Fluvastatin-induced myofibrillar damage is associated with elevated ROS, and impaired fatty acid oxidation, and is preceded by mitochondrial morphological changes

Previously, we showed that fluvastatin treatment induces myofibrillar damage and mitochondrial phenotypes in the skeletal muscles of Drosophila. However, the sequential occurrence of mitochondrial phenotypes and myofibril damage remains elusive. To address this, we treated flies with fluvastatin for two and five days and examined their thorax flight muscles using confocal microscopy. In the two-day fluvastatin group, compared to the control, thorax flight muscles exhibited mitochondrial morphological changes, including fragmentation, rounding up and reduced content, while myofibrils remained organized in parallel. In the five-day fluvastatin treatment, not only did mitochondrial morphological changes become more pronounced, but myofibrils became severely disorganized with significantly increased thickness and spacing, along with myofilament abnormalities, suggesting myofibril damage. These findings suggest that fluvastatin-induced mitochondrial changes precede myofibril damage. Moreover, in the five-day fluvastatin group, the mitochondria demonstrated elevated H2O2 and impaired fatty acid oxidation compared to the control group, indicating potential mitochondrial dysfunction. Surprisingly, knocking down Hmgcr (Drosophila homolog of HMGCR) showed normal mitochondrial respiration in all parameters compared to controls or five-day fluvastatin treatment, which suggests that fluvastatin-induced mitochondrial dysfunction might be independent of Hmgcr inhibition. These results provide insights into the sequential occurrence of mitochondria and myofibril damage in statin-induced myopathy for future studies.

Inhibitory Perturbations of Fluvastatin on Afterhyperpolarization Current, Erg-mediated K+ Current, and Hyperpolarization-activated Cation Current in Both Pituitary GH3 Cells and Primary Embryonic Mouse Cortical Neurons

Fluvastatin (FLV), the first synthetically derived 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase inhibitor, is a potent inhibitor of cholesterol biosynthesis. While its primary mechanism of action is to reduce cholesterol levels, there is some evidence suggesting that it may also have effects on K+ channels. However, the overall effects of fluvastatin on ionic currents are not yet well understood. The whole-cell clamp recordings were applied to evaluate the ionic currents and action potentials of cells. Here, we have demonstrated that FLV can effectively inhibit the amplitude of erg-mediated K+ current (IK(erg)) in pituitary tumor (GH3) cells, with an IC50 of approximately 3.2 µM. In the presence of FLV, the midpoint in the activation curve of IK(erg) was distinctly shifted to a less negative potential by 10 mV, with minimal modification of the gating charge. However, the magnitude of hyperpolarization-activated cation current (Ih) elicited by long-lasting membrane hyperpolarization was progressively decreased, with an IC50 value of 8.7 µM, upon exposure to FLV. More interestingly, we also found that FLV (5 µM) could regulate the action potential and afterhyperpolarization properties in primary embryonic mouse cortical neurons. Our study presents compelling evidence indicating that FLV has the potential to impact both the amplitude and gating of the ion channels IK(erg) and Ih. We also provide credible evidence suggesting that this drug has the potential to modify the properties of action potentials and the afterhyperpolarization current in electrically excitable cells. However, the assumption that these findings translate to similar in-vivo results remains unclear.

Pravastatin for lowering lipids

BACKGROUND

A detailed summary and meta-analysis of the dose-related effect of pravastatin on lipids is not available.

OBJECTIVES

Primary objective To assess the pharmacology of pravastatin by characterizing the dose-related effect and variability of the effect of pravastatin on the surrogate marker: low-density lipoprotein (LDL cholesterol). The effect of pravastatin on morbidity and mortality is not the objective of this systematic review. Secondary objectives • To assess the dose-related effect and variability of effect of pravastatin on the following surrogate markers: total cholesterol; high-density lipoprotein (HDL cholesterol); and triglycerides. • To assess the effect of pravastatin on withdrawals due to adverse effects.

SEARCH METHODS

The Cochrane Hypertension Information Specialist searched the following databases for randomized controlled trials (RCTs) up to September 2021: CENTRAL (2021, Issue 8), Ovid MEDLINE, Ovid Embase, Bireme LILACS, the WHO International Clinical Trials Registry Platform, and ClinicalTrials.gov. We also contacted authors of relevant papers regarding further published and unpublished work. The searches had no language restrictions.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomized placebo-controlled trials evaluating the dose response of different fixed doses of pravastatin on blood lipids over a duration of three to 12 weeks in participants of any age with and without evidence of cardiovascular disease.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two review authors independently assessed eligibility criteria for studies to be included, and extracted data. We entered lipid data from placebo-controlled trials into Review Manager 5 as continuous data and withdrawal due to adverse effects (WDAEs) data as dichotomous data. We searched for WDAEs information from all trials. We assessed all trials using Cochrane's risk of bias tool under the categories of sequence generation, allocation concealment, blinding, incomplete outcome data, selective reporting, and other potential biases.

MAIN RESULTS

Sixty-four RCTs evaluated the dose-related efficacy of pravastatin in 9771 participants. The participants were of any age, with and without evidence of cardiovascular disease, and pravastatin effects were studied within a treatment period of three to 12 weeks. Log dose-response data over the doses of 5 mg to 160 mg revealed strong linear dose-related effects on blood total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol, and a weak linear dose-related effect on blood triglycerides. There was no dose-related effect of pravastatin on blood HDL cholesterol. Pravastatin 10 mg/day to 80 mg/day reduced LDL cholesterol by 21.7% to 31.9%, total cholesterol by 16.1% to 23.3%,and triglycerides by 5.8% to 20.0%. The certainty of evidence for these effects was judged to be moderate to high. For every two-fold dose increase there was a 3.4% (95% confidence interval (CI) 2.2 to 4.6) decrease in blood LDL cholesterol. This represented a dose-response slope that was less than the other studied statins: atorvastatin, rosuvastatin, fluvastatin, pitavastatin and cerivastatin. From other systematic reviews we conducted on statins for its effect to reduce LDL cholesterol, pravastatin is similar to fluvastatin, but has a decreased effect compared to atorvastatin, rosuvastatin, pitavastatin and cerivastatin. The effect of pravastatin compared to placebo on WADES has a risk ratio (RR) of 0.81 (95% CI 0.63 to 1.03). The certainty of evidence was judged to be very low.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Pravastatin lowers blood total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol and triglyceride in a dose-dependent linear fashion. This review did not provide a good estimate of the incidence of harms associated with pravastatin because of the lack of reporting of adverse effects in 48.4% of the randomized placebo-controlled trials.

Pharmacological interventions for asymptomatic carotid stenosis

BACKGROUND

Carotid artery stenosis is narrowing of the carotid arteries. Asymptomatic carotid stenosis is when this narrowing occurs in people without a history or symptoms of this disease. It is caused by atherosclerosis; that is, the build-up of fats, cholesterol, and other substances in and on the artery walls. Atherosclerosis is more likely to occur in people with several risk factors, such as diabetes, hypertension, hyperlipidaemia, and smoking. As this damage can develop without symptoms, the first symptom can be a fatal or disabling stroke, known as ischaemic stroke. Carotid stenosis leading to ischaemic stroke is most common in men older than 70 years. Ischaemic stroke is a worldwide public health problem.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the effects of pharmacological interventions for the treatment of asymptomatic carotid stenosis in preventing neurological impairment, ipsilateral major or disabling stroke, death, major bleeding, and other outcomes.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the Cochrane Stroke Group trials register, CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase, two other databases, and three trials registers from their inception to 9 August 2022. We also checked the reference lists of any relevant systematic reviews identified and contacted specialists in the field for additional references to trials.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included all randomised controlled trials (RCTs), irrespective of publication status and language, comparing a pharmacological intervention to placebo, no treatment, or another pharmacological intervention for asymptomatic carotid stenosis.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

We used standard Cochrane methodological procedures. Two review authors independently extracted the data and assessed the risk of bias of the trials. A third author resolved disagreements when necessary. We assessed the evidence certainty for key outcomes using GRADE.

MAIN RESULTS

We included 34 RCTs with 11,571 participants. Data for meta-analysis were available from only 22 studies with 6887 participants. The mean follow-up period was 2.5 years. None of the 34 included studies assessed neurological impairment and quality of life. Antiplatelet agent (acetylsalicylic acid) versus placebo Acetylsalicylic acid (1 study, 372 participants) may result in little to no difference in ipsilateral major or disabling stroke (risk ratio (RR) 1.08, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.47 to 2.47), stroke-related mortality (RR 1.40, 95% CI 0.54 to 3.59), progression of carotid stenosis (RR 1.16, 95% CI 0.79 to 1.71), and adverse events (RR 0.81, 95% CI 0.41 to 1.59), compared to placebo (all low-certainty evidence). The effect of acetylsalicylic acid on major bleeding is very uncertain (RR 0.98, 95% CI 0.06 to 15.53; very low-certainty evidence). The study did not measure neurological impairment or quality of life. Antihypertensive agents (metoprolol and chlorthalidone) versus placebo The antihypertensive agent, metoprolol, may result in no difference in ipsilateral major or disabling stroke (RR 0.14, 95% CI 0.02 to1.16; 1 study, 793 participants) and stroke-related mortality (RR 0.57, 95% CI 0.17 to 1.94; 1 study, 793 participants) compared to placebo (both low-certainty evidence). However, chlorthalidone may slow the progression of carotid stenosis (RR 0.45, 95% CI 0.23 to 0.91; 1 study, 129 participants; low-certainty evidence) compared to placebo. Neither study measured neurological impairment, major bleeding, adverse events, or quality of life. Anticoagulant agent (warfarin) versus placebo The evidence is very uncertain about the effects of warfarin (1 study, 919 participants) on major bleeding (RR 1.19, 95% CI 0.97 to 1.46; very low-certainty evidence), but it may reduce adverse events (RR 0.89, 95% CI 0.81 to 0.99; low-certainty evidence) compared to placebo. The study did not measure neurological impairment, ipsilateral major or disabling stroke, stroke-related mortality, progression of carotid stenosis, or quality of life. Lipid-lowering agents (atorvastatin, fluvastatin, lovastatin, pravastatin, probucol, and rosuvastatin) versus placebo or no treatment Lipid-lowering agents may result in little to no difference in ipsilateral major or disabling stroke (atorvastatin, lovastatin, pravastatin, and rosuvastatin; RR 0.36, 95% CI 0.09 to 1.53; 5 studies, 2235 participants) stroke-related mortality (lovastatin and pravastatin; RR 0.25, 95% CI 0.03 to 2.29; 2 studies, 1366 participants), and adverse events (fluvastatin, lovastatin, pravastatin, probucol, and rosuvastatin; RR 0.76, 95% CI 0.53 to1.10; 7 studies, 3726 participants) compared to placebo or no treatment (all low-certainty evidence). The studies did not measure neurological impairment, major bleeding, progression of carotid stenosis, or quality of life.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Although there is no high-certainty evidence to support pharmacological intervention, this does not mean that pharmacological treatments are ineffective in preventing ischaemic cerebral events, morbidity, and mortality. High-quality RCTs are needed to better inform the best medical treatment that may reduce the burden of carotid stenosis. In the interim, clinicians will have to use other sources of information.

