereoisomers also showed micromolar antiproliferative effect on human aortic smooth muscle cells interfering with Ras farnesylation. The docking analysis enlightened significant differences in enzyme interaction between oxymethylpyridodioxane and aminomethylpyridodioxane derivatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristiano Bolchi
- Istituto di Chimica Farmaceutica e Tossicologica Pietro Pratesi, Università di Milano, via Mangiagalli 25, Milan, Italy
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Bendale P, Olepu S, Suryadevara PK, Bulbule V, Rivas K, Nallan L, Smart B, Yokoyama K, Ankala S, Pendyala PR, Floyd D, Lombardo LJ, Williams DK, Buckner FS, Chakrabarti D, Verlinde CLMJ, Van Voorhis WC, Gelb MH. Second generation tetrahydroquinoline-based protein farnesyltransferase inhibitors as antimalarials. J Med Chem 2007; 50:4585-605. [PMID: 17722901 PMCID: PMC2894570 DOI: 10.1021/jm0703340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Substituted tetrahydroquinolines (THQs) have been previously identified as inhibitors of mammalian protein farnesyltransferase (PFT). Previously we showed that blocking PFT in the malaria parasite led to cell death and that THQ-based inhibitors are the most potent among several structural classes of PFT inhibitors (PFTIs). We have prepared 266 THQ-based PFTIs and discovered several compounds that inhibit the malarial enzyme in the sub- to low-nanomolar range and that block the growth of the parasite (P. falciparum) in the low-nanomolar range. This body of structure-activity data can be rationalized in most cases by consideration of the X-ray structure of one of the THQs bound to mammalian PFT together with a homology structural model of the malarial enzyme. The results of this study provide the basis for selection of antimalarial PFTIs for further evaluation in preclinical drug discovery assays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pravin Bendale
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
| | - Srinivas Olepu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
| | | | - Vivek Bulbule
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
| | - Kasey Rivas
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
| | - Laxman Nallan
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
| | - Brian Smart
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
| | - Kohei Yokoyama
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
| | - Sudha Ankala
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
| | - Prakash Rao Pendyala
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida 32826
| | - David Floyd
- Pharmacopeia Drug Discovery, Princeton, New Jersey
| | - Louis J. Lombardo
- Bristol-Myers Squibb Pharmaceutical Research Institute, Princeton, New Jersey 08543-4000
| | - David K. Williams
- Bristol-Myers Squibb Pharmaceutical Research Institute, Princeton, New Jersey 08543-4000
| | - Frederick S. Buckner
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
| | - Debopam Chakrabarti
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida 32826
| | | | - Wesley C. Van Voorhis
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
| | - Michael H. Gelb
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
- To whom correspondence should be addressed. Phone: 206-543-7142. Fax: 206-685-8665.
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36
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Eastman RT, White J, Hucke O, Yokoyama K, Verlinde CLMJ, Hast MA, Beese LS, Gelb MH, Rathod PK, Van Voorhis WC. Resistance mutations at the lipid substrate binding site of Plasmodium falciparum protein farnesyltransferase. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2006; 152:66-71. [PMID: 17208314 PMCID: PMC2875941 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2006.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2006] [Revised: 11/30/2006] [Accepted: 11/30/2006] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The post-translational farnesylation of proteins serves to anchor a subset of intracellular proteins to membranes in eukaryotic organisms and also promotes protein-protein interactions. This enzymatic reaction is carried out by protein farnesyltransferase (PFT), which catalyzes the transfer of a 15-carbon isoprenoid lipid unit, a farnesyl group, from farnesyl pyrophosphate to the C-termini of proteins containing a CaaX motif. Inhibition of PFT is lethal to the pathogenic protozoa Plasmodium falciparum. Previously, we have shown that parasites resistant to a tetrahydroquinoline (THQ)-based PFT inhibitor BMS-388891 have mutations leading to amino acid substitutions