Eotaxin: from an eosinophilic chemokine to a major regulator of allergic reactions

Age-related changes of inflammatory cytokines in nasal secretion of patients with chronic rhinosinusitis

BACKGROUND

Patient-specific factors are highly involved in chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS) 's course and treatment response. However, the effects of aging on the pathophysiology of CRS remain unclear. This study aimed to evaluate the age-related changes in nasal secretion inflammatory characteristics in patients with CRS.

METHODS

The levels of 12 inflammatory cytokines in nasal mucus samples obtained from 31 patients diagnosed with CRS were measured via enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. The associations between age and inflammatory cytokine levels were determined by Spearman correlation coefficient analysis. In addition, the relationships between inflammatory markers and demographic evaluation variables such as the Sino-Nasal Outcome Test-22 (SNOT-22) score and disease duration were examined to determine whether the levels of inflammatory cytokines influence the assessment of disease severity in CRS patients.

RESULTS

Compared to younger patients with CRS, aged CRS patients exhibited a significant reduction in IL-6 levels (p < 0.01), while levels of IL-10 (p < 0.01), IL-13 (p < 0.01), and Eotaxin (p < 0.05) were markedly elevated. Notably, the Eotaxin level demonstrated a significant decline with age among CRS patients younger than 60 years old (r = -0.79, p < 0.001). Furthermore, the increased mucus TNF-α level was significantly correlated with the prolongation of the disease course in aged CRS patients, with a clinically relevant difference of 7.78 months (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

We have revealed age-specific changes in the inflammatory characteristics of CRS patients, providing new and interesting findings for the development of personalized treatment methods tailored to this high-risk population.

Association of +67 G/A and -426 T/C Polymorphism in Eotaxin (CCL11) Gene with Psoriasis Phenotypes

Background/Objectives: Several gene targets were identified for psoriasis. Some are currently being explored as potential therapeutic targets, including CCL11. Our task was to prove a possible association of single-nucleotide polymorphisms +67 G/A and -426 T/C in the eotaxin gene (CCL11, 17q 21.3) with the development and clinical aspects of psoriasis as an immune-based dermatological disease and evaluate its relationship to potential comorbidities. Material and Methods: In total, 460 patients with psoriasis were included in the case-control and genotype-phenotype study together with 167 control persons of similar age and sex distributions without a personal and/or family history of chronic disease of the skin. Two eotaxin gene polymorphisms were detected from isolated DNA via standard PCR, restriction analysis methods, and horizontal electrophoresis. Results: No significant case-control differences in the frequency of the CCL11 genotype in both polymorphisms were observed. In polymorphism +67 G/A, a significant increase in the AA genotype in patients with psoriasis guttata compared to plaque psoriasis was found (p = 0.006). A significant association of the A allele in psoriatic patients with a personal history of allergy was found (p = 0.02). The A alle was also significantly associated with a family history of psoriasis (p = 0.00008). In men, a higher risk of a delayed start of psoriasis (later than 40 years) associated with the T allele of -426 T/C polymorphism (p = 0.0007) was found. When double genotypes of both polymorphisms were evaluated, we observed significant differences in double genotype distribution between men with and without a family history of allergy (Pdg = 0.0005) and between those with and without affected siblings (Pdg = 0.03). In women with psoriasis, a higher risk of the TT genotype of -426 T/C polymorphism in patients with a personal history of diabetes (p = 0.001) as well as in patients with both a personal history of cardiovascular disease and diabetes (p = 0.00005) was proved. When double genotypes of both polymorphisms were evaluated, the significance of double genotype difference between those with and without personal history of diabetes was very high (Pdg = 0.0002). Similarly, the significance of the double genotype difference between those with and without personal history of cardiovascular diseases and diabetes was very high (Pdg = 0.000001). Conclusions: CCL11 is considered one of the basic chemokines responsible for the origin and development of immune-based reactions. Based on our results, we suggest that the +67 G/A CCL11 polymorphism should be considered as a gene modulator of psoriasis in specific subgroups of patients.

Association of Vitamin D Status with Immune Markers in a Cohort of Healthy Adults

BACKGROUND

Immune function is affected by vitamin D status, but the optimal serum 25-hydroxy vitamin D [25(OH)D] concentration for immune function is not known.

OBJECTIVES

We hypothesized that 25(OH)D would be associated with markers of inflammation and immune activation.

METHODS

We identified associations between 25(OH)D and immune markers from 361 healthy adults using polynomial regression. Linear regression was used to define the slope (β) of significant linear associations, and piecewise regression identified inflection points (IPs) for curvilinear associations with P < 0.05. IPs with a slope difference (SD) P < 0.05 before and after were significant.

RESULTS

25(OH)D had linear, negative associations with interleukin (IL)-6 (β: -0.126; P = 0.009) and macrophage-derived chemokine (MDC) (β: -0.108; P = 0.04) and a linear, positive association with matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-1 (β: 0.108; P = 0.04). Among the significant curvilinear associations, 2 showed negative associations below but positive associations above an IP with nearly significant SD P values, including percentage of effector-memory CD8 T cells (IP: 56.2 nmol/L; SD P = 0.067) and platelet concentration (IP: 38.9 nmol/L; SD P = 0.058). The opposite associations, positive below and negative above an IP, were seen for eotaxin (IP: 49.5 nmol/L; SD P = 0.049); interferon (IFN)-γ-induced protein-10 (IP-10) (IP: 71.8 nmol/L; SD P = 0.02); percentage of CD4 T cells expressing programmed cell death protein (PD)-1 (IP: 71.2 nmol/L; SD P = 0.01); percentage of Tregs expressing human leukocyte antigen, DR isotype (HLA-DR) (IP: 67.5 nmol/L; SD P < 0.0001); percentage of memory Tregs (IP: 68.8 nmol/L; SD P = 0.002); and percentage of memory Tregs expressing HLA-DR (IP: 68.8 nmol/L; SD P = 0.0008).

CONCLUSIONS

These findings are consistent with low vitamin D status allowing and higher vitamin D status dampening inflammation and immune activation. IP analysis identified possible thresholds for vitamin D effects on immune function. Two of 3 IPs at ∼50 nmol/L show higher inflammation below this concentration, suggesting 50 nmol/L as a minimum target for dampening inflammation. IPs at ∼70 nmol/L identify a threshold for CD4 T-cell activity, including Treg activation and IFN-γ-driven production of the T-cell chemokine IP-10, suggesting an optimal concentration for regulating adaptive immunity. This study was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT02367287.

Basophil-Derived IL-4 and IL-13 Protect Intestinal Barrier Integrity and Control Bacterial Translocation during Malaria

Our previous work demonstrated that basophils regulate a suite of malaria phenotypes, including intestinal mastocytosis and permeability, the immune response to infection, gametocytemia, and parasite transmission to the malaria mosquito Anopheles stephensi. Given that activated basophils are primary sources of the regulatory cytokines IL-4 and IL-13, we sought to examine the contributions of these mediators to basophil-dependent phenotypes in malaria. We generated mice with basophils depleted for IL-4 and IL-13 (baso IL-4/IL-13 (-)) and genotype controls (baso IL-4/IL-13 (+)) by crossing mcpt8-Cre and Il4/Il13fl/fl mice and infected them with Plasmodium yoelii yoelii 17XNL. Conditional deletion was associated with ileal mastocytosis and mast cell (MC) activation, increased intestinal permeability, and increased bacterial 16S levels in blood, but it had no effect on neutrophil activation, parasitemia, or transmission to A. stephensi. Increased intestinal permeability in baso IL-4/IL-13 (-) mice was correlated with elevated plasma eotaxin (CCL11), a potent eosinophil chemoattractant, and increased ileal MCs, proinflammatory IL-17A, and the chemokines MIP-1α (CCL3) and MIP-1β (CCL4). Blood bacterial 16S copies were positively but weakly correlated with plasma proinflammatory cytokines IFN-γ and IL-12p40, suggesting that baso IL-4/IL-13 (-) mice failed to control bacterial translocation into the blood during malaria infection. These observations suggest that basophil-derived IL-4 and IL-13 do not contribute to basophil-dependent regulation of parasite transmission, but these cytokines do orchestrate protection of intestinal barrier integrity after P. yoelii infection. Specifically, basophil-dependent IL-4/IL-13 control MC activation and prevent infection-induced intestinal barrier damage and bacteremia, perhaps via regulation of eosinophils, macrophages, and Th17-mediated inflammation.