Associations between SLCO1B1, APOE and CYP2C9 and lipid-lowering efficacy and pharmacokinetics of fluvastatin: a meta-analysis

Objective: This meta-analysis was designed to investigate the associations between SLCO1B1, APOE and CYP2C9 and the lipid-lowering effects and pharmacokinetics of fluvastatin. Methods: Studies were searched from inception to March 2023, including three SNPs related to fluvastatin, SLCO1B1, CYP2C9 and APOE. Weighted mean differences and corresponding 95% CIs were analyzed to evaluate the associations between SNPs and outcomes. Results: SLCO1B1 521T>C was associated with lower total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein reduction. Patients carrying 521CC or total cholesterol had a significantly higher area under the curve than those carrying 521TT, but no significant difference existed. Conclusion: CYP2C9 and SLCO1B1 may be associated with the efficacy and pharmacokinetics of fluvastatin.

Organic anion-transporting polypeptide 2B1 knockout and humanized mice; insights into the handling of bilirubin and drugs

Organic anion transporting polypeptide 2B1 (OATP2B1/SLCO2B1) facilitates uptake transport of structurally diverse endogenous and exogenous compounds. To investigate the roles of OATP2B1 in physiology and pharmacology, we established and characterized Oatp2b1 knockout (single Slco2b1^-/- and combination Slco1a/1b/2b1^-/-) and humanized hepatic and intestinal OATP2B1 transgenic mouse models. While viable and fertile, these strains exhibited a modestly increased body weight. In males, unconjugated bilirubin levels were markedly reduced in Slco2b1^-/- compared to wild-type mice, whereas bilirubin monoglucuronide levels were modestly increased in Slco1a/1b/2b1^-/- compared to Slco1a/1b^-/- mice. Single Slco2b1^-/- mice showed no significant changes in oral pharmacokinetics of several tested drugs. However, markedly higher or lower plasma exposure of pravastatin and the erlotinib metabolite OSI-420, respectively, were found in Slco1a/1b/2b1^-/- compared to Slco1a/1b^-/- mice, while oral rosuvastatin and fluvastatin behaved similarly between the strains. In males, humanized OATP2B1 strains showed lower conjugated and unconjugated bilirubin levels than control Slco1a/1b/2b1-deficient mice. Moreover, hepatic expression of human OATP2B1 partially or completely rescued the impaired hepatic uptake of OSI-420, rosuvastatin, pravastatin, and fluvastatin in Slco1a/1b/2b1^-/- mice, establishing an important role in hepatic uptake. Expression of human OATP2B1 in the intestine was basolateral and markedly reduced the oral availability of rosuvastatin and pravastatin, but not of OSI-420 and fluvastatin. Neither lack of Oatp2b1, nor overexpression of human OATP2B1 had any effect on fexofenadine oral pharmacokinetics. While these mouse models still have limitations for human translation, with additional work we expect they will provide powerful tools to further understand the physiological and pharmacological roles of OATP2B1.

Adverse drug reactions of statin therapy in China from 1989 to 2019: a national database analysis

BACKGROUND

The baseline incidence of the adverse events of statin therapy varies between countries. Notably, Chinese patients seem more susceptible to myopathy induced by simvastatin.

OBJECTIVES

This research studies the adverse drug reactions (ADRs) of statin therapy in China by analysing trial-based data from the Anti-hyperlipidaemic Drug Database built by the China National Medical Products Administration Information Centre.

METHODS

All clinical trials involving statin therapy (including simvastatin, atorvastatin, fluvastatin, lovastatin, pravastatin and rosuvastatin) in China from 1989 to 2019 were screened. In total, 569 clinical studies with 37 828 patients were selected from 2650 clinical trials in the database.

RESULTS

Among the reported cases with ADRs (2822/37 828; 7.460%), gastrointestinal symptoms were the most common (1491/37 828; 3.942%), followed by liver disease (486/37 828; 1.285%), muscle symptoms (444/37 828; 1.174%) and neurological symptoms (247/37 828; 0.653%). Pravastatin (231/1988; 11.620%) caused the most common gastrointestinal side effects, followed by fluvastatin (333/3094; 10.763%). The least likely to cause gastrointestinal irritation was rosuvastatin (82/1846; 4.442%).

CONCLUSION

In Chinese clinical trials, gastrointestinal symptoms were the most common ADR of statin use for hyperlipidaemia and other cardiovascular diseases.

Differential Effects of Statins on Inflammatory Interleukin-8 and Antimicrobial Peptide Human Β-Defensin 2 Responses in Salmonella-Infected Intestinal Epithelial Cells

Alternative therapies are needed to reduce the use of antibiotics and incidence of drug-resistant Salmonellosis. Previous studies have revealed important roles of statins in regulating innate immunity. Therefore, we investigated the effects of statins on innate immunity in Salmonella-infected intestinal epithelial cells (IECs), which are involved in mucosal innate immunity. SW480 cells and Akt siRNA- or vitamin D receptor (VDR) siRNA-transfected SW480 cells were infected by wild-type S. Typhimurium strain SL1344 in the presence or absence of statins. The mRNA or protein expression was analyzed by real-time quantitative PCR or western blot analysis, respectively. Simvastatin or fluvastatin caused IL-8 (interleukin-8) suppression, but increased hBD-2 mRNA expression in Salmonella-infected SW480 cells. Both statins enhanced phosphorylated Akt and VDR expressions. Akt or VDR knockdown by siRNA counteracted the suppressive effect of simvastatin on IL-8 expression, whereas VDR knockdown diminished the enhanced hBD-2 expression in Salmonella-infected SW480 cells. Therefore, we observed differential regulation of statins on inflammatory IL-8 and anti-microbial hBD-2 expressions in Salmonella-infected IECs via PI3K/Akt signaling and VDR protein expression, respectively. The enhanced activity of antimicrobial peptides by statins in Salmonella-infected IECs could protect the host against infection, and modulation of pro-inflammatory responses could prevent the detrimental effects of overwhelming inflammation in the host.

Fluvastatin for lowering lipids

BACKGROUND

Fluvastatin is thought to be the least potent statin on the market, however, the dose-related magnitude of effect of fluvastatin on blood lipids is not known.

OBJECTIVES

Primary objectiveTo quantify the effects of various doses of fluvastatin on blood total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL cholesterol), high-density lipoprotein (HDL cholesterol), and triglycerides in participants with and without evidence of cardiovascular disease.Secondary objectivesTo quantify the variability of the effect of various doses of fluvastatin.To quantify withdrawals due to adverse effects (WDAEs) in randomised placebo-controlled trials.

SEARCH METHODS

The Cochrane Hypertension Information Specialist searched the following databases for randomised controlled trials up to February 2017: the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) (2017, Issue 1), MEDLINE (1946 to February Week 2 2017), MEDLINE In-Process, MEDLINE Epub Ahead of Print, Embase (1974 to February Week 2 2017), the World Health Organization International Clinical Trials Registry Platform, CDSR, DARE, Epistemonikos and ClinicalTrials.gov. We also contacted authors of relevant papers regarding further published and unpublished work. No language restrictions were applied.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised placebo-controlled and uncontrolled before and after trials evaluating the dose response of different fixed doses of fluvastatin on blood lipids over a duration of three to 12 weeks in participants of any age with and without evidence of cardiovascular disease.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two review authors independently assessed eligibility criteria for studies to be included, and extracted data. We entered data from placebo-controlled and uncontrolled before and after trials into Review Manager 5 as continuous and generic inverse variance data, respectively. WDAEs information was collected from the placebo-controlled trials. We assessed all trials using the 'Risk of bias' tool under the categories of sequence generation, allocation concealment, blinding, incomplete outcome data, selective reporting, and other potential biases.

MAIN RESULTS

One-hundred and forty-five trials (36 placebo controlled and 109 before and after) evaluated the dose-related efficacy of fluvastatin in 18,846 participants. The participants were of any age with and without evidence of cardiovascular disease, and fluvastatin effects were studied within a treatment period of three to 12 weeks. Log dose-response data over doses of 2.5 mg to 80 mg revealed strong linear dose-related effects on blood total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol and a weak linear dose-related effect on blood triglycerides. There was no dose-related effect of fluvastatin on blood HDL cholesterol. Fluvastatin 10 mg/day to 80 mg/day reduced LDL cholesterol by 15% to 33%, total cholesterol by 11% to 25% and triglycerides by 3% to 17.5%. For every two-fold dose increase there was a 6.0% (95% CI 5.4 to 6.6) decrease in blood LDL cholesterol, a 4.2% (95% CI 3.7 to 4.8) decrease in blood total cholesterol and a 4.2% (95% CI 2.0 to 6.3) decrease in blood triglycerides. The quality of evidence for these effects was judged to be high. When compared to atorvastatin and rosuvastatin, fluvastatin was about 12-fold less potent than atorvastatin and 46-fold less potent than rosuvastatin at reducing LDL cholesterol. Very low quality of evidence showed no difference in WDAEs between fluvastatin and placebo in 16 of 36 of these short-term trials (risk ratio 1.52 (95% CI 0.94 to 2.45).

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Fluvastatin lowers blood total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol and triglyceride in a dose-dependent linear fashion. Based on the effect on LDL cholesterol, fluvastatin is 12-fold less potent than atorvastatin and 46-fold less potent than rosuvastatin. This review did not provide a good estimate of the incidence of harms associated with fluvastatin because of the short duration of the trials and the lack of reporting of adverse effects in 56% of the placebo-controlled trials.

Fluvastatin increases the expression of adhesion molecules, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 and tissue factor in HUVEC stimulated by patient IgG fractions containing antiphospholipid antibodies

The presence of antiphospholipid antibodies (APLA) is associated with an increased risk of recurrent thrombosis and pregnancy loss. APLA are able to activate endothelial cells (EC) and induce an increase in the expression of inflammatory marker proteins, such as leukocyte adhesion molecules, tissue factor or the monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1). Our objective was to investigate the effect of statins on EC activation induced by APLA in vitro. IgG was purified from the plasma of six patients with APLA and from healthy controls. EC were incubated with patient IgG or with control IgG, in the presence or absence of 5μM of fluvastatin, and expression of the leukocyte adhesion molecules, VCAM-1 and E-selectin, analyzed by flow cytometry and by quantitative reverse transcriptase-PCR (QRT-PCR).The expression of tissue factor and the chemokine MCP-1 was analyzed by QRT-PCR alone. Incubation of EC with patient IgG increased the expression of VCAM-1, E-selectin, tissue factor and MCP-1. Prior treatment of the cells with fluvastatin further increased the expression of these proteins. The fluvastatin effect was reversed by co-incubation with mevalonate or geranylgeranylpyrophosphate and mimicked by the geranylgeranyl transferase inhibitor GGTI-286. Our results show that in cultured human EC, statins increase the extent of inflammatory activation induced by APLA. This effect appears to be mediated by an inhibitory effect of statins on one or more geranylgeranylated protein(s).