in PFT that map to the peptide substrate binding domain. We now report the selection of parasites resistant to another THQ PFT inhibitor BMS-339941. In whole cell assays sensitivity to BMS-339941 was reduced by 33-fold in a resistant clone, and biochemical analysis demonstrated a corresponding 33-fold increase in the BMS-339941 K(i) for the mutant PFT enzyme. More detailed kinetic analysis revealed that the mutant enzyme required higher concentration of peptide and farnesyl pyrophosphate substrates for optimum catalysis. Unlike previously characterized parasites resistant to BMS-388891, the resistant parasites have a mutation which is predicted to be in a distinct location of the enzymatic pocket, near the farnesyl pyrophosphate binding pocket. This is the first description of a mutation from any species affecting the farnesyl pyrophosphate binding pocket with reduced efficacy of PFT inhibitors. These data provide further support that PFT is the target of THQ inhibitors in P. falciparum and suggest that PFT inhibitors should be combined with other antimalarial agents to minimize the development of resistant parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - John White
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Oliver Hucke
- Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | | | | | - Michael A. Hast
- Biochemistry, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Lorena S. Beese
- Biochemistry, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
| | | | - Pradipsinh K. Rathod
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
- Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Wesley C. Van Voorhis
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
- Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
- Corresponding author: Wesley C. Van Voorhis, Dept. of Medicine, University of Washington, Box 357185, 1959 N.E. Pacific, Seattle, WA 98195-7185, Tel.: + 1-206-543-2447; fax: + 1-206-685-8681, E. mail addresses:
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37
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Xie A, Sivaprakasam P, Doerksen RJ. 3D-QSAR analysis of antimalarial farnesyltransferase inhibitors based on a 2,5-diaminobenzophenone scaffold. Bioorg Med Chem 2006; 14:7311-23. [PMID: 16837204 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2006.06.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2006] [Revised: 06/20/2006] [Accepted: 06/21/2006] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
With annual death tolls in the millions and emerging resistance to existing drugs, novel therapies are needed against malaria. Wiesner et al. recently developed a novel class of antimalarials derived from farnesyltransferase inhibitors based on a 2,5-diaminobenzophenone scaffold. The compounds displayed a wide range of activity, including submicromolar, against the multi-drug resistant Plasmodium falciparum strain Dd2. In order to investigate quantitatively the local physicochemical properties involved in the interaction between drug and biotarget, we used the 3D-QSAR methods CoMFA and CoMSIA to study some of the series, including the screened lead compound 2,5-bis-acylaminobenzophenone, 28 cinnamic acid derivatives, 29 N-(3-benzoyl-4-tolylacetylaminophenyl)-3-(5-aryl-2-furyl)acrylic acid amides, and 34 N-(4-substituted-amino-3-benzoylphenyl)-[5-(4-nitrophenyl)-2-furyl]acrylic acid amides. We found that steric, electrostatic, and hydrophobic properties of substituent groups play key roles in the bioactivity of the series of compounds, while hydrogen bonding interactions show no obvious impact. We built several highly predictive 3D-QSAR models, including a CoMSIA one composed of steric, electrostatic, and hydrophobic fields, with r(2)=0.94, q(2)=0.63, and r(pred)(2)=0.63. The results provide insight for optimization of this class of antimalarials for better activity and may prove helpful for further lead optimization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aihua Xie
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, 38677-1848, USA
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38