Decreased IL-4 is the risk factor of depression in patients with Takayasu arteritis

Objective

Depression is a common complication in Takayasu arteritis (TA). Disorders of the immune system play an important role in both diseases. This study aimed to clarify the feature of cytokines in TA patients with depression.

Methods

In this cross-sectional study, serum cytokines were tested in 40 TA patients and 11 healthy controls using the Bio-Plex Magpix System (Bio-Rad®). The state of depression was measured by the Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale (SDS) in TA patients. Logistic regression analysis was performed to find the risk factors of depression in patients with TA.

Results

TA patients with depression had higher ESR, hsCRP, NIH, and ITAS.A than patients without depression (16.00 [10.00, 58.50]mm/H vs. 7.50 [4.50, 17.75]mm/H, p = 0.013; 7.60 [2.32, 46.52]mg/L vs. 0.71 [0.32, 4.37]mg/L, p = 0.001; 2.00 [2.00, 3.00] vs. 1.00 [0.00, 2.00], p = 0.007; 7.00 [4.00, 9.50] vs. 1.50 [0.00, 5.75], p = 0.012, respectively). Additionally, the lower age of onset and levels of IL-4, IL-13, eotaxin, and IP-10 were observed in the depressed group compared with the non-depressed (23.50 [19.25, 32.50]pg./ml vs. 37.00 [23.25, 42.50]pg./ml, p = 0.017; 2.80 [2.17, 3.18]pg./ml vs. 3.51 [3.22, 4.66]pg./ml, p < 0.001; 0.66 [0.60, 1.12]pg./ml vs. 1.04 [0.82, 1.25]pg./ml, p = 0.008; 46.48 [37.06, 61.75]pg./ml vs. 69.14 [59.30, 92.80]pg./ml, p = 0.001; 184.50 [138.23, 257.25]pg./ml vs. 322.32 [241.98, 412.60]pg./ml, p = 0.005, respectively). The lower level of IL-4 and age of onset were the independent risk factors for depression in TA patients (OR [95% CI] 0.124 [0.018, 0.827], p = 0.031; 0.870 [0.765, 0.990], p = 0.035, respectively).

Conclusion

Our data suggested that lower cytokine levels, especially IL-4, might be involved in the development of TA patients with depression. Clinicians can probably use serum IL-4 level testing as a potential indicator of depression in TA.

Multiplex Analysis of Cytokines and Chemokines in Persons Aging With or Without HIV

People with HIV (PWH) on combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) are living longer lives due to modern cART advances and increased routine medical care. The full landscape of aging with HIV is unclear; given that HIV emerged relatively recently in human history and initially had a high mortality rate, there has not been a substantially aged population to evaluate. In this study, we set out to perform high-throughput plasma analyte profiling by multiplex analysis, focusing on various T helper (Th)-related cytokines, chemokines, and proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines. The primary goals being to provide reference ranges of these analytes for aging PWH cohorts, as well as testing the utility of high-throughput multiplex plasma assays. The cohort used in this study comprised age-matched healthy donors (32.6-73.5 years of age), PWH on cART (26.7-60.2 years of age), and viremic PWH (27.5-59.4 years of age). The patients in each group were then stratified across the age span to examine age-related impacts of these plasma biomarkers. Our results largely indicate feasibility of plasma analyte monitoring by multiplex and demonstrate a high degree of person-to-person variability regardless of age and HIV status. Nonetheless, we find multiple associations with age, duration of known infection, and viral load, all of which appear to be driven by either prolonged HIV disease progression or long-term use of cART.

Multiplex analysis of cytokines and chemokines in persons aging with or without HIV

People with HIV (PWH) on combined antiretroviral therapy (cART) are living longer lives due to modern cART advances and increased routine medical care. The full landscape of aging with HIV is unclear; given that HIV emerged relatively recently in human history and initially had a high mortality rate, there has not been a substantially aged population to evaluate. In the present study, we set out to perform high throughput plasma analyte profiling by multiplex analysis, focusing on various T helper (Th)-related cytokines, chemokines, and pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines. The primary goals being to provide reference ranges of these analytes for aging PWH cohorts, as well as testing the utility of high throughput multiplex plasma assays. The cohort used in this study was comprised of age-matched healthy donors (aged 32.6-73.5), PWH on cART (aged 26.7-60.2), and viremic PWH (aged 27.5-59.4). The patients in each group were then stratified across the age span to examine age-related impacts of these plasma biomarkers. Our results largely indicate feasibility of plasma analyte monitoring by multiplex and demonstrate a high degree of person-to-person variability regardless of age and HIV status. Nonetheless, we find multiple associations with age, duration of known infection, and viral load, all of which appear to be driven by either prolonged HIV disease progression or long-term use of cART.

Protective effects of inhalation of essential oils from Mentha piperita leaf on tight junctions and inflammation in allergic rhinitis

Allergic rhinitis is one of the most common diseases, which is caused by IgE-mediated reactions to inhaled allergens. Essential oils from the Mentha piperita leaf (EOM) are known to be effective for various diseases, such as respiratory diseases. However, the effect of inhalation of EOM on tight junctions and inflammation related to allergic rhinitis is not yet known. The purpose of this research was to explain the effects of the inhalation of EOM on tight junctions and inflammation of allergic rhinitis through network pharmacology and an experimental study. For that purpose, a pharmacology network analysis was conducted comprising major components of EOM. Based on the network pharmacology prediction results, we evaluated the effect of EOM on histological changes in mice with ovalbumin and PM10-induced allergic rhinitis. Allergic symptoms, infiltration of inflammatory cells, and regulation of ZO-1 were investigated in mice with allergic rhinitis. Other allergic parameters were also analyzed by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction and western blot in nasal epithelial cells. In the network analysis, the effects of EOM were closely related to tight junctions and inflammation in allergic rhinitis. Consistent with the results from the network analysis, EOM significantly decreased epithelial thickness, mast cell degranulation, goblet cell secretion, and the infiltration of inflammatory cells in nasal tissue. EOM also regulated the MAPK-NF-κB signaling pathway, which was related to tight junctions in nasal epithelial cells. This research confirmed that inhalation of EOM effectively restores tight junctions and suppresses inflammation in the allergic rhinitis model. These results reveal that EOM has a therapeutic mechanism to treat allergic rhinitis.

Elevated serum periostin levels among arsenic-exposed individuals and their associations with the features of asthma

Chronic exposure to arsenic via drinking water is a serious public health issue in many countries. Arsenic causes not only cancers but also non-malignant diseases, including asthma. We have previously reported that arsenic exposure increases the risk of Th2-mediated allergic asthma. The serum level of periostin, an extracellular matrix protein activated by Th2 cytokines, is recognized as a biomarker for Th2-mediated eosinophilic asthma and contributes to enhanced airway inflammation and remodeling. However, the role of periostin in arsenic-related asthma is unknown. Therefore, this study was designed to explore the associations of serum periostin levels with arsenic exposure and the features of asthma in 442 individuals in Bangladesh who participated in our previous study. Exposure levels of the participants were determined by measuring the arsenic concentrations in drinking water, hair, and nails through inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy. Periostin levels in serum were assessed by immunoassay. In this study, we found that serum periostin levels of the participants were increased with increasing exposure to arsenic. Notably, even the participants with 10.1-50 μg/L arsenic in drinking water had significantly higher levels of periostin than participants with <10 μg/L of water arsenic. Elevated serum periostin levels were positively associated with serum levels of Th2 mediators, such as interleukin (IL)-4, IL-5, IL-13, and eotaxin. Each log increase in periostin levels was associated with approximately eight- and three-fold increases in the odds ratios (ORs) for reversible airway obstruction (RAO) and asthma symptoms, respectively. Additionally, causal mediation analyses revealed that arsenic exposure metrics had both direct and indirect (periostin-mediated) effects on the risk of RAO and asthma symptoms. Thus, the results suggested that periostin may be involved in the arsenic-related pathogenesis of Th2-mediated asthma. The elevated serum periostin levels may predict the greater risk of asthma among the people living in arsenic-endemic areas.