VEGFA Involves in the Use of Fluvastatin and Zoledronate Against Breast Cancer

Our study aimed to identify key genes involved in the use of fluvastatin and zoledronate against breast cancer, as well as to investigate the roles of vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGFA) in the malignant behaviors of breast cancer cells. The expression data GSE33552 was downloaded from Gene Expression Omnibus database, including mocked-, fluvastatin- and zoledronate-treated MDA-MB-231 cells. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified in fluvastatin- and zoledronate-treated cells using limma package, respectively. Pathway enrichment analysis and protein-protein interaction (PPI) network analysis were then performed. Then we used shRNA specifically targeting VEGFA (shVEGFA) to knock down the expression of VEGFA in MDA-MB-231 cells. Cell viability assay, scratch wound healing assay, Transwell invasion assay and flow cytometry were performed to explore the effects of VEGFA knockdown on the malignant behaviors of breast cancer cells. VEGFA was up-regulated in both fluvastatin- and zoledronate-treated breast cancer cells. Moreover, VEGFA was a hub node in PPI network. In addition, VEGFA was successfully knocked down in MDA-MB-231 cells by shVEGFA. Suppression of VEGFA promoted the migration and invasion of breast cancer MDA-MB-231 cells. Suppression of VEGFA inhibited the apoptosis of MDA-MB-231 cells. Our results indicate that up-regulation of VEGFA may prevent the progression of breast cancer after fluvastatin and zoledronate treatment via inducing cell apoptosis and inhibiting migration and invasion. VEGFA may serve as a potential prognostic indicator for clinical outcome in the management of breast cancer.

Fluvastatin inhibits AGE-induced cell proliferation and migration via an ERK5-dependent Nrf2 pathway in vascular smooth muscle cells

Advanced glycation endproduct (AGE)-induced vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) proliferation and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production are emerging as important mechanisms of diabetic vasculopathy, but little is known about the molecular mechanism responsible for the antioxidative effects of statins on AGEs. It has been reported that statins exert pleiotropic effects on the cardiovascular system due to decreases in AGE-induced cell proliferation, migration, and vascular inflammation. Thus, in the present study, the authors investigated the molecular mechanism by which statins decrease AGE-induced cell proliferation and VSMC migration. In cultured VSMCs, statins upregulated Nrf2-related antioxidant gene, NQO1 and HO-1, via an ERK5-dependent Nrf2 pathway. Inhibition of ERK5 by siRNA or BIX02189 (a specific ERK5 inhibitor) reduced the statin-induced upregulations of Nrf2, NQO1, and HO-1. Furthermore, fluvastatin was found to significantly increase ARE promoter activity through ERK5 signaling, and to inhibit AGE-induced VSMC proliferation and migration as determined by MTT assay, cell counting, FACS analysis, a wound scratch assay, and a migration chamber assay. In addition, AGE-induced proliferation was diminished in the presence of Ad-CA-MEK5α encoding a constitutively active mutant form of MEK5α (an upstream kinase of ERK5), whereas depletion of Nrf2 restored statin-mediated reduction of AGE-induced cell proliferation. Moreover, fluvastatin suppressed the protein expressions of cyclin D1 and Cdk4, but induced p27, and blocked VSMC proliferation by regulating cell cycle. These results suggest statin-induced activation of an ERK5-dependent Nrf2 pathway reduces VSMC proliferation and migration induced by AGEs, and that the ERK5-Nrf2 signal module be viewed as a potential therapeutic target of vasculopathy in patients with diabetes and complications of the disease.

Very low-dose fluvastatin-valsartan combination decreases parameters of inflammation and oxidative stress in patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus

AIMS

Previously we revealed the effectiveness of a new therapeutic approach with a short-term, very-low dose fluvastatin-valsartan combination on the improvement of arterial function in type 1 diabetes mellitus patients (T1DM). In this study we explored whether this approach influences inflammation and oxidative stress and explored any association of these effects with arterial function improvement.

METHODS

This was a supplementary analysis of the two previous double blind randomized studies (included 44 T1DM patients). Treatment group received very-low dose fluvastatin-valsartan, the control group received placebo. Blood samples were collected and inflammation parameters: high-sensitivity CRP (hsCRP), interleukin 6 (IL-6), vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) and oxidative stress parameter total antioxidant status (TAS) were measured.

RESULTS

Treatment decreased hsCRP values (by 56.5%, P<0.05) and IL-6 values (by 33.6%, P<0.05) and increased TAS values (by 21.1%; P<0.05) after 30days of treatment. High sensitivity CRP and TAS remained decreased 3months after treatment discontinuation. Importantly, the anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative action significantly correlated with arterial function improvement.

CONCLUSIONS

The approach consisting of short-term (30days) treatment with a very low-dose fluvastatin-valsartan combination acts anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative in T1DM patients. These observations along with the improvement of arterial function support the assumption that this approach could have an important clinical benefit in T1DM patients.

Identification and characterization of fluvastatin metabolites in rats by UHPLC/Q-TOF/MS/MS and in silico toxicological screening of the metabolites

The present study reports the in vivo and in vitro identification and characterization of metabolites of fluvastatin, the 3-hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl-coenzyme A reductase inhibitor, using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). In vitro studies were conducted by incubating the drug with human liver microsomes and rat liver microsomes. In vivo studies were carried out by administration of the drug in the form of suspension to the Sprague-Dawley rats followed by collection of urine, faeces and blood at different time points up to 24 h. Further, samples were prepared by optimized sample preparation method, which includes freeze liquid extraction, protein precipitation and solid phase extraction. The extracted and concentrated samples were analysed using ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-quadruple time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry. A total of 15 metabolites were observed in urine, which includes hydroxyl, sulphated, desisopropyl, dehydrogenated, dehydroxylated and glucuronide metabolites. A few of the metabolites were also present in faeces and plasma samples. In in vitro studies, a few metabolites were observed that were also present in in vivo samples. All the metabolites were characterized using ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-quadruple time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry in combination with accurate mass measurement. Finally, in silico toxicity studies indicated that some of the metabolites show or possess carcinogenicity and skin sensitization. Several metabolites that were identified in rats are proposed to have toxicological significance on the basis of in silico evaluation. However, these metabolites are of no human relevance. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Impaired endothelial function and arterial stiffness in patients with type 2 diabetes - The effect of a very low-dose combination of fluvastatin and valsartan

AIM

Patients with type 2 diabetes are at increased cardiovascular risk. The aim was to explore whether the impaired arterial wall characteristics typical of these patients could be improved by the unique beneficial effects of a very low-dose combination of fluvastatin and valsartan (low-flu/val).

METHODS

Forty middle-aged males (50.4±6.1years) with type 2 diabetes were recruited to a double-blind, randomized study. Patients (N=20) received low-flu/val (10/20mg) or placebo (N=20) over 30days in addition to their regular therapy. Brachial artery flow mediated dilation (FMD), common carotid artery pulse wave velocity (PWV) and β-stiffness were assessed before and after treatment, and 3 and 6months after treatment discontinuation. The treatment was then repeated.

RESULTS

Arterial wall characteristics significantly improved. After 30days of intervention, FMD increased from 2.4±0.3 to 4.2±0.3 (p<0.001), PWV decreased from 6.4±0.1 to 5.8±0.2 (p<0.001) and β stiffness decreased from 7.8±0.4 to 6.7±0.4 (p<0.001). Lipids and arterial pressure did not change. After treatment discontinuation, the beneficial effects decreased over the following months. The repetition of treatment completely regained the initial benefits. No changes were observed in the placebo group.

CONCLUSIONS

Low-flu/val added on-top of optimal therapy substantially improves arterial wall characteristics in patients with type 2 diabetes.

Protective Effects of Fluvastatin on Reproductive Function in Obese Male Rats Induced by High-Fat Diet through Enhanced Signaling of mTOR

BACKGROUND

Statins can reduce reproductive damage induced by obesity or high-fat diet (HFD), but the specific regulatory mechanisms are largely unknown. Since mTOR/p70s6k sinaling promotes spermatogonia proliferation and spermatogenesis, we hypothesized that this pathway will be involved in the protective effects of statin in HFD-induced reproductive dysfunction.

METHODS

Male Sprague Dawley rats (3 weeks old) were randomly divided into a control group (standard diet), HFD group, and a fluvastatin group (HFD + fluvastatin at 6mg/kg, once daily by oral gavage). After 8 weeks, body weight was obtain and rats were sacrificed. Weights of the testes, gross morphology, sperm parameters, circulating levels of sex hormones, lipid levels, and tissue mTOR, p-P70s6k were measured. Another set of male rats were treated with rapamycin or vehicle. Flow cytometry was used to detect the spermatogonia marker c-kit and cell cycle. p-P70s6k expression was analyzed by Western blot.

RESULTS

HFD not only results in rat obesity but also leads to spermatogenetic damage and fluvastatin was able to partially block the effects of HFD. Fluvastatin also partially reversed the suppression of mTOR and p-p70s6k expresson.

CONCLUSION

Our data suggest that fluvastatin has protective effects on reproductive function in obese male rats most probably through enhanced signaling of mTOR.

Chronotherapy versus conventional statins therapy for the treatment of hyperlipidaemia

BACKGROUND

Elevated levels of total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein play an important role in the development of atheromas and, therefore, in cardiovascular diseases. Cholesterol biosynthesis follows a circadian rhythm and is principally produced at night (between 12:00 am and 6:00 am). The adjustment of hypolipaemic therapy to biologic rhythms is known as chronotherapy. Chronotherapy is based on the idea that medication can have different effects depending on the hour at which it is taken. Statins are one of the most widely used drugs for the prevention of cardiovascular events. In usual clinical practice, statins are administered once per day without specifying the time when they should be taken. It is unknown whether the timing of statin administration is important for clinical outcomes.