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Glenn MP, Chang SY, Hornéy C, Rivas K, Yokoyama K, Pusateri EE, Fletcher S, Cummings CG, Buckner FS, Pendyala PR, Chakrabarti D, Sebti SM, Gelb M, Van Voorhis WC, Hamilton AD. Structurally simple, potent, Plasmodium selective farnesyltransferase inhibitors that arrest the growth of malaria parasites. J Med Chem 2006; 49:5710-27. [PMID: 16970397 PMCID: PMC2728208 DOI: 10.1021/jm060081v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Third world nations require immediate access to inexpensive therapeutics to counter the high mortality inflicted by malaria. Here, we report a new class of antimalarial protein farnesyltransferase (PFT) inhibitors, designed with specific emphasis on simple molecular architecture, to facilitate easy access to therapies based on this recently validated antimalarial target. This novel series of compounds represents the first Plasmodium falciparum selective PFT inhibitors reported (up to 145-fold selectivity), with lead inhibitors displaying excellent in vitro activity (IC(50) < 1 nM) and toxicity to cultured parasites at low concentrations (ED(50) < 100 nM). Initial studies of absorption, metabolism, and oral bioavailability are reported.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Andrew D. Hamilton
- To whom correspondence should be addressed. Phone: (203) 432-5570. Fax: (203) 432-3221. E-mail:
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39
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Budman DR, Tai J, Calabro A. Fluvastatin enhancement of trastuzumab and classical cytotoxic agents in defined breast cancer cell lines in vitro. Breast Cancer Res Treat 2006; 104:93-101. [PMID: 17004104 DOI: 10.1007/s10549-006-9395-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2006] [Accepted: 08/27/2006] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The combination of anticancer drugs used in the clinic has been based upon empiricism, and the potential permutations of currently available drugs overwhelm the clinical trials system. Recently, investigators have suggested that the combination of a blockade of vital signal transduction pathways in combination with more standard therapy might enhance anticancer effect. Using a panel of breast cancer cell lines and isobologram median effect analysis, a method of determining synergism or antagonism of drugs, we have investigated in vitro potentially clinically useful combinations of agents with the human cell lines MCF7/wt, MCF7/adr, BT474, and SK-BR-3 grown in log phase. Results were confirmed by curve shift analysis. Cells were exposed to the agent(s) for 72 h and then analyzed for cytotoxicity using a MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazolyl-2)-2,5-diphenyl-tetrazolium bromide) assay. Fluvastatin, an inhibitor of prenylation with excellent tolerability in man, was chosen to disrupt signal transduction pathways and thus potentially enhance the effect of more traditional anticancer agents. Anticancer agents tested were cytotoxics used in the treatment of breast cancer, trastuzumab, and rapamycin as an inhibitor of the AKT pathway. Fluvastatin combined with trastuzumab demonstrates global synergy of cytotoxic effect that is confirmed by apoptosis assay. These effects could only be partially reversed by adding farnesol or geranylgeraniol to restore prenylation. Epirubicin is also synergistic with fluvastatin in three of the four cell lines. Rapamycin, an inhibitor of MTOR, was synergistic with fluvastatin in two of the four cell lines and antagonistic in two other cell lines. The combination of fluvastatin or another inhibitor of prenylation and trastuzumab may be attractive for clinical development as the effect of trastuzumab in Her2/neu positive breast tumors is incomplete as a single agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel R Budman
- Section of Experimental Therapeutics, Don Monti Division of Oncology, Monter Cancer Center of North Shore University Hospital - New York University, 450 Lakeville Road, New York, Lake Success 11040, USA.
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40
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Abstract
Every year, forty percent of the world population is at risk of contracting malaria. Hopes for the erradication of this disease during the 20th century were dashed by the ability of Plasmodium falciparum, its most deadly causative agent, to develop resistance to available drugs. Efforts to produce an effective vaccine have so far been unsuccessful, enhancing the need to develop novel antimalarial drugs. In this review, we summarize our knowledge concerning existing antimalarials, mechanisms of drug-resistance development, the use of drug combination strategies and the quest for novel anti-plasmodial compounds. We emphasize the potential role of host genes and molecules as novel targets for newly developed drugs. Recent results from our laboratory have shown Hepatocyte Growth Factor/MET signaling to be essential for the establishment of infection in hepatocytes. We discuss the potential use of this pathway in the prophylaxis of malaria infection.