Rosa laevigata Attenuates Allergic Asthma Exacerbated by Water-Soluble PM by Downregulating the MAPK Pathway

Exposure to water-soluble particulate matter (WPM) containing heavy metals can cause severe inflammatory responses and trigger and exacerbate the onset of asthma. As a follow-up study of Rosa laevigata (RL), this study analyzed the therapeutic effects and mechanisms of oral and intratracheal administration of RL and demonstrated anti-inflammatory effects in asthma models. Worse T-helper cell type 2 (Th2)-related inflammatory and pro-inflammatory responses were observed after simultaneous challenge with ovalbumin (OVA) and WPM. To establish a model of asthma exacerbated by WPM, BALB/c mice were sensitized with OVA + aluminum hydroxide and challenged with OVA + WPM. To confirm the therapeutic efficacy of RL, it was administered both orally and intratracheally. Histopathological analysis of H&amp;E staining confirmed that oral and intratracheal administration of RL alleviated inflammatory cell infiltration in the airways aggravated by OVA + WPM. RL effectively reduced the number of inflammatory cells obtained from the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. In addition, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and multiplex analysis of serum samples confirmed that the administration of RL reduced the levels of immuno-globulin E (IgE), Th2-related cytokines, and pro-inflammatory cytokines. Furthermore, real-time PCR analysis of lung tissue samples confirmed that the release of MUC5AC (Mucin 5AC, Oligomeric Mucus/Gel-Forming) and pro-inflammatory cytokines was reduced by RL, and western blotting confirmed that the administration of RL reduced the phosphorylation of ERK and p38 in the MAPK pathway. In conclusion, oral and intratracheal administration of RL appears to have an anti-asthmatic effect by reducing the secretion of Th2-related cytokines, pro-inflammatory cytokines, and IgE by downregulating the MAPK pathway. Thus, RL has further demonstrated potential for development as an oral and inhaled therapeutic for asthma symptoms exacerbated by WPM exposure.

Biomarkers in the diagnosis of pancreatic cancer: Are we closer to finding the golden ticket?

Pancreatic cancer (PC) is a leading cause of cancer related mortality on a global scale. The disease itself is associated with a dismal prognosis, partly due to its silent nature resulting in patients presenting with advanced disease at the time of diagnosis. To combat this, there has been an explosion in the last decade of potential candidate biomarkers in the research setting in the hope that a diagnostic biomarker may provide a glimmer of hope in what is otherwise quite a substantial clinical dilemma. Currently, serum carbohydrate antigen 19-9 is utilized in the diagnostic work-up of patients diagnosed with PC however this biomarker lacks the sensitivity and specificity associated with a gold-standard marker. In the search for a biomarker that is both sensitive and specific for the diagnosis of PC, there has been a paradigm shift towards a focus on liquid biopsy and the use of diagnostic panels which has subsequently proved to have efficacy in the diagnosis of PC. Currently, promising developments in the field of early detection on PC using diagnostic biomarkers include the detection of microRNA (miRNA) in serum and circulating tumour cells. Both these modalities, although in their infancy and yet to be widely accepted into routine clinical practice, possess merit in the early detection of PC. We reviewed over 300 biomarkers with the aim to provide an in-depth summary of the current state-of-play regarding diagnostic biomarkers in PC (serum, urinary, salivary, faecal, pancreatic juice and biliary fluid).

Catalpol exerts antiallergic effects in IgE/ovalbumin-activated mast cells and a murine model of ovalbumin-induced allergic asthma

Immunoglobulin E (IgE) and mast cells play important roles in the pathogenesis of allergic asthma. Catalpol, an iridoid glycoside, exerts many biological functions including anti-inflammatory activities. Herein, we investigated catalpol to determine both its antiallergic effects on IgE/ovalbumin (OVA)-stimulated mouse bone marrow-derived mast cells and its therapeutic actions in murine allergic asthma. We found that catalpol dramatically suppressed IgE/OVA-induced mast cell degranulation. Meanwhile, 5 ~ 100 μM of catalpol neither affected the expression level of the high-affinity receptor of IgE (FcεRI) by mast cells nor induced mast cell apoptosis. In addition, mRNA expression levels of inflammatory enzymes including cyclooxygenase (COX)-1, COX-2, and 5-lipoxygenase were downregulated. Administration of catalpol also suppressed production of prostaglandin D₂ (PGD₂), interleukin (IL)-6, and IL-13, while not affecting tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α production. Further, catalpol pretreatment significantly attenuated the FcεRI-mediated Akt signaling pathway. In mice with IgE/OVA-induced asthma, oral administration of catalpol remarkably suppressed the production of OVA-specific IgE, the development of airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR), and the infiltration of eosinophils and neutrophils into the lungs. Histological studies demonstrated that catalpol substantially inhibited the recruitment of mast cells and increased mucus production in lung tissues. Catalpol-treated mice had significantly lower levels of helper T cell type 2 (Th2) cytokines (IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13), PGD₂, eotaxin-1, and C-X-C chemokine ligand-1 (CXCL1) in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) than did the allergic group. Collectively, these results indicated that the suppressive effects of catalpol on degranulation and mediator generation by mast cells were beneficial in treating allergic asthma.

IL-10, IL-13, Eotaxin and IL-10/IL-6 ratio distinguish breast implant-associated anaplastic large-cell lymphoma from all types of benign late seromas

Breast implant-associated anaplastic large-cell lymphoma (BI-ALCL) is an uncommon peripheral T cell lymphoma usually presenting as a delayed peri-implant effusion. Chronic inflammation elicited by the implant has been implicated in its pathogenesis. Infection or implant rupture may also be responsible for late seromas. Cytomorphological examination coupled with CD30 immunostaining and eventual T-cell clonality assessment are essential for BI-ALCL diagnosis. However, some benign effusions may also contain an oligo/monoclonal expansion of CD30 + cells that can make the diagnosis challenging. Since cytokines are key mediators of inflammation, we applied a multiplexed immuno-based assay to BI-ALCL seromas and to different types of reactive seromas to look for a potential diagnostic BI-ALCL-associated cytokine profile. We found that BI-ALCL is characterized by a Th2-type cytokine milieu associated with significant high levels of IL-10, IL-13 and Eotaxin which discriminate BI-ALCL from all types of reactive seroma. Moreover, we found a cutoff of IL10/IL-6 ratio of 0.104 is associated with specificity of 100% and sensitivity of 83% in recognizing BI-ALCL effusions. This study identifies promising biomarkers for initial screening of late seromas that can facilitate early diagnosis of BI-ALCL.

T helper 2-driven immune dysfunction in chronic arsenic-exposed individuals and its link to the features of allergic asthma

Limited information is available regarding the effects of arsenic exposure on immune function. We have recently reported that chronic exposure to As was associated asthma, as determined by spirometry and respiratory symptoms. Because T helper 2 (Th2)-driven immune responses are implicated in the pathogenesis of allergic diseases, including asthma, we studied the associations of serum Th1 and Th2 mediators with the As exposure markers and the features of asthma among individuals exposed to As. A total of 553 blood samples were selected from the same study subjects recruited in our previous asthma study. Serum levels of Th1 and Th2 cytokines were analyzed by immunoassay. Subjects' arsenic exposure levels (drinking water, hair and nail arsenic concentrations) were determined by inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy. Arsenic exposure levels of the subjects showed significant positive associations with serum Th2-mediators- interleukin (IL)-4, IL-5, IL-13, and eotaxin without any significant changes in Th1 mediators- interferon-γ and tumor necrosis factor-α. The ratios of Th2 to Th1 mediators were significantly increased with increasing exposure to As. Notably, most of the Th2 mediators were positively associated with serum levels of total immunoglobulin E and eotaxin. The serum levels of Th2 mediators were significantly higher in the subjects with asthma than those without asthma. The results of our study suggest that the exacerbated Th2-driven immune responses are involved in the increased susceptibility to allergic asthma among individuals chronically exposed to As.