OBJECTIVES

To critically evaluate and analyse the evidence available from randomised controlled trials regarding the effects of chronotherapy on the effectiveness and safety of treating hyperlipidaemia with statins.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase, LILACS, ProQuest Health & Medical Complete, OpenSIGLE, Web of Science Conference Proceedings, and various other resources including clinical trials registers up to November 2015. We also searched the reference lists of relevant reviews for eligible studies.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included randomised controlled trials (RCTs), enrolling people with primary or secondary hyperlipidaemia. To be included, trials must have compared any chronotherapeutic lipid-lowering regimen with statins and any other statin lipid-lowering regimen not based on chronotherapy. We considered any type and dosage of statin as eligible, as long as the control and experimental arms differed only in the timing of the administration of the same statin. Quasi-randomised studies were excluded.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

We used the standard methodological procedures expected by Cochrane. We extracted the key data from studies in relation to participants, interventions, and outcomes for safety and efficacy. We calculated odds ratios (OR) for dichotomous data and mean differences (MD) for continuous data with 95% confidence intervals (CI). Using the GRADE approach, we assessed the quality of the evidence and we used the GRADEpro Guideline Development Tool to import data from Review Manager to create 'Summary of findings' tables.

MAIN RESULTS

This review includes eight RCTs (767 participants analysed in morning and evening arms). The trials used different lipid-lowering regimens with statins (lovastatin: two trials; simvastatin: three trials; fluvastatin: two trials; pravastatin: one trial). All trials compared the effects between morning and evening statin administration. Trial length ranged from four to 14 weeks. We found a high risk of bias in the domain of selective reporting in three trials and in the domain of incomplete outcome data in one trial of the eight trials included. None of the studies included were judged to be at low risk of bias.None of the included RCTs reported data on cardiovascular mortality, cardiovascular morbidity, incidence of cardiovascular events, or deaths from any cause. Pooled results showed no evidence of a difference in total cholesterol (MD 4.33, 95% CI -1.36 to 10.01), 514 participants, five trials, mean follow-up 9 weeks, low-quality evidence), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) levels (MD 4.85 mg/dL, 95% CI -0.87 to 10.57, 473 participants, five trials, mean follow-up 9 weeks, low-quality evidence), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) (MD 0.54, 95% CI -1.08 to 2.17, 514 participants, five trials, mean follow-up 9 weeks, low-quality evidence) or triglycerides (MD -8.91, 95% CI -22 to 4.17, 510 participants, five trials, mean follow-up 9 weeks, low-quality evidence) between morning and evening statin administration.With regard to safety outcomes, five trials (556 participants) reported adverse events. Pooled analysis found no differences in statins adverse events between morning and evening intake (OR 0.71, 95% CI 0.44 to 1.15, 556 participants, five trials, mean follow-up 9 weeks, low-quality evidence).

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Limited and low-quality evidence suggested that there were no differences between chronomodulated treatment with statins in people with hyperlipidaemia as compared to conventional treatment with statins, in terms of clinically relevant outcomes. Studies were short term and therefore did not report on our primary outcomes, cardiovascular clinical events or death. The review did not find differences in adverse events associated with statins between both regimens. Taking statins in the evening does not have an effect on the improvement of lipid levels with respect to morning administration. Further high-quality trials with longer-term follow-up are needed to confirm the results of this review.

Trends in Statin Use in Seniors 1999 to 2013: Time Series Analysis

PURPOSE

To examine HMG-CoA reductase inhibitor (statin) drug dispensing patterns to Nova Scotia Seniors' Pharmacare program (NSSPP) beneficiaries over a 14-year period in response to: 1) rosuvastatin market entry in 2003, 2) JUPITER trial publication in 2008, and 3) generic atorvastatin availability in 2010.

METHODS

All NSSPP beneficiaries who redeemed at least one prescription for a statin from April 1, 1999 to March 31, 2013 were included. Aggregated, anonymous monthly prescription counts were extracted by the Nova Scotia Department of Health and Wellness (Nova Scotia, Canada) and changes in dispensing patterns of statins were measured. Data were analyzed using descriptive analyses and interrupted time series methods.

RESULTS

The percentage of NSSPP beneficiaries dispensed any statin increased from 5.3% in April 1999 to 20.7% in March 2013. In 1999, most NSSPP beneficiaries were dispensed either simvastatin (29.5%) or atorvastatin (28.7%). When rosuvastatin was added to the NSSPP Formulary in August 2003, prescriptions dispensed for simvastatin, lovastatin, pravastatin, and fluvastatin declined significantly (slope change, -0.0027; 95% confidence interval (CI), (-0.0046, -0.0009)). This significant decline continued following the publication of JUPITER (level change, -0.1974; 95% CI, (-0.2991, -0.0957)) and the availability of generic atorvastatin (level change, -0.2436; 95% CI, (-0.3314, -0.1558)). Atorvastatin was not significantly affected by any of the three interventions, although it maintained an overall decreasing trend. Only upon the availability of generic atorvastatin did the upward trend in rosuvastatin use decrease significantly (slope change, -0.0010, 95% CI, (-0.0015, -0.0005)).

CONCLUSIONS

The type and rate of statins dispensed to NSSPP beneficiaries changed from 1999 to 2013 in response to the availability of new agents and publication of the JUPITER trial. The overall proportion of NSSPP beneficiaries dispensed a statin increased approximately 4-fold during the study period. In 2013, rosuvastatin was the most commonly dispensed statin (44.1%) followed by atorvastatin (39.1%).

Neuroprotective Effects of Low-Dose Statins in the Retinal Ultrastructure of Hypercholesterolemic Rabbits

To evaluate the pleiotropic effects to statins, we analyze the qualitative and quantitative retinal changes in hypercholesterolemic rabbits after a low-dosage statin treatment. For this purpose, New Zealand rabbits were split into three groups: control (G0; n = 10), fed a standard diet; hypercholesterolemic (G1; n = 8), fed a 0.5% cholesterol-enriched diet for 8 months; and statins (G2; n = 8), fed a 0.5% cholesterol-enriched diet for 8 months, together with the administration of statin (pravastatin or fluvastatin sodium) at a dose of 2 mg / kg / day each diet. The retinas were analyzed by transmission electron microscopy and immunohistochemistry (glial fibrillary acidic protein). The retinal thickness of nuclear and plexiform layers were quantified in semi-thin sections. The results revealed that the low-statin-treated rabbits in comparison with the hypercholesterolemic group showed: i) a more preserved structure in all retinal layers; ii) a significant reduction in retinal thickness; iii) a decrease in cell death in the nuclear-and ganglion-cell layers; iv) a reduction of hydropic degeneration in the plexiform and nerve-fiber layers; v) a preservation of astrocytes and of the retinal area occupied by them; and vi) a better-preserved retinal vascular structure. Our findings indicate that low doses of statins can prevent retinal degeneration, acting on retinal macroglia, neurons and retinal vessels, despite that hypercholesterolemia remained unchanged. Thus, the pleiotropic effects of the statins may help safeguard the retinal ultrastructure.

Simvastatin Sodium Salt and Fluvastatin Interact with Human Gap Junction Gamma-3 Protein

Finding pleiomorphic targets for drugs allows new indications or warnings for treatment to be identified. As test of concept, we applied a new chemical genomics approach to uncover additional targets for the widely prescribed lipid-lowering pro-drug simvastatin. We used mRNA extracted from internal mammary artery from patients undergoing coronary artery surgery to prepare a viral cardiovascular protein library, using T7 bacteriophage. We then studied interactions of clones of the bacteriophage, each expressing a different cardiovascular polypeptide, with surface-bound simvastatin in 96-well plates. To maximise likelihood of identifying meaningful interactions between simvastatin and vascular peptides, we used a validated photo-immobilisation method to apply a series of different chemical linkers to bind simvastatin so as to present multiple orientations of its constituent components to potential targets. Three rounds of biopanning identified consistent interaction with the clone expressing part of the gene GJC3, which maps to Homo sapiens chromosome 7, and codes for gap junction gamma-3 protein, also known as connexin 30.2/31.3 (mouse connexin Cx29). Further analysis indicated the binding site to be for the N-terminal domain putatively ‘regulating’ connexin hemichannel and gap junction pores. Using immunohistochemistry we found connexin 30.2/31.3 to be present in samples of artery similar to those used to prepare the bacteriophage library. Surface plasmon resonance revealed that a 25 amino acid synthetic peptide representing the discovered N-terminus did not interact with simvastatin lactone, but did bind to the hydrolysed HMG CoA inhibitor, simvastatin acid. This interaction was also seen for fluvastatin. The gap junction blockers carbenoxolone and flufenamic acid also interacted with the same peptide providing insight into potential site of binding. These findings raise key questions about the functional significance of GJC3 transcripts in the vasculature and other tissues, and this connexin’s role in therapeutic and adverse effects of statins in a range of disease states.

Optical Isomers of Atorvastatin, Rosuvastatin and Fluvastatin Enantiospecifically Activate Pregnane X Receptor PXR and Induce CYP2A6, CYP2B6 and CYP3A4 in Human Hepatocytes

Atorvastatin, fluvastatin and rosuvastatin are drugs used for treatment of hypercholesterolemia. They cause numerous drug-drug interactions by inhibiting and inducing drug-metabolizing cytochromes P450. These three statins exist in four optical forms, but they are currently used as enantiopure drugs, i.e., only one single enantiomer. There are numerous evidences that efficacy, adverse effects and toxicity of drugs may be enantiospecific. Therefore, we investigated the effects of optical isomers of atorvastatin, fluvastatin and rosuvastatin on the expression of drug-metabolizing P450s in primary human hepatocytes, using western blots and RT-PCR for measurement of proteins and mRNAs, respectively. The activity of P450 transcriptional regulators, including pregnane X receptor (PXR), aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) and glucocorticoid receptor (GR), was assessed by gene reporter assays and EMSA. Transcriptional activity of AhR was not influenced by any statin tested. Basal transcriptional activity of GR was not affected by tested statins, but dexamethasone-inducible activity of GR was dose-dependently and enantioselectively inhibited by fluvastatin. Basal and ligand-inducible transcriptional activity of PXR was dose-dependently influenced by all tested statins, and the potency and efficacy between individual optical isomers varied depending on statin and optical isomer. The expression of CYP1A1 and CYP1A2 in human hepatocytes was not influenced by tested statins. All statins induced CYP2A6, CYP2B6 and CYP3A4, and the effects on CYP2C9 were rather modulatory. The effects varied between statins and enantiomers and induction potency decreased in order: atorvastatin (RR>RS = SR>SS) > fluvastatin (SR>RS = SS>RR) >> rosuvastatin (only RS active). The data presented here might be of toxicological and clinical importance.