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41
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Rathore D, McCutchan TF, Sullivan M, Kumar S. Antimalarial drugs: current status and new developments. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2006; 14:871-83. [PMID: 16022576 DOI: 10.1517/13543784.14.7.871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Malaria continues to be a major threat in the developing world, with > 1 million clinical episodes and 3000 deaths every day. In the last century, malaria claimed between 150 and 300 million lives, accounting for 2 - 5% of all deaths. Currently approximately 40% of the world population resides in areas of active malaria transmission. The disease symptoms are most severe in young children and pregnant women. A total of 90% of the disease-associated mortality occurs in Subsaharan Africa, despite the fact that malaria is indigenous to most tropical regions. A licensed vaccine for malaria has not become a reality and antimalarial drugs are the only available method of treatment. Although chloroquine, the first synthetically developed antimalarial, proved to be an almost magical cure for > 30 years, the emergence and spread of chloroquine-resistant parasites has made it virtually ineffective in most parts of the world. Currently, artemisinin, a plant-derived antimalarial, is the only available drug that is globally effective against the parasite. Although several new drugs have been introduced in the past 30 years, widespread or isolated cases of resistance indicate that their window of effectiveness will be limited. Thus, there is an urgent need to develop new therapeutics and regimens for malaria control. This article presents an overview of the currently available antimalarial chemotherapy options and the efforts being undertaken to develop new drugs based on both the recent technological advances and modifications to the old remedies, and on combination therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dharmendar Rathore
- Virginia Bioinformatics Institute, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Washington Street, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
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42
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Lane KT, Beese LS. Thematic review series: lipid posttranslational modifications. Structural biology of protein farnesyltransferase and geranylgeranyltransferase type I. J Lipid Res 2006; 47:681-99. [PMID: 16477080 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.r600002-jlr200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 197] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
More than 100 proteins necessary for eukaryotic cell growth, differentiation, and morphology require posttranslational modification by the covalent attachment of an isoprenoid lipid (prenylation). Prenylated proteins include members of the Ras, Rab, and Rho families, lamins, CENPE and CENPF, and the gamma subunit of many small heterotrimeric G proteins. This modification is catalyzed by the protein prenyltransferases: protein farnesyltransferase (FTase), protein geranylgeranyltransferase type I (GGTase-I), and GGTase-II (or RabGGTase). In this review, we examine the structural biology of FTase and GGTase-I (the CaaX prenyltransferases) to establish a framework for understanding the molecular basis of substrate specificity and mechanism. These enzymes have been identified in a number of species, including mammals, fungi, plants, and protists. Prenyltransferase structures include complexes that represent the major steps along the reaction path, as well as a number of complexes with clinically relevant inhibitors. Such complexes may assist in the design of inhibitors that could lead to treatments for cancer, viral infection, and a number of deadly parasitic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimberly T Lane
- Department of Biochemistry, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA
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43
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Abstract
To survive within erythrocytes, Plasmodium parasites have to put into place different membrane and sub-cellular compartments in order to import different nutrients and to export proteins/antigens. Infected cells pose not only a major world health risk by killing two million people per year, but also a very interesting cell biology problem, as within the erythrocyte the parasite resides inside a vacuole called the parasitophorous vacuole and as a consequence, it is separated from the blood stream by three membrane barriers, its own plasma membrane, the parasitophorous vacuole membrane and the erythrocyte plasma membrane. In spite of these three barriers the parasite is capable of secreting antigens and importing nutrients, and to do this, it has developed a complex vesicular system that extends into the red blood cell cytoplasm to the plasma membrane. Understanding how the parasite controls this extensive vesicular traffic has driven research into Plasmodium Rabs, whose potential role is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Françoise Baunaure
- Laboratoire de biologie comparative des apicomplexes, UMR 8104 CNRS-Inserm U.567, Département maladies infectieuses, Hôpital Cochin, Bâtiment Gustave Roussy, Institut Cochin, 27, rue du Faubourg-Saint-Jacques, 75014 Paris, France
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44