Berberine induces anti-atopic dermatitis effects through the downregulation of cutaneous EIF3F and MALT1 in NC/Nga mice with atopy-like dermatitis

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a chronic inflammatory skin disease with severe pruritus. Berberine, a naturally occurring isoquinoline alkaloid, has anti-inflammatory effects. This study investigated the effects and molecular mechanisms of berberine on AD-like symptoms in mice. In this study, NC/Nga mice with atopy-like dermatitis (dermatitis mice), fibroblast and mast cells were used. In dermatitis mice, intermittent oral administrations of berberine 3 times a week for 12 days inhibited skin symptom, itching, cutaneous infiltration of eosinophils and mast cells, and the expression of cutaneous eotaxin, macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) and IL-4. Berberine also attenuated IL-4/MIF-induced eotaxin in fibroblasts and allergen-induced MIF and IL-4 in mast cells. In mast cells, the GeneChip® microarray showed that antigen increased the expression of EIF3F and MALT1, inhibited by berberine. The siRNAs for them inhibited the expression of MIF and IL-4 in antigen-stimulated mast cells. These results suggest that berberine improves AD-like symptoms through the inhibition of the eotaxin and pro-inflammatory cytokine expression and the related inflammatory cell recruitment. It is also suggested that the downregulation of EIF3F and MALT1 by berberine is involved in suppressing the cytokine expression. Taken together, berberine or berberine-containing crude drugs are expected to contribute to the improvement of AD symptoms.

Cytokine signatures of Plasmodium vivax infection during pregnancy and delivery outcomes

Plasmodium vivax malaria is a neglected disease, particularly during pregnancy. Severe vivax malaria is associated with inflammatory responses but in pregnancy immune alterations make it uncertain as to what cytokine signatures predominate, and how the type and quantity of blood immune mediators influence delivery outcomes. We measured the plasma concentrations of a set of thirty-one biomarkers, comprising cytokines, chemokines and growth factors, in 987 plasma samples from a cohort of 572 pregnant women from five malaria-endemic tropical countries and related these concentrations to delivery outcomes (birth weight and hemoglobin levels) and malaria infection. Samples were collected at recruitment (first antenatal visit) and at delivery (periphery, cord and placenta). At recruitment, we found that P. vivax–infected pregnant women had higher plasma concentrations of proinflammatory (IL-6, IL-1β, CCL4, CCL2, CXCL10) and T_H1-related cytokines (mainly IL-12) than uninfected women. This biomarker signature was essentially lost at delivery and was not associated with birth weight nor hemoglobin levels. Antiinflammatory cytokines (IL-10) were positively associated with infection and poor delivery outcomes. CCL11 was the only biomarker to show a negative association with P. vivax infection and its concentration at recruitment was positively associated with hemoglobin levels at delivery. Birth weight was negatively associated with peripheral IL-4 levels at delivery. Our multi-biomarker multicenter study is the first comprehensive one to characterize the immunological signature of P. vivax infection in pregnancy thus far. In conclusion, data show that while T_H1 and pro-inflammatory responses are dominant during P. vivax infection in pregnancy, antiinflammatory cytokines may compensate excessive inflammation avoiding poor delivery outcomes, and skewness toward a T_H2 response may trigger worse delivery outcomes. CCL11, a chemokine largely neglected in the field of malaria, emerges as an important marker of exposure or mediator in this condition.

Cytokine and growth factor plasma concentrations were evaluated in women from five countries endemic for malaria vivax, at different moments and blood compartments during pregnancy. P. vivax infection during pregnancy was associated with a pro-inflammatory and T_H1 response, together with an antiinflammatory response. Nevertheless, at delivery most associations between cytokines and infection were lost. Of note, CCL11/eotaxin, a chemokine not generally analyzed in malaria studies, presented a lower concentration in P. vivax-infected women and a protective association with hemoglobin levels at delivery. Moreover, IL-4 levels had a negative association with birth weight. Data suggest that a compensated inflammatory/antiinflammatory response in P. vivax infection during pregnancy might avoid poor delivery outcomes, while a predominance of T_H2 responses may be detrimental for birth weight. Further research is warranted to unravel the role of CCL11 in malaria infection or exposure.

Increased inflammation in BA21 brain tissue from African Americans with Alzheimer's disease

Chronic neuroinflammation is strongly associated with AD and altered peripheral and central levels of chemokines and cytokines have been frequently described in those with AD. Given the increasing evidence of ethnicity-related differences in AD, it was of interest to determine if those altered chemokine and cytokine levels are ethnicity-related. Because African Americans exhibit a higher incidence of AD and increased symptom severity, we explored chemokine and cytokine concentrations in post-mortem brain tissue from the BA21 region of African Americans and Caucasians with AD using multiplex assays. IL-1β, MIG, TRAIL, and FADD levels were significantly increased in African Americans while levels of IL-3 and IL-8 were significantly decreased. Those effects did not interact with gender; however, overall levels of CCL25, CCL26 and CX3CL1 were significantly decreased in women. The NLRP3 inflammasome is thought to be critically involved in AD. Increased activation of this inflammasome in African Americans is consistent with the current results.

Severe Eosinophilic Asthma

Asthma is a heterogeneous disease with varying severity. Severe asthma is a subject of constant research because it greatly affects patients’ quality of life, and patients with severe asthma experience symptoms, exacerbations, and medication side effects. Eosinophils, although at first considered insignificant, were later specifically associated with features of the ongoing inflammatory process in asthma, particularly in the severe case. In this review, we discuss new insights into the pathogenesis of severe asthma related to eosinophilic inflammation and the pivotal role of cytokines in a spectrum that is usually referred to as “T2-high inflammation” that accounts for almost half of patients with severe asthma. Recent literature is summarized as to the role of eosinophils in asthmatic inflammation, airway remodeling, and airway hypersensitivity. Major advances in the management of severe asthma occurred the past few years due to the new targeted biological therapies. Novel biologics that are already widely used in severe eosinophilic asthma are discussed, focusing on the choice of the right treatment for the right patient. These monoclonal antibodies primarily led to a significant reduction of asthma exacerbations, as well as improvement of lung function and patient quality of life.

Revisiting the Role of Eotaxin-1/CCL11 in Psychiatric Disorders

Eotaxin-1/CCL11 is a chemokine originally implicated in the selective recruitment of eosinophils into inflammatory sites during allergic reactions, being thoroughly investigated in asthma, allergic rhinitis, and other eosinophil-related conditions. Eotaxin-1/CCL11 is also involved with a skewed immune response toward a type-2 (Th2) profile. In addition to its role in immune response, recent studies have shown that eotaxin-1/CCL11 is associated with aging, neurogenesis and neurodegeneration, being able to influence neural progenitor cells, and microglia. Increased circulating levels of eotaxin-1/CCL11 have been described in major psychiatric disorders (schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, major depression), sometimes correlating with the severity of psychopathological and cognitive parameters. As similar findings have been reported in neurodegenerative conditions such as Alzheimer's disease, it has been hypothesized that mechanisms involving eotaxin-1/CCL11 signaling may underlie the "accelerated aging" profile commonly linked to psychiatric disorders. Future studies must determine whether eotaxin-1/CCL11 can be regarded as a prognostic biomarker and/or as therapeutic target for resistant/progressive cases.