Derivative spectrophotometric method for simultaneous determination of zofenopril and fluvastatin in mixtures and pharmaceutical dosage forms

Fast, accurate and precise method for the determination of zofenopril and fluvastatin was developed using spectrophotometry of the first (D1), second (D2), and third (D3) order derivatives in two-component mixtures and in pharmaceutical preparations. It was shown, that the developed method allows for the determination of the tested components in a direct manner, despite the apparent interference of the absorption spectra in the UV range. For quantitative determinations, "zero-crossing" method was chosen, appropriate wavelengths for zofenopril were: D1 λ=270.85 nm, D2 λ=286.38 nm, D3 λ=253.90 nm. Fluvastatin was determined at wavelengths: D1 λ=339.03 nm, D2 λ=252.57 nm, D3 λ=258.50 nm, respectively. The method was characterized by high sensitivity and accuracy, for zofenopril LOD was in the range of 0.19-0.87 μg mL(-1), for fluvastatin 0.51-1.18 μg mL(-1), depending on the class of derivative, and for zofenopril and fluvastatin LOQ was 0.57-2.64 μg mL(-1) and 1.56-3.57 μg mL(-1), respectively. The recovery of individual components was within the range of 100±5%. For zofenopril, the linearity range was estimated between 7.65 μg mL(-1) and 22.94 μg mL(-1), and for fluvastatin between 5.60 μg mL(-1) and 28.00 μg mL(-1).

[The interactions between natural products and OATP1B1]

Organic anion transporting polypeptide 1B1 (OATP1B1) is an important liver-specific uptake transporter, which mediates transport of numerous endogenous substances and drugs from blood into hepatocytes. To identify and investigate potential modulators of OATP1B1 from natural products, the effect of 21 frequently used natural compounds and extracts on OATP1B1-mediated fluorescein methotrexate transport was studied by using Chinese hamster ovary cells stably expressing OATP1B1 (CHO-OATP1B1) in 96-well plates. This method could be used for the screening of large compound libraries. Our studies showed that some flavonoids (e.g., quercetin, quercitrin, rutin, chrysanthemum flavonoids and mulberrin) and triterpenoids (e.g., glycyrrhetinic acid and glycyrrhizic acid) were inhibitors of OATP1B1 with IC50 values less than 16 µmol · L(-1). The IC50 value of glycyrrhetinic acid on OATP1B1 was comparable to its blood concentration in clinics, indicating an OATPlB1-mediated drug-drug interaction could occur. Structure-activity relationship analysis showed that flavonoids had much higher inhibitory activity than their glycosides. Furthermore, the type and length of saccharides had a significant effect on their activity. In addition, we used OATP1B1 substrates fluvastatin and rosuvastatin as probe drugs to investigate the substrate-dependent effect of several natural compounds on the function of OATP1B1 in vitro. Our results demonstrated that the effect of these natural products on the function of OATPlB1 was substrate-dependent. In summary, this study would be conducive to predicting and avoiding potential OATP1B1-mediated drug-drug and drug-food interactions and thus provide the experimental basis and guidance for rational drug use.

Risk identification and possible countermeasures for muscle adverse effects during statin therapy

The use of statins for cardiovascular disease prevention is clearly supported by clinical evidence. However, in January 2014 the U.S. Food and Drug Administration released an advice on statin risk reporting that "statin benefit is indisputable, but they need to be taken with care and knowledge of their side effects". Among them the by far most common complication is myopathy, ranging from common but clinically benign myalgia to rare but life-threatening rhabdomyolysis. This class side effect appears to be dose dependent, with more lipophilic statin (i.e., simvastatin) carrying a higher overall risk. Hence, to minimize statin-associated myopathy, clinicians should take into consideration a series of factors that potentially increase this risk (i.e., drug-drug interactions, female gender, advanced age, diabetes mellitus, hypothyroidism and vitamin D deficiency). Whenever it is appropriate to stop statin treatment, the recommendations are to stay off statin until resolution of symptoms or normalization of creatine kinase values. Afterwards, clinicians have several options to treat dyslipidemia, including the use of a lower dose of the same statin, intermittent non-daily dosing of statin, initiation of a different statin, alone or in combination with nonstatin lipid-lowering agents, and substitution with red yeast rice.

[The aggregation capacity of neutrophils in patients with arterial hypertension and dyslipidemia treated with fluvastatin]

AIM

To elucidate the aggregation capacity of neutrophils in patients with arterial hypertension and dyslipidemia treated with fluvastatin.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

32 middle-aged patients with grade 1-2 AH and dyslipidemia (risk 3). Control group included 26 age-matched healthy subjects. We estimated lipid composition, antioxidant protection, lipid peroxidation in plasma and neutrophils and their aggregation. All patients were given 40 mg fluvastatin at bedtime. Clinical and laboratory characteristics were evaluated before and 4, 16, 52 weeks after treatment. The results were treated by the Student's t-test.

RESULTS

The patients showed enhanced neutrophil aggregation due to lipid imbalance in cell membranes, intense lipid peroxidation, and marked changes in carbohydrate composition of membrane glycoprotein receptors. Fluvastatin significantly improved lipid composition and peroxidation in plasma and neutrophils and caused positive dynamics in their aggregation due to optimization of glycoprotein receptors.

Fluvastatin upregulates the α 1C subunit of CaV1.2 channel expression in vascular smooth muscle cells via RhoA and ERK/p38 MAPK pathways

Abnormal phenotypic switch of vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) is a hallmark of vascular disorders such as atherosclerosis and restenosis. And this process has been related to remodeling of L-type calcium channel (LTCC). We attempted to investigate whether fluvastatin has any effect on VSMC proliferation and LTCCα 1C subunit (LTCCα 1C) expression as well as the potential mechanisms involved. The VSMCs proliferation was assayed by osteopontin immunofluorescent staining and [(3)H]-thymidine incorporation. The cell cycle was detected by flow cytometric analysis. The activity of RhoA was determined with pull-down assay. MAPK activity and LTCCα 1C expression were assessed by western blotting. We demonstrated fluvastatin prevented the VSMCs dedifferentiating into a proliferative phenotype and induced cell cycle arrest in the G0/G1 phase in response to PDGF-BB stimulation. Fluvastatin dose-dependently reversed the downregulation of LTCCα 1C expression induced by PDGF-BB. Inhibition of ROCK, ERK, or p38 MAPK activation largely enhanced the upregulation effect of fluvastatin (P < 0.01). However, blockade of JNK pathway had no effect on LTCCα 1C expression. We concluded LTCCα 1C was a VSMC contractile phenotype marker gene. Fluvastatin upregulated LTCCα 1C expression, at least in part, by inhibiting ROCK, ERK1/2, and p38 MAPK activation. Fluvastatin may be a potential candidate for preventing or treating vascular diseases.

Fluvastatin causes NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated adipose insulin resistance

Statins reduce lipid levels and are widely prescribed. Statins have been associated with an increased incidence of type 2 diabetes, but the mechanisms are unclear. Activation of the NOD-like receptor family, pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3)/caspase-1 inflammasome, promotes insulin resistance, a precursor of type 2 diabetes. We showed that four different statins increased interleukin-1β (IL-1β) secretion from macrophages, which is characteristic of NLRP3 inflammasome activation. This effect was dose dependent, absent in NLRP3(-/-) mice, and prevented by caspase-1 inhibition or the diabetes drug glyburide. Long-term fluvastatin treatment of obese mice impaired insulin-stimulated glucose uptake in adipose tissue. Fluvastatin-induced activation of the NLRP3/caspase-1 pathway was required for the development of insulin resistance in adipose tissue explants, an effect also prevented by glyburide. Fluvastatin impaired insulin signaling in lipopolysaccharide-primed 3T3-L1 adipocytes, an effect associated with increased caspase-1 activity, but not IL-1β secretion. Our results define an NLRP3/caspase-1-mediated mechanism of statin-induced insulin resistance in adipose tissue and adipocytes, which may be a contributing factor to statin-induced development of type 2 diabetes. These results warrant scrutiny of insulin sensitivity during statin use and suggest that combination therapies with glyburide, or other inhibitors of the NLRP3 inflammasome, may be effective in preventing the adverse effects of statins.

Fluvastatin mediated breast cancer cell death: a proteomic approach to identify differentially regulated proteins in MDA-MB-231 cells

Statins are increasingly being recognized as anti-cancer agents against various cancers including breast cancer. To understand the molecular pathways targeted by fluvastatin and its differential sensitivity against metastatic breast cancer cells, we analyzed protein alterations in MDA-MB-231 cells treated with fluvastatin using 2-DE in combination with LC-MS/MS. Results revealed dys-regulation of 39 protein spots corresponding to 35 different proteins. To determine the relevance of altered protein profiles with breast cancer cell death, we mapped these proteins to major pathways involved in the regulation of cell-to-cell signaling and interaction, cell cycle, Rho GDI and proteasomal pathways using IPA analysis. Highly interconnected sub networks showed that vimentin and ERK1/2 proteins play a central role in controlling the expression of altered proteins. Fluvastatin treatment caused proteolysis of vimentin, a marker of epithelial to mesenchymal transition. This effect of fluvastatin was reversed in the presence of mevalonate, a downstream product of HMG-CoA and caspase-3 inhibitor. Interestingly, fluvastatin neither caused an appreciable cell death nor did modulate vimentin expression in normal mammary epithelial cells. In conclusion, fluvastatin alters levels of cytoskeletal proteins, primarily targeting vimentin through increased caspase-3- mediated proteolysis, thereby suggesting a role for vimentin in statin-induced breast cancer cell death.

Temporal and spatial dependence of inflammatory biomarkers and suppression by fluvastatin in dextran sodium sulfate-induced rat colitis model

BACKGROUND

Dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced colitis in rats is widely used as an experimental model for elucidating the etiology of ulcerative colitis (UC) and developing its novel remedy. We investigated the temporal and spatial changes in inflammatory mediators such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in the regions of rectum and distal colon and examined whether statins, which were designed to lower plasma cholesterol levels, influenced those mediators.

METHODS

Colitis was induced in rats by oral administration of 5 % DSS for 5 days, followed by 2 % DSS for 10 days. 5 % DSS rats were treated with fluvastatin (20 mg/kg) concomitantly for 5 days. The expression of inflammatory mediators of a sequence of four regions in rectum (R) and distal colon (D0, D1, and D2) was determined by quantitative RT-PCR.

RESULTS

The peak of colitic damage, which was confirmed clinically and histopathologically, was found on days 4-6. The expression of TNF-α, iNOS, cytokine-induced neutrophil chemoattractant-1, interleukin (IL)-1β, and IL-6 mRNA increased in R time dependently, showing the peak on days 4-6, and then decreased thereafter. The levels of mRNAs reduced from R to D0, D1, and D2 region dependently. Fluvastatin decreased the expression of these markers in addition to the prevention of DSS-induced damage.

CONCLUSIONS

Results demonstrated that the expression of inflammatory biomarkers had time and region specificity and was markedly inhibited by fluvastatin. To obtain a precise drug effect for UC, it is important to elucidate the temporal and spatial dependence of inflammatory biomarkers in DSS colitis model.