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Eastman RT, Buckner FS, Yokoyama K, Gelb MH, Van Voorhis WC. Thematic review series: lipid posttranslational modifications. Fighting parasitic disease by blocking protein farnesylation. J Lipid Res 2005; 47:233-40. [PMID: 16339110 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.r500016-jlr200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Protein farnesylation is a form of posttranslational modification that occurs in most, if not all, eukaryotic cells. Inhibitors of protein farnesyltransferase (PFTIs) have been developed as anticancer chemotherapeutic agents. Using the knowledge gained from the development of PFTIs for the treatment of cancer, researchers are currently investigating the use of PFTIs for the treatment of eukaryotic pathogens. This "piggy-back" approach not only accelerates the development of a chemotherapeutic agent for protozoan pathogens but is also a means of mitigating the costs associated with de novo drug design. PFTIs have already been shown to be efficacious in the treatment of eukaryotic pathogens in animal models, including both Trypanosoma brucei, the causative agent of African sleeping sickness, and Plasmodium falciparum, one of the causative agents of malaria. Here, current evidence and progress are summarized that support the targeting of protein farnesyltransferase for the treatment of parasitic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard T Eastman
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
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45
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Cui L, Fan Q, Hu Y, Karamycheva SA, Quackenbush J, Khuntirat B, Sattabongkot J, Carlton JM. Gene discovery in Plasmodium vivax through sequencing of ESTs from mixed blood stages. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2005; 144:1-9. [PMID: 16085323 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2005.05.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2005] [Accepted: 05/30/2005] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Despite the significance of Plasmodium vivax as the most widespread human malaria parasite and a major public health problem, gene expression in this parasite is poorly understood. To accelerate gene discovery and facilitate the annotation phase of the P. vivax genome project, we have undertaken a transcriptome approach to study gene expression in the mixed blood stages of a P. vivax field isolate. Using a cDNA library constructed from purified blood stages, we have obtained single-pass sequences for approximately 21,500 expressed sequence tags (ESTs), the largest number of transcript tags obtained so far for this species. Cluster analysis revealed that the library is highly redundant, resulting in 5407 clusters. Clustered ESTs were searched against public protein databases for functional annotation, and more than one-third showed a significant match, the majority of these to Plasmodium falciparum proteins. The most abundant clusters were to genes encoding ribosomal proteins and proteins involved in metabolism, consistent with the predominance of trophozoites in the field isolate sample. In spite of the scarcity of other parasite stages in the field isolate, we could identify genes that are expressed in rings, schizonts and gametocytes. This study should facilitate our understanding of the gene expression in P. vivax asexual stages and provide valuable data for gene prediction and annotation of the P. vivax genome sequence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liwang Cui
- Department of Entomology, The Pennsylvania State University, 501 ASI, University Park, PA 16802, USA.
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46
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Geyer JA, Prigge ST, Waters NC. Targeting malaria with specific CDK inhibitors. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2005; 1754:160-70. [PMID: 16185941 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2005.07.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2005] [Revised: 07/18/2005] [Accepted: 07/20/2005] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Cyclin-dependent protein kinases (CDKs) are attractive targets for drug discovery and efforts have led to the identification of novel CDK selective inhibitors in the development of treatments for cancers, neurological disorders, and infectious diseases. More recently, they have become the focus of rational drug design programs for the development of new antimalarial agents. CDKs are valid targets as they function as essential regulators of cell growth and differentiation. To date, several CDKs have been characterized from the genome of the malaria-causing protozoan Plasmodium falciparum. Our approach employs experimental and virtual screening methodologies to identify and refine chemical inhibitors of the parasite CDK Pfmrk, a sequence homologue of human CDK7. Chemotypes of Pfmrk inhibitors include the purines, quinolinones, oxindoles, and chalcones, which have sub-micromolar IC50 values against the parasite enzyme, but not the human CDKs. Additionally, we have developed and validated a pharmacophore, based on Pfmrk inhibitors, which contains two hydrogen bond acceptor functions and two hydrophobic sites, including one aromatic ring hydrophobic site. This pharmacophore has been exploited to identify additional compounds that demonstrate significant inhibitory activity against Pfmrk. A molecular model of Pfmrk designed using the crystal structure of human CDK7 highlights key amino acid substitutions in the ATP binding pocket. Molecular modeling and docking of the active site pocket with selective inhibitors has identified possible receptor-ligand interactions that may be responsible for inhibitor specificity. Overall, the unique biochemical characteristics associated with this protein, to include distinctive active site amino acid residues and variable inhibitor profiles, distinguishes the Pfmrk drug screen as a paradigm for CDK inhibitor analysis in the parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeanne A Geyer
- Diagnostic Systems Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, 1425 Porter Street, Ft. Detrick, MD 20910, USA.