An Overlook to the Characteristics and Roles Played by Eotaxin Network in the Pathophysiology of Food Allergies: Allergic Asthma and Atopic Dermatitis

Investigations revealed substantial parts accomplished by chemokines specifically eotaxins and their specific receptors. They are functionally involved in the modulation of the pathologic state of tissue inflammation which is as a result of allergic reactions. Chemokines as small proteins with approximately 8-10 kDa molecular weight are considered and fit in the bigger family of cytokines, containing basic heparin-binding polypeptide mediators. Chemokines actively interfere in the processes of selective, oriented leukocyte (including eosinophil) recruitment. As eminent from their name, more specifically, eotaxins are specialized for eosinophils' oriented locomotion toward allergic inflamed regions. To date, three members are defined for eotaxin subfamily as follows: eotaxin-1 (CCL11), eotaxin-2 (CCL24), and eotaxin-3 (CCL26), all of them bind to and activate CCR3 but have a low level of homology and appear to exhibit different physiological potentials. Allergy is described as a clinical state in which a pathologic hypersensitivity reaction is always initiated throughout an immunologic mechanism; similar to other immunologic reactions, an allergic reaction could also either be antibody or cell mediated. This type of allergic reactions occurs in all age groups and damages several different organs, having a significant impact on the emotional and social health of patients and their families and relatives. Concerning introductory comments introduced above, the authors of the present review attempted to collect and provide the latest evidences and information regarding the correlation between expression of eotaxin family members and allergy, in a wider extent, in two important allergic disorders: atopic asthma (AA) and atopic dermatitis (AD). Overall, concerning the most recent articles published within the database in the life sciences literature regarding the fundamental role(s) played by eotaxins in the pathogenesis of AA and AD, the authors of the current article propose that eotaxins (CCL11, CCL24, and CCL26) play key role(s) during symptomatic inflammatory responses raised in response to allergic crisis of these two clinical states.

Eotaxin and IL-4 levels are increased in induced sputum and correlate with sputum eosinophils in patients with nonasthmatic eosinophilic bronchitis

Nonasthmatic eosinophilic bronchitis (NAEB) is characterized by chronic cough and airway eosinophilic inflammation. Airway and systemic inflammation cytokine profile have not been comprehensively described in patients with NAEB.The aim of the study was to identify the cytokine profile in sputum and serum of NAEB patients. Furthermore, the relationship between cytokines and clinical features would be evaluated.Induced sputum and serum were collected from untreated NAEB patients and healthy subjects. The cytokine profile in sputum and serum was analyzed by a bead-based multiplex cytokine assay including 21 cytokines.The levels of EGF, eotaxin, GM-CSF, GRO, IFN-γ, IL-1β, IL-4, IL-6, IL-17A, IP-10, MIP-1α, and TNF-α in sputum were significantly higher in NAEB patients than that in healthy subjects (all P < 0.05). Values of area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUROC) of these cytokines were all above 0.750. The concentrations of eotaxin and IL-4 were positively correlated with sputum eosinophil percentage (r = 0.726, P = 0.002; r = 0.511, P = 0.043; respectively). No significant correlations between other cytokines (EGF, GM-CSF, GRO, IFN-γ, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-17A, IP-10, MIP-1α, and TNF-α) in sputum and sputum eosinophil percentage were found. The level of IL-4 in serum was slightly higher in NAEB patients than in healthy subjects. However, there was no correlation between serum IL-4 levels and sputum eosinophil percentage.We identified the cytokine profile in sputum and serum from NAEB patients. Sputum eotaxin and IL-4 could have the potential to become the biomarkers for NAEB and might be useful to assist in the diagnosis of NAEB.

EFFECT OF SELENIUM SUPPLEMENTATION ON PROTEOMIC SERUM BIOMARKERS IN ELDERLY MEN

OBJECTIVES

To determine the effect of selenium supplementation on the human proteomic profile.

DESIGN

Serum samples were collected in this pilot study from a randomized placebo controlled Phase 2 clinical trial (Watchful Waiting (WW)).

SETTING

Subjects were followed every three months for up to five years at the University of Arizona Prostate Cancer Prevention Program.

PARTICIPANTS

One hundred and forty men (age < 85 years) had biopsy-proven prostate cancer, a Gleason sum score less than eight, no metastatic cancer, and no prior treatment for prostate cancer.

INTERVENTION

As part of the WW trial, men were randomized to placebo, selenium 200 μg/day or selenium 800 μg/day. For the purpose of the current study, 40 subjects enrolled in the WW study (20 from the placebo group and 20 from Se 800 μg/day group) were selected.

MEASUREMENTS

Baseline serum samples were collected at each follow-up visit and stored at -80 degrees Celsius. A multiplexed proteomic panel investigated changes in 120 proteins markers simultaneously.

RESULTS

Thirteen proteins (Apolipoprotein J, IL-10, IL-1 alpha, MMP-3, IL-12p70, IL-2 receptor alpha, cathepsin B, eotaxin, EGFR, FGF-basic, myeloperoxidase, RANTES, TGF-beta) were determined to be either statistically (p-value < 0.05) or marginally significantly (0.05 < p-value <0.1) changed in the selenium supplemented group as compared to placebo.

CONCLUSION

Although independent validation of these results is needed, this study is the first of its kind to utilize high throughput fluorescence based protein multiplex panel in analyzing changes in the proteomic profile due to selenium supplementation. Results from this study provide insight into the ability of selenium to modulate numerous protein markers and thus impact various biological processes in humans.

Cellular and molecular immunological mechanisms in eosinophilic esophagitis: an updated overview of their clinical implications

Eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) is a pathophysiologically complex disorder driven by distinct, multiple mechanisms involving a large number of cells, molecules, and genes. Associated with food allergy from its initial descriptions, a key role for the Th2-type cytokines IL-5 and IL-13 in recruiting and activating eosinophils has been described. Epithelial cells have been recognized as major effectors in initiating EoE, both through their recruitment of iNKT cells towards the esophageal epithelium, which constitutes a major cytokine source, and through the release of eotaxin-3 and other chemoattractants. Epithelial and mesenchymal-released TSLP is a key regulator for which a connecting role between the adaptive and innate mucosal-associated immune response has been suggested. Finally, activated eosinophil- and mast cell-derived TGF β1 secretion is crucial in EoE-associated tissue remodeling.

Eotaxin-1 is involved in parasite clearance during chronic filarial infection

Eosinophil migration as key feature of helminth infection is increased during infection with filarial nematodes. In a mouse model of filariasis, we investigated the role of the eosinophil-attracting chemokine Eotaxin-1 on disease outcome. BALB/c and Eotaxin-1(-/-) mice were infected with the rodent filaria Litomosoides sigmodontis, and parasitic parameters, cellular migration to the site of infection, and cellular responsiveness were investigated. We found increased parasite survival but unaffected eosinophil migration to the site of infection in Eotaxin-1(-/-) mice. Expression of CD80 and CD86 was reduced on eosinophils from Eotaxin-1(-/-) mice after in vitro TLR2 stimulation and exposure to filarial antigen, respectively, suggesting a potential reduced activation state of eosinophils in Eotaxin-1 deficient mice. We further demonstrated that macrophages from Eotaxin-1(-/-) mice produce decreased amounts of IL-6 in vitro, a cytokine found to be associated with parasite containment, suggesting possible mechanisms by which Eotaxin-1 regulates activation of inflammatory cells and thus parasite survival.

Iddm30 controls pancreatic expression of Ccl11 (Eotaxin) and the Th1/Th2 balance within the insulitic lesions

The autoimmune diabetic syndrome of the BioBreeding diabetes-prone (BBDP) rat is a polygenic disease that resembles in many aspects human type 1 diabetes (T1D). A successful approach to gain insight into the mechanisms underlying genetic associations in autoimmune diseases has been to identify and map disease-related subphenotypes that are under simpler genetic control than the full-blown disease. In this study, we focused on the β cell overexpression of Ccl11 (Eotaxin), previously postulated to be diabetogenic in BBDR rats, a BBDP-related strain. We tested the hypothesis that this trait is genetically determined and contributes to the regulation of diabetes in BBDP rats. Similar to the BBDR strain, we observed a time-dependent, insulitis-independent pancreatic upregulation of Ccl11 in BBDP rats when compared with T1D-resistant ACI.1u.lyp animals. Through linkage analysis of a cross-intercross of these two parental strains, this trait was mapped to a region on chromosome 12 that overlaps Iddm30. Linkage results were confirmed by phenotypic assessment of a novel inbred BBDP.ACI-Iddm30 congenic line. As expected, the Iddm30 BBDP allele is associated with a significantly higher pancreatic expression of Ccl11; however, the same allele confers resistance to T1D. Analysis of islet-infiltrating T cells in Iddm30 congenic BBDP animals revealed that overexpression of pancreatic Ccl11, a prototypical Th2 chemokine, is associated with an enrichment in Th2 CD4+ T cells within the insulitic lesions. These results indicate that, in the BBDP rat, Iddm30 controls T1D susceptibility through both the regulation of Ccl11 expression in β cells and the subsequent Th1/Th2 balance within islet-infiltrating T lymphocytes.