Depressive symptoms in chronic hepatitis C are associated with plasma apolipoprotein E deficiency

Neuro-psychiatric and cognitive disorders are frequent in patients with chronic hepatitis C (CHC) virus (HCV) infection which adversely impact quality of life, antiviral treatment adherence and outcome. HCV has neurotrophic properties and affects lipid metabolism, essential for cognitive function. We evaluated the relationship of lipid profiles with depression and anxiety symptoms and the effects of 12-weeks of therapy with fluvastatin and omega-3 ethyl esters (n-3 PUFA) in a randomised pilot study of CHC prior non-responders. Participants (n = 60) had fasting lipid profiles and assessment of depression and anxiety symptoms using the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) questionnaire at each study visit. At screening 26/60 (43 %) had HADS-A score ≥8 and 13/60 (22 %) had HADS-D scores ≥8. Depressed patients had significantly lower apolipoprotein-E concentrations (30 mg/l vs 39 mg/l, P = 0.029) than those without depression and a tendency toward lower total cholesterol (3.8 vs 4.4 mmol/l, P = 0.053). 3 patients discontinued lipid-modifying treatment because of worsening depression. However, there was a small but significant improvement in anxiety symptoms after 12-weeks of high-dose (2-4 g daily) n-3 PUFA. In conclusion, depression in CHC is associated with plasma apoE deficiency. We postulate that apoE deficiency disrupts blood brain barrier integrity to promote HCV infection of the CNS. High-dose n-PUFAs may alleviate anxiety in some CHC patients but the use of lipid lowering therapy must be balanced against risks of worsening depression.

Fluvastatin inhibits the expression of fibronectin in human peritoneal mesothelial cells induced by high-glucose peritoneal dialysis solution via SGK1 pathway

BACKGROUND

Previous studies showed that statins may have protective effects on peritoneal mesothelial cells (PMC) cultured in high glucose. However, the mechanisms are not clear yet. Several studies demonstrated that serum- and glucocorticoid-inducible kinase 1 (SGK1) is implicated in tissue fibrosis of liver, lung and kidney by regulating the expression of many profibrogenic cytokines and extracellular matrix (e.g., fibronectin). However, few available reports elucidated whether the SGK1 is involved in the pathogenesis of peritoneal fibrosis (PF) in patients with peritoneal dialysis (PD). So far, there is no study about the interaction between the statins and SGK1 in PMC. The purpose of this study was to identify whether fluvastatin may decrease the expression of fibronectin (FN) in human peritoneal mesothelial cells (HPMC) cultured with high-glucose peritoneal dialysis solution (HGPDS) by affecting SGK1 signal pathway.

METHODS

Cultured HPMC were divided into groups of control, high-glucose peritoneal dialysis solution (HGPDS), HGPDS with fluvastatin (10(-8) mol/L ~ 10(-6) mol/L) or GSK650394 10(-5) mol/L (the competitive inhibitor of SGK1), fluvastatin 10(-6) mol/L or GSK650394 10(-5) mol/L alone. The expression of SGK1 and FN was detected by RT-PCR, western immunoblotting or ELISA.

RESULTS

Compared with the control, the mRNA and protein expression of SGK1 and FN increased significantly in HPMC treated with HGPDS (p < 0.05). GSK650394 significantly decreased the upregulated mRNA and protein expression of SGK1 and FN induced by HGPDS (p < 0.05), and fluvastatin had the same effects as GSK650394 in a dose-dependent manner (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Expression of SGK1 and FN increased in HPMC induced by HGPDS. Treated with fluvastatin and the SGK1-inhibitor GSK650394, abnormalities of SGK1 and FN could be corrected partially, which suggested that the SGK1 pathway was implicated in the pathogenesis of PF, and that fluvastatin might decrease the expression of SGK1 so as to meliorate the progression of PF.

[Effects of fluvastatin on expression of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase in renal tissue of chronic graft versus host disease lupus nephritis in mice]

OBJECTIVE

To explore the effects of fluvastatin on expression of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38MAPK) in renal tissue of chronic graft versus host disease (cGVHD) lupus nephritis in mice.

METHODS

Mice were randomly divided into 4 groups of model, low-dose fluvastatin intervention (5 mg×kg(-1)×d(-1)), high-dose fluvastatin intervention (10 mg×kg(-1)×d(-1)) and normal control. The 24 h total amount of urine protein was evaluated by biuret reaction colorimetric assay. And the protein and mRNA expression levels of p38MAPK, p-p38MAPK and TGF-β1 in renal tissue were detected by immunohistochemistry, Western blot and reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) respectively.

RESULTS

Compared with the normal control group, 24 h total amount of urine protein, protein and mRNA expression levels of p38MAPK, p-p38MAPK and TGF-β1 increased significantly in the model group respectively ((7.84 ± 0.36) vs (1.15 ± 0.15) mg/24 h, 0.81 ± 0.03 vs 0.50 ± 0.01, 0.69 ± 0.02 vs 0.10 ± 0.01, 0.76 ± 0.02 vs 0.28 ± 0.02, 0.84 ± 0.04 vs 0.25 ± 0.02, 0.82 ± 0.04 vs 0.12 ± 0.02, all P < 0.01). Fluvastatin treatment suppressed markedly their increased expressions (P < 0.05). And high-dose fluvastatin treatment suppressed more significantly than low-dose group (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

The renal protection effect of fluvastatin may be achieved by inhibiting the signal pathway of p38MAPK.

[Efficacy and safety of fluvastatin extended-release tablets in Chinese patients with hyperlipidemia: a multi-center, randomized, double-blind, double dummy, active-controlled, parallel-group study]

OBJECTIVE

To assess the efficacy and safety of fluvastatin sodium extended-release tablets (fluvastatin XL) 80 mg once daily compared to fluvastatin sodium immediate-release capsules (fluvastatin IR) 40 mg twice daily in Chinese hyperlipidemic patients with moderate or high cardiovascular risk.

METHODS

In this multi-center, randomized, double-blind, double-dummy, active-controlled, parallel-group study, after 6-week open-label treatment with fluvastatin IR 40 mg once daily, patients who did not reach their lipid goals were randomized to 12-week double-blind treatment with fluvastatin XL 80 mg once daily or fluvastatin IR 40 mg twice daily.

RESULTS

(1) There were 218 patients enrolled in each group. At the study endpoint, no statistical difference was found in the mean percent change from baseline for LDL-C with -8.69% [from (3.504 ± 0.060) mmol/L to (3.153 ± 0.065) mmol/L] in the fluvastatin XL group and -7.89% [from (3.491 ± 0.050) mmol/L to (3.181 ± 0.060) mmol/L] in the fluvastatin IR group (P > 0.05). The 95%CI for difference between the two groups in adjusted mean percent change from baseline was (-4.70%-3.09%), which was within the pre-specified non-inferiority margin. In the fluvastatin XL group, the proportion of patients with moderate cardiovascular (CV) risk and high CV risk achieving their LDL-C treatment goals at endpoint was 50.0% and 31.5% respectively, while the proportion was 42.5% and 24.5% respectively in the fluvastatin IR group. No significant difference was found between the two groups in the proportion of patients who reached their lipid goals and the changes from baseline with other lipid parameters. (2) Similar safety profiles were observed in the two treatment groups, with 21.1% adverse event (AE) (8.3% study-drug related AE) in the fluvastatin XL group and 17.0% AE (6.3% study-drug related AE) in the fluvastatin IR group.

CONCLUSION

The efficacy of fluvastatin XL 80 mg once daily is comparable to fluvastatin IR 40 mg twice daily in Chinese hyperlipidemic patients with moderate or high cardiovascular risk and both treatments are safe and well-tolerated.

Matrix conditions and KLF2-dependent induction of heme oxygenase-1 modulate inhibition of HCV replication by fluvastatin

Background & Aims

HMG-CoA-reductase-inhibitors (statins) have been shown to interfere with HCV replication in vitro. We investigated the mechanism, requirements and contribution of heme oxygenase-1(HO-1)-induction by statins to interference with HCV replication.

Methods

HO-1-induction by fluva-, simva-, rosuva-, atorva- or pravastatin was correlated to HCV replication, using non-infectious replicon systems as well as the infectious cell culture system. The mechanism of HO-1-induction by statins as well as its relevance for interference with HCV replication was investigated using transient or permanent knockdown cell lines. Polyacrylamide(PAA) gels of different density degrees or the Rho-kinase-inhibitor Hydroxyfasudil were used in order to mimic matrix conditions corresponding to normal versus fibrotic liver tissue.

Results

All statins used, except pravastatin, decreased HCV replication and induced HO-1 expression, as well as interferon response in vitro. HO-1-induction was mediated by reduction of Bach1 expression and induction of the Nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2 (NRF2) cofactor Krueppel-like factor 2 (KLF2). Knockdown of KLF2 or HO-1 abrogated effects of statins on HCV replication. HO-1-induction and anti-viral effects of statins were more pronounced under cell culture conditions mimicking advanced stages of liver disease.

Conclusions

Statin-mediated effects on HCV replication seem to require HO-1-induction, which is more pronounced in a microenvironment resembling fibrotic liver tissue. This implicates that certain statins might be especially useful to support HCV therapy of patients at advanced stages of liver disease.

[Perioperative cardiovascular evaluation and management for noncardiac surgery]

As a population ages, an increase in the number of patients with cardiac complications who undergo non-cardiac surgeries is observed. The perioperative mortality for noncardiac surgery is approximately 1-5%; approximately 20-35% of these cases are due to cardiovascular complications. Among them, perioperative myocardiac infarction/ischemia is a factor that leads to poor prognosis, and the ACC/AHA guidelines emphasize this aspect. An important task of the anesthesiologist is to accurately assess risks in patients undergoing noncardiac surgeries and avoid adverse cardiovascular events.

Incidence of skeletal muscle disorders after statins' treatment: consequences in clinical and EMG picture

OBJECTIVES

The goal of this clinical trial was to determine the incidence of undesirable side effects, and to ascertain any occurrence of genetic polymorphisms.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Clinically, we looked for manifestations of a benign myositis and of serious rhabdomyolysis. We observed a group 198 patients treated with statins, primarially fluvastatin and rosuvastatin. There were 126 (mean age = 58.3 ± 4.1; male 91, mean age = 57.4 ± 5.9; female 35, mean age = 60.5 ± 6.5) patients in a subgroup where we administered rosuvastatin. Undesirable muscular signs and symptoms were present in 32 patients (25.39%). In 11 (8.73% of the total 126) CK level increased maximally to 4 times ULN, in 6 (4.7%) statins were excluded because of very intense subjective suffering. CK levels 2-5 times ULN were present in 9 (7.14%). CK blood levels over 10 times ULN or higher indicated statins exclusion in 2 (1.58%). Increased levels of the further muscular enzyme AST by 5 times ULN were present in 16 (12.69%), up to 10 times ULN in 2 (1.58%), and over 10 times ULN also in 2 (1.58%).