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47
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Glenn MP, Chang SY, Hucke O, Verlinde CLMJ, Rivas K, Hornéy C, Yokoyama K, Buckner FS, Pendyala PR, Chakrabarti D, Gelb M, Van Voorhis WC, Sebti SM, Hamilton AD. Structurally Simple Farnesyltransferase Inhibitors Arrest the Growth of Malaria Parasites. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2005. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.200500674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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48
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Glenn MP, Chang SY, Hucke O, Verlinde CLMJ, Rivas K, Hornéy C, Yokoyama K, Buckner FS, Pendyala PR, Chakrabarti D, Gelb M, Van Voorhis WC, Sebti SM, Hamilton AD. Structurally Simple Farnesyltransferase Inhibitors Arrest the Growth of Malaria Parasites. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2005; 44:4903-6. [PMID: 16007716 DOI: 10.1002/anie.200500674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew P Glenn
- Department of Chemistry, Yale University, 225 Prospect St., New Haven, CT 06511, USA
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49
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Carrico D, Ohkanda J, Kendrick H, Yokoyama K, Blaskovich MA, Bucher CJ, Buckner FS, Van Voorhis WC, Chakrabarti D, Croft SL, Gelb MH, Sebti SM, Hamilton AD. In vitro and in vivo antimalarial activity of peptidomimetic protein farnesyltransferase inhibitors with improved membrane permeability. Bioorg Med Chem 2005; 12:6517-26. [PMID: 15556768 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2004.09.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2004] [Revised: 09/13/2004] [Accepted: 09/14/2004] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
A series of protein farnesyltransferase inhibitor ester prodrugs of FTI-2148 (17) were synthesized in order to evaluate the effects of ester structure modification on antimalarial activity and for further development of a farnesyltransferase inhibitor with in vivo activity. Evaluation against P. falciparum in red blood cells showed that all the investigated esters exhibited significant antimalarial activity, with the benzyl ester 16 showing the best inhibition (ED50=150 nM). Additionally, compound 16 displayed in vivo activity and was found to suppress parasitemia by 46.1% at a dose of 50 mg kg(-1) day(-1) against Plasmodium berghei in mice. The enhanced inhibition potency of the esters is consistent with improved cell membrane permeability compared to that of the free acid. The results of this study suggest that protein farnesyltransferase is a valid antimalarial drug target and that the antimalarial activity of these compounds derives from a balance between the hydrophobic character and the size and conformation of the ester moiety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dora Carrico
- Department of Chemistry, Yale University, PO Box 208107, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
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50
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Eastman RT, White J, Hucke O, Bauer K, Yokoyama K, Nallan L, Chakrabarti D, Verlinde CLMJ, Gelb MH, Rathod PK, Van Voorhis WC. Resistance to a Protein Farnesyltransferase Inhibitor in Plasmodium falciparum. J Biol Chem 2005; 280:13554-9. [PMID: 15661734 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m413556200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The post-translational farnesylation of proteins serves to anchor a subset of intracellular proteins to membranes in eukaryotic organisms and also promotes protein-protein interactions. Inhibition of protein farnesyltransferase (PFT) is lethal to the pathogenic protozoa Plasmodium falciparum. Parasites were isolated that were resistant to BMS-388891, a tetrahydroquinoline (THQ) PFT inhibitor. Resistance was associated with a 12-fold decrease in drug susceptibility. Genotypic analysis revealed a single point mutation in the beta subunit in resistant parasites. The resultant tyrosine 837 to cysteine alteration in the beta subunit corresponded to the binding site for the THQ and peptide substrate. Biochemical analysis of Y837C-PFT demonstrated a 13-fold increase in BMS-388891 concentration necessary for inhibiting 50% of the enzyme activity. These data are consistent with PFT as the target of BMS-388891 in P. falciparum and suggest that PFT inhibitors should be combined with other antimalarial agents for effective therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard T Eastman
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA
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