The transcription factor T-bet regulates parasitemia and promotes pathogenesis during Plasmodium berghei ANKA murine malaria

The pathogenesis of experimental cerebral malaria (ECM) is an immunologic process, mediated in part by Th1 CD4(+) T cells. However, the role of the Th1 CD4(+) T cell differentiation program on the ability to control parasitemia and susceptibility to ECM disease during blood stage malaria has never been assessed directly. Using the Plasmodium berghei ANKA murine model of ECM and mice deficient for the transcription factor T-bet (the master regulator of Th1 cells) on the susceptible C57BL/6 background, we demonstrate that although T-bet plays a role in the regulation of parasite burden, it also promotes the pathogenesis of ECM. T-bet-deficient (Tbx21(-/-)) mice had higher parasitemia than wild type controls did during the ECM phase of disease (17.7 ± 3.1% versus 10.9 ± 1.5%). In addition, although 100% (10/10) of wild type mice developed ECM by day 9 after infection, only 30% (3/10) of Tbx21(-/-) mice succumbed to disease during the cerebral phase of infection. Resistance to ECM in Tbx21(-/-) mice was associated with diminished numbers of IFN-γ-producing CD4(+) T cells in the spleen and a lower accumulation of CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells in the brain. An augmented Th2 immune response characterized by enhanced production of activated GATA-3(+) CD4(+) T cells and elevated levels of the eotaxin, MCP-1, and G-CSF cytokines was observed in the absence of T-bet. Our results suggest that in virulent malarias, immune modulation or therapy resulting in an early shift toward a Th2 response may help to ameliorate the most severe consequences of malaria immunopathogenesis and the prospect of host survival.

Antileukotriene reverts the early effects of inflammatory response of distal parenchyma in experimental chronic allergic inflammation

Aims. Compare the effects of montelukast or dexamethasone in distal lung parenchyma and airway walls of guinea pigs (GP) with chronic allergic inflammation. Methods. GP have inhaled ovalbumin (OVA group-2x/week/4weeks). After the 4th inhalation, GP were treated with montelukast or dexamethasone. After 72 hours of the 7th inhalation, GP were anesthetised, and lungs were removed and submitted to histopathological evaluation. Results. Montelukast and dexamethasone treatments reduced the number of eosinophils in airway wall and distal lung parenchyma compared to OVA group (P < 0.05). On distal parenchyma, both treatments were effective in reducing RANTES, NF-κB, and fibronectin positive cells compared to OVA group (P < 0.001). Montelukast was more effective in reducing eotaxin positive cells on distal parenchyma compared to dexamethasone treatment (P < 0.001), while there was a more expressive reduction of IGF-I positive cells in OVA-D group (P < 0.001). On airway walls, montelukast and dexamethasone were effective in reducing IGF-I, RANTES, and fibronectin positive cells compared to OVA group (P < 0.05). Dexamethasone was more effective in reducing the number of eotaxin and NF-κB positive cells than Montelukast (P < 0.05). Conclusions. In this animal model, both treatments were effective in modulating allergic inflammation and remodeling distal lung parenchyma and airway wall, contributing to a better control of the inflammatory response.

Eosinophils in fungus-associated allergic pulmonary disease

Asthma is frequently caused and/or exacerbated by sensitization to fungal allergens, which are ubiquitous in many indoor and outdoor environments. Severe asthma with fungal sensitization is characterized by airway hyperresponsiveness and bronchial constriction in response to an inhaled allergen that is worsened by environmental exposure to airborne fungi and which leads to a disease course that is often very difficult to treat with standard asthma therapies. As a result of complex interactions among inflammatory cells, structural cells, and the intercellular matrix of the allergic lung, patients with sensitization to fungal allergens may experience a greater degree of airway wall remodeling and progressive, accumulated pulmonary dysfunction as part of the disease sequela. From their development in the bone marrow to their recruitment to the lung via chemokine and cytokine networks, eosinophils form an important component of the inflammatory milieu that is associated with this syndrome. Eosinophils are recognized as complex multi-factorial leukocytes with diverse functions in the context of allergic fungal asthma. In this review, we will consider recent advances in our understanding of the molecular mechanisms that are associated with eosinophil development and migration to the allergic lung in response to fungal inhalation, along with the eosinophil’s function in the immune response to and the immunopathology attributed to fungus-associated allergic pulmonary disease.

Rapid and transient upregulation of CCL11 (eotaxin-1) in mouse ovary during terminal stages of follicular development

PROBLEM

This study aimed to investigate the regulation of expression, localization and physiological role of the CCL11/CCR3 axis in mouse ovary during the periovulatory period.

METHOD OF STUDY

CCL11/CCR3 expression in the mouse ovary after treatment with pregnant mare serum gonadotropin (PMSG) followed by human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) 48 hr later was assessed in vivo and in 3-dimensional cultures in vitro.

RESULTS

Real-time RT-PCR analyses revealed transient CCL11 mRNA upregulation 6 hr after hCG treatment. Immunohistochemical staining of serial ovarian sections demonstrated overlapping expression of CCL11, CCR3 and CD31 endothelial cell marker in the theca-interstitial layer at 10 hr after hCG treatment. In vitro 3-dimensional cultures of periovulatory ovarian tissues demonstrated that treatment with anti-CCL11 neutralizing antibody significantly decreased CD31 transcript.

CONCLUSIONS

Gonadotropin surge leads to transient CCL11/CCR3 axis upregulation in the ovarian theca-interstitial layer, suggesting that it is involved in periovulatory physiological processes by affecting follicular vessels.

Chemokines and their receptors in the allergic airway inflammatory process

The development of the allergic airway disease conveys several cell types, such as T-cells, eosinophils, mast cells, and dendritic cells, which act in a special and temporal synchronization. Cellular mobilization and its complex interactions are coordinated by a broad range of bioactive mediators known as chemokines. These molecules are an increasing family of small proteins with common structural motifs and play an important role in the recruitment and cell activation of both leukocytes and resident cells at the allergic inflammatory site via their receptors. Trafficking and recruitment of cell populations with specific chemokines receptors assure the presence of reactive allergen-specific T-cells in the lung, and therefore the establishment of an allergic inflammatory process. Different approaches directed against chemokines receptors have been developed during the last decades with promising therapeutic results in the treatment of asthma. In this review we explore the role of the chemokines and chemokine receptors in allergy and asthma and discuss their potential as targets for therapy.

Anti-inflammatory modulation of immune response by probiotic Escherichia coli Nissle 1917 in human blood mononuclear cells

Escherichia coli Nissle 1917 (EcN) bears a defect in its LPS biosynthesis leading to truncated variable oligosaccharide-antigen chains and a semi-rough phenotype. It is effectively inactivated by complement factors due to resolved serum resistance and is, therefore, safe as a probiotic strain, i.e. for the treatment of inflammatory gastrointestinal diseases. It is unknown whether the modification of LPS in EcN contributes to its probiotic properties. Purified LPS from EcN and wild-type LPS from uropathogenic E. coli W536 together with raw lysates of both strains were analyzed for their gene expression activity with human PBMCs measured by microarrays. Comparing the two LPS molecules and the two lysate variants with each other, respectively, no differences of transcriptional patterns were observed. However, when comparing LPS with lysate patterns, pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-12p40 was up-regulated by both LPS molecules and anti-inflammatory IL-10 by both lysates. The higher the lysate concentration, the higher IL-10 release from PBMCs, clearly exceeding LPS induced IL-12p40 release. Furthermore, inflammatory chemokine CCL24 (eotaxin) was down-regulated by lysates and quantitative real-time PCR revealed that EcN compared to wild-type LPS was 8 times stronger in down-regulation of CCL24. We conclude that truncated LPS may down-regulate CCL24-mediated inflammation and that EcN lysate contains as yet unidentified factors which preferably induce anti-inflammatory activity. Both effects may contribute to the probiotic properties of EcN.