RESULTS

We observed rhabdomyolysis in 6 patients (3.03% of the total 198 patients group) using other types of statins (three of them undergo chronic hemodialysis). In this group we performed molecular-genetic analysis of the following proteins relating to statin myopathy: SLCO1B1(388AA/AG-521TT) - (discovered polymorphism in 1 patient), further cytochroms Cyp 2C9 (in 1 patient), 2C8 (in 1 patient), Cyp SA/4 (non discovered positivity) and finally UGT1A1*2B (discovered in 2 patients).

CONCLUSIONS

In the group of patients treated by rosuvastatin, we discovered not one case of rhabdomyolysis. In each patient with rhabdomyolysis (brown urine discoloration, mal-odorous urine, painful muscle cramps, muscle weakness, fatigue) at least one polymorphism of "statins´ genes" was present.

Lipid-lowering agents for nephrotic syndrome

BACKGROUND

Nephrotic syndrome is the collective name given to a group of symptoms that include proteinuria, lipiduria, hypoalbuminaemia, oedema, hypercholesterolaemia, elevated triglycerides, and hyperlipidaemia. Hyperlipidaemia is thought to aggravate glomerulosclerosis (hardening of blood vessels in the kidneys) and enhance progression of glomerular disease. Studies have established that reduction in total cholesterol and low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol is associated with reduction in risk of cardiovascular diseases. In 2011, the European Society of Cardiology and European Atherosclerosis Society guidelines for the management of dyslipidaemia recommended use of statins as first-line agents in the management of nephrotic dyslipidaemia. However, the effectiveness and safety of statins for people with nephrotic syndrome remains uncertain. Furthermore, the efficacy of second-line lipid-lowering drugs, such as ezetimibe and nicotinic acid, has not been proven in patients with nephrotic syndrome who are unable to tolerate statin therapy.

OBJECTIVES

This review aimed to evaluate the benefits and harms of lipid-lowering agents in adults and children with nephrotic syndrome.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the Cochrane Renal Group's Specialised Register (to 18 March 2013) through contact with the Trials Search Co-ordinator using search terms relevant to this review.

SELECTION CRITERIA

All randomised controlled trials (RCTs) and quasi-RCTs (RCTs in which allocation to treatment was obtained by alternation, use of alternate medical records, date of birth or other predictable methods) looking at participants with nephrotic syndrome that compared any lipid-lowering agent to placebo, no treatment or other lipid-lowering agents, given for not less than four weeks, were included.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two authors independently assessed study eligibility and risk of bias, and extracted data. Statistical analyses were performed using a random effects model. Dichotomous results were expressed as risk ratios (RR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI). For continuous measures mean difference (MD) was used, or the standardised mean difference (SMD) where different scales had been used.

MAIN RESULTS

We included five RCTs enrolling a total of 203 participants. Of these, four studies compared statins with no treatment or placebo, and one compared fibrates with placebo. We found no published studies comparing second-line agents such as ezetimibe, bile acid sequestrants, and nicotinic acid with placebo or no treatment. Our assessment of the risk of bias found that one study was judged overall to be at low risk of bias and the remaining four were judged to be at high risk of bias.Most outcomes were supported by single study data. One study reported significantly increased high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol among participants in the statin arm compared with the no treatment group (MD 5.40 mg/dL, 95% CI 2.31 to 8.49). Another study reported higher serum albumin in the statin group compared to those who received no treatment (MD 0.60 g/dL, 95% CI 0.14 to 1.06). No serious adverse events, such as rhabdomyolysis, were reported, however some minor events occurred. One study reported no significant difference in the number of participants with elevated liver enzymes (RR 3.00, 95% CI 0.13 to 69.52); three studies reported liver enzymes remained within the normal range (no data provided). Four studies reported creatinine phosphokinase (CPK). One study indicated that CPK values fluctuated in both the simvastatin and placebo groups (no data provided); the remaining three studies reported CPK either stayed within the normal range (one study) or there was no significant difference between the lipid lowering agents and placebo.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

None of the included studies reported patient-centred outcomes including all-cause mortality, cardiovascular mortality, or non-fatal myocardial infarction; only single studies reported cholesterol (HDL, LDL and total cholesterol), triglycerides, serum creatinine, blood urea nitrogen, liver enzymes, and protein (serum, urine). High quality RCTs need to be conducted to assess the safety and efficacy of lipid-lowering drugs for people with nephrotic syndrome.

Fluvastatin interferes with hepatitis C virus replication via microtubule bundling and a doublecortin-like kinase-mediated mechanism

Hepatitis C virus (HCV)-induced alterations in lipid metabolism and cellular protein expression contribute to viral pathogenesis. The mechanism of pleiotropic actions of cholesterol-lowering drugs, statins, against HCV and multiple cancers are not well understood. We investigated effects of fluvastatin (FLV) on microtubule-associated and cancer stem cell marker (CSC), doublecortin-like kinase 1 (DCLK1) during HCV-induced hepatocarcinogenesis. HCV replication models, cancer cell lines and normal human hepatocytes were used to investigate the antiviral and antitumor effects of statins. FLV treatment resulted in induction of microtubule bundling, cell-cycle arrest and alterations in cellular DCLK1 distribution in HCV-expressing hepatoma cells. These events adversely affected the survival of liver-derived tumor cells without affecting normal human hepatocytes. FLV downregulated HCV replication in cell culture where the ATP pool and cell viability were not compromised. Pravastatin did not exhibit these effects on HCV replication, microtubules and cancer cells. The levels of miR-122 that regulates liver homeostasis and provides HCV genomic stability remained at steady state whereas DCLK1 mRNA levels were considerably reduced during FLV treatment. We further demonstrated that HCV replication was increased with DCLK1 overexpression. In conclusion, unique effects of FLV on microtubules and their binding partner DCLK1 are likely to contribute to its anti-HCV and antitumor activities in addition to its known inhibitory effects on 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutary-CoA reductase (HMGCR).

The effects of different types of statins on proliferation and migration of HGF-induced Human Umbilical Vein Endothelial Cells (HUVECs)

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Statins are HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors within the framework of cholesterol biosynthesis and used to lower the low-density lipoprotein (LDL). There are other aspects of statins can deploy a protective effect, even without the LDL's lowering. The aim of this study is to investigate the effects of different type of statins on proliferative and migrative behaviors of Hepatocyte Growth Factor (HGF) induced human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Human umbilical vein endothelial cells were isolated and cultured. Groups were designed in order to observe the effects of every individual substance. HUVECs were stimulated with HGF, statins and farnesylpyrophosphat ammonium salt (FPP) or geranylgeranyl-pyrophosphate (GGPP), respectively. Cell proliferations were counted 48 hours after initial stimuli and distances between migration fronts were used in migration analyses.

RESULTS

All types of statins showed significant anti-migrative and anti-proliferative characters. Simvastatin and fluvastatin but not cerivastatin, were able to inhibit the HGF-depending migration and showed a significant effect on the inhibition of the isoprenylation (GGPP). Only simvastatin influenced the HGF-depending migration via inhibiting the isoprenylation process through GGPP. Cerivastatin significantly decreased the proliferation and Fluvastatin significantly enhanced the migration behaviors of HUVECs when they were co-incubated with methyl-8-cyclodextrin (MCD).

CONCLUSIONS

Statins countermand the proproliferative and as well as the promigrative effect of HGF on HUVECs. The mechanisms which provoke this effect are dependent on the type of statin. Direct interactions of statins with lipid rafts play a significant role in the endothelial cell mechanisms.

[Inhibitory effects of fluvastatin on activation of THP-1 cells induced by anti-beta2GPI/beta2GPI complex]

This study is to explore the interventional effects of fluvastatin on anti-beta2GPI/beta2GPI-induced activation in THP-1 mononuclear cells. In vitro, human mononuclear cells THP-1 were treated with fluvastatin, LPS and anti-beta2GPI/beta2GPI, then the TF expression on THP-1 cells was detected by real-time quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) or TF activity was detected by kit. TNF-alpha mRNA and its protein expression were investigated by RT-PCR and ELISA kit. The expression of phospho-NF-kappaB p65 and inhibitory protein of NF-kappaB (IkappaB-alpha) were measured by Western blotting. The results suggested that the expression of TF and TNF-alpha on THP-1 cells was significantly up-regulated with treatment of anti-beta2GPI/beta2GPI complex (100 mg x L(-1)), compared with that of untreated cells (P < 0.05). Fluvastatin (50 mg x L(-1)) could decrease TF (mRNA and activity) expression and the level of TNF-alpha (mRNA and protein) in THP-1 cells with anti-beta2GPI/beta2GPI complex. The expression of TF and TNF-alpha was shown in a concentration-dependent manner. Moreover, anti-beta2GPI/beta2GPI complex could downregulate IkappaB-alpha levels and increase the levels of phospho-NF-kappaB p65. And these effects of anti-beta2GPI/beta2GPI complex could be blocked by fluvastatin. In conclusion, fluvastatin may interfere the expression and regulation of NF-kappaB signal transduction pathway, thereby inhibit the effects of anti-beta2GPI/beta2GPI on activation of THP-1 cells, by decreasing the expression of TF and TNF-alpha.

Improvement of arterial wall characteristics by the low-dose fluvastatin and valsartan combination in type 1 diabetes mellitus patients

We tested whether short-term, low-dose treatment with the fluvastatin and valsartan combination could improve impaired arterial wall characteristics in type 1 diabetes mellitus patients. A total of 44 type 1 diabetes mellitus patients were randomised into the treatment group [n = 22; received a low-dose combination of fluvastatin (10 mg daily) and valsartan (20 mg daily)] and the control group (n = 22; received placebo), both for 30 days. Brachial artery flow-mediated dilation (FMD), pulse wave velocity (PWV) and carotid artery β-stiffness were measured. Significant improvements in FMD (+73.2%), PWV (-7.5%) and β-stiffness (-10.0%) were achieved after 1-month treatment compared to the control group (all p values < 0.001). Three months after therapy discontinuation, important residual improvement in measured parameters was still present. No changes in lipids and blood pressure accompanied the beneficial improvements. We conclude that relatively simple intervention (low-dose, short-term fluvastatin/valsartan combination) produces substantial, long-term improvement of arterial wall characteristics in type 1 diabetes mellitus patients.

Protective effect of HMG CoA reductase inhibitors against running wheel activity induced fatigue, anxiety like behavior, oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction in mice

BACKGROUND

Chronic fatigue stress (CFS) is an important health problem with unknown causes and unsatisfactory prevention strategies, often characterized by long-lasting and debilitating fatigue, myalgia, impairment of neuro-cognitive functions along with other common symptoms. The present study has been designed to explore the protective effect of statins against running wheel activity induced fatigue anxiety.