Eotaxin-3/CC chemokine ligand 26 is a functional ligand for CX3CR1

Eotaxin-3/CCL26 is a functional ligand for CCR3 and abundantly produced by IL-4-/IL-13-stimulated vascular endothelial cells. CCL26 also functions as a natural antagonist for CCR1, CCR2, and CCR5. In this study, we report that CCL26 is yet a functional ligand for CX3CR1, the receptor for fractalkine/CX3CL1, which is expressed by CD16(+) NK cells, cytotoxic effector CD8(+) T cells, and CD14(low)CD16(high) monocytes. Albeit at relatively high concentrations, CCL26 induced calcium flux and chemotaxis in mouse L1.2 cells expressing human CX3CR1 but not mouse CX3CR1 and competed with CX3CL1 for binding to CX3CR1. In chemotaxis assays using human PBMCs, CCL26 attracted not only eosinophils but also CD16(+) NK cells, CD45RA(+)CD27(-)CD8(+) T cells, and CD14(low)CD16(high) monocytes. Intraperitoneal injection of CCL26 into mice rapidly recruited mouse eosinophils and intravenously transferred human CD16(+) NK cells into the peritoneal cavity. IL-4-stimulated HUVECs produced CCL26 and efficiently induced adhesion of cells expressing CX3CR1. Real-time PCR showed that skin lesions of psoriasis consistently contained CX3CL1 mRNA but not CCL26 mRNA, whereas those of atopic dermatitis contained CCL26 mRNA in all samples but CX3CL1 mRNA in only about half of the samples. Nevertheless, the skin lesions from both diseases consistently contained CX3CR1 mRNA at high levels. Thus, CCL26 may be partly responsible for the recruitment of cells expressing CX3CR1 in atopic dermatitis particularly when the expression of CX3CL1 is low. Collectively, CCL26 is another agonist for CX3CR1 and may play a dual role in allergic diseases by attracting eosinophils via CCR3 and killer lymphocytes and resident monocytes via CX3CR1.

Novel approaches to detect serum biomarkers for clinical response to interferon-beta treatment in multiple sclerosis

Interferon beta (IFNβ) is the most common immunomodulatory treatment for relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS). However, some patients fail to respond to treatment. In this study, we identified putative clinical response markers in the serum and plasma of people with multiple sclerosis (MS) treated with IFNβ. In a discovery-driven approach, we use 2D-difference gel electrophoresis (DIGE) to identify putative clinical response markers and apply power calculations to identify the sample size required to further validate those markers. In the process we have optimized a DIGE protocol for plasma to obtain cost effective and high resolution gels for effective spot comparison. APOA1, A2M, and FIBB were identified as putative clinical response markers. Power calculations showed that the current DIGE experiment requires a minimum of 10 samples from each group to be confident of 1.5 fold difference at the p<0.05 significance level. In a complementary targeted approach, Cytometric Beadarray (CBA) analysis showed no significant difference in the serum concentration of IL-6, IL-8, MIG, Eotaxin, IP-10, MCP-1, and MIP-1α, between clinical responders and non-responders, despite the association of these proteins with IFNβ treatment in MS.

Plasma levels of chemokines during leprosy specific treatment

Leprosy, whose etiologic agent is Mycobacterium leprae, is an illness of ample clinical and immunopathological spectrum. Although chemokines seem to be involved in the immunopathogenesis of leprosis, few studies have been carried out to unveil the potential of chemokines as biological markers of the disease. The purpose of this study was to investigate the value of measuring CCL2, CCL3, CCL11 and CCL24 in plasma of patients with leprosy (LE) at different stages of multi-drug therapy (MDT). Chemokines were measured by ELISA in plasma of 30 non-infected individuals (NI) and 33 LE patients before and at different stages of treatment. The plasma concentration of CCL11 (p<0.01) and CCL24 (p<0.05) was increased in LE patients before treatment when compared to NI individuals. The plasma concentration of CCL24 decreased after MDT (p<0.05). No differences were observed in the concentration of CCL2 and CCL3 in plasma of NI and LE individuals. The elevated levels of CCL11 and CCL24 in plasma of patients with LE suggest that these chemokines may play a role in disease pathogenesis. Moreover, the decrease of CCL24 after treatment suggests that this chemokine might be useful as a biomarker of response to MDT in patients with leprosy.

Chronic inflammation and asthma

Allergic asthma is a complex and chronic inflammatory disorder which is associated with airway hyper-responsiveness and tissue remodelling of the airway structure. Although originally thought to be a Th2-driven inflammatory response to inhaled innocuous allergen, the immune response in asthma is now considered highly heterogeneous. There are now various in vivo systems which have been designed to examine the pathways leading to the development of this chronic immune response and reflect, in part this heterogeneity. Furthermore, the emergence of endogenous immunoregulatory pathways and active pro-resolving mediators hold great potential for future therapeutic intervention. In this review, the key cellular and molecular mediators relating to chronic allergic airway disease are discussed, as well as emerging players in the regulation of chronic allergic inflammation.

Potential plasma markers of Type 1 and Type 2 leprosy reactions: a preliminary report

Background

The clinical management of leprosy Type 1 (T1R) and Type 2 (T2R) reactions pose challenges mainly because they can cause severe nerve injury and disability. No laboratory test or marker is available for the diagnosis or prognosis of leprosy reactions. This study simultaneously screened plasma factors to identify circulating biomarkers associated with leprosy T1R and T2R among patients recruited in Goiania, Central Brazil.

Methods

A nested case-control study evaluated T1R (n = 10) and TR2 (n = 10) compared to leprosy patients without reactions (n = 29), matched by sex and age-group (+/- 5 years) and histopathological classification. Multiplex bead based technique provided profiles of 27 plasma factors including 16 pro inflammatory cytokines: tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), Interferon-γ (IFN-γ), interleukin (IL)- IL12p70, IL2, IL17, IL1 β, IL6, IL15, IL5, IL8, macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-1 alpha (MIP1α), 1 beta (MIP1β), regulated upon activation normal T-cell expressed and secreted (RANTES), monocyte chemoattractrant protein 1 (MCP1), CC-chemokine 11 (CCL11/Eotaxin), CXC-chemokine 10 (CXCL10/IP10); 4 anti inflammatory interleukins: IL4, IL10, IL13, IL1Rα and 7 growth factors: IL7, IL9, granulocyte-colony stimulating factor (G-CSF), granulocyte macrophage-colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF), platelet-derived growth factor BB (PDGF BB), basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF).

Results

Elevations of plasma CXCL10 (P = 0.004) and IL6 (p = 0.013) were observed in T1R patients compared to controls without reaction. IL6 (p = 0.05), IL7 (p = 0.039), and PDGF-BB (p = 0.041) were elevated in T2R. RANTES and GMCSF were excluded due to values above and below detection limit respectively in all samples.

Conclusion

Potential biomarkers of T1R identified were CXCL10 and IL6 whereas IL7, PDGF-BB and IL6, may be laboratory markers of TR2. Additional studies on these biomarkers may help understand the immunopathologic mechanisms of leprosy reactions and indicate their usefulness for the diagnosis and for the clinical management of these events.

Immunopathological mechanisms of eosinophilic oesophagitis

BACKGROUND

Eosinophilic oesophagitis (EO) is a chronic inflammatory disease of the oesophagus, with an emergent character, defined by the presence of a dense infiltrate by eosinophilic leukocytes restricted to the mucosa of this organ after excluding gastro-oesophageal acid reflux. It is manifested by chronic and/or recurrent dysphagia and episodes of oesophageal alimentary impaction, with great variation in terms of intensity, frequency, and duration of the attacks.

METHODS

An Internet-based search was performed for the most recent articles with relevant information concerning immunopathological mechanisms involved in EO.