METHODS

Male albino Laca mice (20-30 g) were subjected to swim stress induced fatigue in a running wheel activity apparatus. Atorvastatin (10, 20 mg/kg, po) and fluvastatin (5, 10 mg/kg, po) were administered daily for 21 days, one hour prior to the animals being subjected to running wheel activity test session of 6 min. Various behavioral tests (running wheel activity, locomotor activity and elevated plus maze test), biochemical parameters (lipid peroxidation, nitrite concentration, glutathione levels and catalase activity) and mitochondrial complex enzyme dysfunctions (complex I, II, III and IV) were subsequently assessed.

RESULTS

Animals exposed to 6 min test session on running wheel for 21 days showed a significant decrease in number of wheel rotations per 6 min indicating fatigue stress like behavior. Treatment with atorvastatin (10 and 20 mg/kg) and fluvastatin (10 mg/kg) for 21 days significantly improved the behavioral alterations [increased number of wheel rotations and locomotor activity, and anxiety like behavior (decreased number of entries and time spent in open arm)], oxidative defence and mitochondrial complex enzyme activities in brain.

CONCLUSION

Present study suggests the protective role of statins against chronic fatigue induced behavioral, biochemical and mitochondrial dysfunctions.

Multilevel analysis of the influence of patients' and general practitioners' characteristics on patented versus multiple-sourced statin prescribing in France

BACKGROUND

The French National Health Insurance and the Ministry of Health have introduced multiple reforms in recent years to increase prescribing efficiency. These include guidelines, academic detailing, financial incentives for the prescribing and dispensing of generics drugs as well as a voluntary pay-for-performance programme. However, the quality and efficiency of prescribing could be enhanced potentially if there was better understanding of the dynamics of prescribing behaviour in France.

OBJECTIVE

To analyse the patient and general practitioner characteristics that influence patented versus multiple-sourced statin prescribing in France.

METHODOLOGY

Statistical analysis was performed on the statin prescribing habits from 341 general practitioners (GPs) that were included in the IMS-Health Permanent Survey on Medical Prescription in France, which was conducted between 2009 and 2010 and involved 14,360 patients. Patient characteristics included their age and gender as well as five medical profiles that were constructed from the diagnoses obtained during consultations. These were (1) disorders of lipoprotein metabolism, (2) heart disease, (3) diabetes, (4) complex profiles and (5) profiles based on other diagnoses. Physician characteristics included their age, gender, solo or group practice, weekly workload and payment scheme.

RESULTS

Patient age had a statistically significant impact on statin prescribing for patients in profile 1 (disorders of lipoprotein metabolism) and profile 3 (complex profiles) with a greater number of patented statins being prescribed for the youngest patients. For instance, patients older than 76 years with a complex profile were prescribed fewer patented statins than patients aged 68-76 years old with the same medical profile (coefficient: -0.225; p = 0.0008). By contrast, regardless of the patient's age, the medical profile did not affect the probability of prescribing a patented statin except in young patients with heart diseases who were prescribed a greater number of patented statins (coefficient: 0.3992; p = 0.0007). Prescribing was also statistically influenced by physician features, e.g., older male physicians were more likely to prescribe patented statins (coefficient: 0.245; p = 0.0417) and GPs practicing in groups were more likely to prescribe multiple sourced statins (coefficient: -0.178; p = 0.0338), which is an important finding of the study. GPs with a lower workload prescribed a greater number of patented statins.

CONCLUSION

There is significant variability in the prescribing of different statins among patient and physician profiles as well as between solo and group practices. Consequently, there are opportunities to target demand-side measures to enhance the prescribing of multiple-sourced statins. Further studies are warranted, in particular in other therapeutic classes, to provide a counter-balance to the considerable marketing activities of pharmaceutical companies.

Role of nitric oxide and CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein transcription factor in statin-dependent induction of heme oxygenase-1 in mouse macrophages

The effect of statins on heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) was compared in 2 murine cell lines, RAW 264.7 and J774A.1 cell lines, and in primary peritoneal macrophages of BALB/c or C57BL/6 mice. The role of endogenous nitric oxide and the type of transcription factors involved were explored. Simvastatin and fluvastatin induced HO-1. Pretreatment of cells with l-NMMA or 1400 W, two different nitric oxide synthase inhibitors, partially blocked statin-dependent induction of HO-1 in RAW 264.7 and J774A.1 but not in primary peritoneal macrophages. Induction of HO-1 by statins was dependent on p-38 MAP kinase activation in all types of macrophages. In RAW 264.7 cells, both statins increased the activity of reporter genes linked to the proximal 1.3 kbp promoter of HO-1 (EC50 of 1.4±0.3 µM for simvastatin and 0.6±0.03 µM for fluvastatin). This effect was significantly blocked by 1400 W (80±5.2% inhibition, p<0.02) and mevalonate, the direct metabolite of HMGCoA reductase. Gel retardation experiments implicated C/EBPβ, AP-1 but not USF, for both RAW 264.7 and primary peritoneal macrophages of C57BL/6 mice. Collectively we showed a differential role of endogenous nitric oxide between macrophage cell lines and primary macrophages and an effect of statins in the protection against inflammation by increasing HO-1 expression.

Selective role of mevalonate pathway in regulating perforin but not FasL and TNFalpha release in human Natural Killer cells

We have analyzed the effects of fluvastatin, an inhibitor of the enzyme 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase involved in mevalonate synthesis, on human NK cell-mediated anti-tumor cytolysis. Fluvastatin inhibited the activation of the small guanosin triphosphate binding protein (GTP) RhoA and the consequent actin redistribution induced by ligation of LFA1 involved in NK-tumor target cell adhesion. Also, fluvastatin reduced ganglioside M1 rafts formation triggered through the engagement of NK cell activating receptors as FcγRIIIA (CD16), NKG2D and DNAM1. Cytolysis of tumor targets was inhibited up to 90% when NK cells were cultured with fluvastatin by affecting i) receptor-mediated increase of the intracellular free calcium concentration, ii) activation of akt1/PKB and iii) perforin and granzyme release. Fluvastatin displayed a stronger inhibiting effect on NKG2D, DNAM1, 2B4, NKp30, NKp44 and NKp46 than on CD16-mediated NK cell triggering. This was in line with the impairment of surface expression of all these receptors but not of CD16. Remarkably, fluvastatin did not affect the expression of the inhibiting receptors CD94, KIR2D and LAIR1. FasL release elicited by either NK-tumor cell interaction or CD16 or NKG2D engagement, as well as FasL-mediated killing, were not sensitive to fluvastatin. Moreover, TNFα secretion triggered in NK cells upon incubation with tumor target cells or engagement of NKG2D receptor was not impaired in fluvastatin-treated NK cells. Likewise, antibody dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) triggered through FcγRIIIA engagement with the humanized monoclonal antibody rituximab or trastuzumab was only marginally affected in fluvastatin-treated NK cells. Altogether these findings suggest that interference with mevalonate synthesis impairs activation and assembly of cytoskeleton, degranulation and cytotoxic effect of perforins and granzyme but not FasL- and TNFα-mediated cytotoxicity.

Effect of Clopidogrel on the Steady-State Pharmacokinetics of Fluvastatin

This study assessed the effects of clopidogrel, a CYP 2C9 inhibitor, on fluvastatin pharmacokinetics in healthy volunteers. The effects of combined clopidogrel-fluvastatin treatment on platelet function were also determined. Subjects received 80 mg fluvastatin (extended-release formulation) alone on days 1 through 9, 80 mg fluvastatin and 300 mg clopidogrel (loading dose) on day 10, and 80 mg fluvastatin and 75 mg clopidogrel (maintenance dose) on days 11 through 19. Compared to treatment with fluvastatin alone, fluvastatin AUC was similar and C(max) increased marginally (15.7%) with concomitant treatment with clopidogrel. Platelet aggregation was inhibited by clopidogrel by 33% two hours after the loading dose and by 47% at steady state, similar to that reported for clopidogrel alone treatment. The authors conclude that coadministration of fluvastatin and clopidogrel has no clinically relevant effect on fluvastatin pharmacokinetics or on platelet inhibition by clopidogrel.

Efficacy and mechanism of angiotensin II receptor blocker treatment in experimental abdominal aortic aneurysms

Background

Despite the importance of the renin-angiotensin (Ang) system in abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) pathogenesis, strategies targeting this system to prevent clinical aneurysm progression remain controversial and unproven. We compared the relative efficacy of two Ang II type 1 receptor blockers, telmisartan and irbesartan, in limiting experimental AAAs in distinct mouse models of aneurysm disease.

Methodology/Principal Findings

AAAs were induced using either 1) Ang II subcutaneous infusion (1000 ng/kg/min) for 28 days in male ApoE^−/− mice, or 2) transient intra-aortic porcine pancreatic elastase infusion in male C57BL/6 mice. One week prior to AAA creation, mice started to daily receive irbesartan (50 mg/kg), telmisartan (10 mg/kg), fluvastatin (40 mg/kg), bosentan (100 mg/kg), doxycycline (100 mg/kg) or vehicle alone. Efficacy was determined via serial in vivo aortic diameter measurements, histopathology and gene expression analysis at sacrifice. Aortic aneurysms developed in 67% of Ang II-infused ApoE^−/− mice fed with standard chow and water alone (n = 15), and 40% died of rupture. Strikingly, no telmisartan-treated mouse developed an AAA (n = 14). Both telmisartan and irbesartan limited aneurysm enlargement, medial elastolysis, smooth muscle attenuation, macrophage infiltration, adventitial neocapillary formation, and the expression of proteinases and proinflammatory mediators. Doxycycline, fluvastatin and bosentan did not influence aneurysm progression. Telmisartan was also highly effective in intra-aortic porcine pancreatic elastase infusion-induced AAAs, a second AAA model that did not require exogenous Ang II infusion.

Conclusion/Significance

Telmisartan suppresses experimental aneurysms in a model-independent manner and may prove valuable in limiting clinical disease progression.

[Use of SPECT-scanning of the heart in estimating of influence of drugs of the background therapy of ischemic heart disease on myocardial perfusion]

Some new facts about the influence of different groups of drugs on myocardial perfusion were educed during the research. Educed facts conduce representation extension by matching the optimal therapy of ischemic heart disease. With the help of SPECT-scanning were educed myocardial blood flow, areas of maximal hypoperfusion and its influence on time pattern and redistribution of myocardial blood flow in patients receiving disease-modifying agents and statins. Some regularities of change of myocardial blood flow depending on applied group of drugs and peculiarities of influence of myocardial perfusion in certain time interval were revealed. Criteria with prognostic significance in prospective individual effectiveness of anti-ischemic drugs were pointed out. New approach, based on choice of anti-ischemic therapy depending on extent of influence on myocardial perfusion and also individual clinical and functional traits of patients, was applied.