RESULTS

Bibliographical data allow us to define that EO is related to an allergic or hypersensitivity-induced reaction after exposure to foods or inhalants, with increased prevalence of sensitisation to these allergens. Data published up to now suggest a cellular hypersensitivity reaction rather than a humoral one in the physiopathology of EO. In this disease, sensitised T-lymphocytes mediate a Th2 type response, releasing cytokines such as IL-5, with a possible Th1 component that requires further investigation. The function of the abundant CD8+ T-lymphocytes present in the oesophageal epithelium has yet to be explained. Mast cells also participate in epithelial inflammatory infiltrate in EO, and it is still unknown if its activation, mainly through IgE, contributes to the immunopathology of the disease even though EO rarely manifests immediate hypersensitivity reactions. IL-5 and different forms of eotaxins perform an important active role in the recruitment of eosinophils to the oesophagus.

CONCLUSIONS

EO is an immunologically complex and little studied entity that is associated with other allergic diseases and in which different effector cells participate, determining an immunological response of cellular rather than a humoral hypersensitivity reaction. The data available point out that EO is a disorder of the Th2 retarded immune response, in which the triggering factor might not be IgE. Although the final inflammatory phenomena observed in EO are common for the different patients, the cascade of inflammatory mediators that lead to them might not be identical in all cases, and the morphological and functional disorders observed in EO would represent the final convergence of different activation forms of the mechanisms of inflammation.

Treatment with topical steroids downregulates IL-5, eotaxin-1/CCL11, and eotaxin-3/CCL26 gene expression in eosinophilic esophagitis

OBJECTIVES

Our aim was to evaluate the changes induced by topical steroid treatment to the esophageal epithelial inflammatory eosinophilic and T-cell infiltrate and to IL-5, eotaxin-1/CCL11, and eotaxin-3/CCL26 esophageal gene expression levels in patients with eosinophilic esophagitis (EE).

METHODS

Esophageal biopsies were taken from eight adult patients at the moment of diagnosis and after 3-month treatment with fluticasone propionate. Eosinophils, CD8, and CD4 T cells were examined by immunohistochemistry. IL-5, eotaxin-1/CCL11, and eotaxin-3/CCL26 gene expression levels were measured by real-time PCR. Eight control samples were also analyzed.

RESULTS

A significant decrease in the eosinophil infiltrate and in CD8(+) T-cell density was observed in the esophageal epithelium from the patients upon steroid treatment. IL-5 was not detected in control samples, and expression levels were variably downregulated after treatment in six of the patients. Gene expression of eotaxin-1/CCL11 showed relevant downregulation in four cases and a modest twofold decrease in three of the patients studied. Mean CCL11 expression values upon steroid treatment were similar to control samples (19.4 +/- 28.6 vs 8.42 +/- 5, P= 0.7). Eotaxin-3/CCL26 gene expression levels were significantly increased in EE. Although they were significantly downregulated upon steroid treatment, control expression levels were not reached in any of the cases analyzed (580.9 +/- 943.9 vs 1.45 +/- 1.0, P= 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Our results confirm that eotaxin-3/CCL26 is significantly increased in EE esophageal samples. However, the individual analysis of IL-5, CCL11, and CCL26 expression data suggests that several cytokines and chemokines could participate in the physiopathology of EE in humans.

Increased serum levels of CCL11/eotaxin in schizophrenia

BACKGROUND

Inflammatory and immune alterations occur and may be relevant in patients with schizophrenia. Chemokines are a subgroup of cytokines that play a major role in the recruitment of determined subsets of leukocytes into tissues. To date no study has evaluated whether levels of chemokines are altered in patients with schizophrenia.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate serum levels of CC and CXC chemokines of schizophrenic patients and age- and gender-matched controls.

METHODS

Forty male institutionalized schizophrenic patients (mean+/-SD age, 52.3+/-9.9) and 20 asymptomatic matched controls were recruited for this study. Severity of symptoms was assessed using BPRS, PANSS and AIMS. All patients were under typical antipsychotic treatment. Serum concentrations of chemokines were measured by ELISA.

RESULTS

There was no statistical difference in serum levels of CCL2, CCL3, CCL24, CXCL9 and CXCL10 between controls and patients. Serum levels of CCL11 were increased in schizophrenic patients when compared to controls. Serum levels of chemokines were not correlated with the length of disease or hospitalization and the severity of involuntary movements, positive and/or negative symptoms.

CONCLUSION

CCL11 is a ligand for CCR3, a receptor expressed preferentially on Th2 lymphocytes, mast cells and eosinophils. Higher serum levels of CCL11 in schizophrenia reinforce the view that this disease may be associated with a Th1/Th2 imbalance with a shift toward a Th2 immune response.

Concise review: mesenchymal stem cells: their phenotype, differentiation capacity, immunological features, and potential for homing

MSCs are nonhematopoietic stromal cells that are capable of differentiating into, and contribute to the regeneration of, mesenchymal tissues such as bone, cartilage, muscle, ligament, tendon, and adipose. MSCs are rare in bone marrow, representing approximately 1 in 10,000 nucleated cells. Although not immortal, they have the ability to expand manyfold in culture while retaining their growth and multilineage potential. MSCs are identified by the expression of many molecules including CD105 (SH2) and CD73 (SH3/4) and are negative for the hematopoietic markers CD34, CD45, and CD14. The properties of MSCs make these cells potentially ideal candidates for tissue engineering. It has been shown that MSCs, when transplanted systemically, are able to migrate to sites of injury in animals, suggesting that MSCs possess migratory capacity. However, the mechanisms underlying the migration of these cells remain unclear. Chemokine receptors and their ligands and adhesion molecules play an important role in tissue-specific homing of leukocytes and have also been implicated in trafficking of hematopoietic precursors into and through tissue. Several studies have reported the functional expression of various chemokine receptors and adhesion molecules on human MSCs. Harnessing the migratory potential of MSCs by modulating their chemokine-chemokine receptor interactions may be a powerful way to increase their ability to correct inherited disorders of mesenchymal tissues or facilitate tissue repair in vivo. The current review describes what is known about MSCs and their capacity to home to tissues together with the associated molecular mechanisms involving chemokine receptors and adhesion molecules.

Eosinophils in the pathogenesis of allergic airways disease

Eosinophils are traditionally thought to form part of the innate immune response against parasitic helminths acting through the release of cytotoxic granule proteins. However, they are also a central feature in asthma. From their development in the bone marrow to their recruitment to the lung via chemokines and cytokines, they form an important component of the inflammatory milieu observed in the asthmatic lung following allergen challenge. A wealth of studies has been performed in both patients with asthma and in mouse models of allergic pulmonary inflammation to delineate the role of eosinophils in the allergic response. Although the long-standing association between eosinophils and the induction of airway hyper-responsiveness remains controversial, recent studies have shown that eosinophils may also promote airway remodelling. In addition, emerging evidence suggests that the eosinophil may also serve to modulate the immune response. Here we review the highly co-ordinated nature of eosinophil development and trafficking and the evolution of the eosinophil as a multi-factoral leukocyte with diverse functions in asthma.

Esofagitis eosinofílica

Eosinophilic esophagitis is characterised for a dense infiltration of the esophagus by eosinophilic leukocytes. The disease's origin is a local reaction to different antigens of which the patient presents previous sensitization, acquired by digestive, inhaled or even epicutaneous exposure. The esophagus contains different cellular types resident in its structure, with capability to participate in the capture, processing and antigens' presentation to T lymphocytes, which could initiate a T helper 2-type immunological response mostly mediated by interleukin-5, with a possible T helper 1-type component. Local production of immunoglobulin E could also participate in the pathophysiology of eosinophilic esophagitis, and for this reason, this disease can be considered a mixed-humoural and cell-mediated immunological disturbance. Studies directed to identificate responsible allergens must consider test for determine immunoglobulin E-mediated reactions as well as cell-mediated hyper-responsiveness responses. Main symptom of eosinophilic esophagitis are dysphagia and esophageal food impactations, which are conditioned by endoscopic alterations and motor disturbances objectively demonstrated by manometric recorders. Eosinophil and mast cell's activation and degranulation against responsible antigens cause damage over esophageal epithelium and dynamic disturbances over neuromuscular components in esophageal wall. Therapies proposed for eosinophilic esophagitis include control of antigen exposition, endoscopic dilation of stenosis and drugs with antieosinophilic effect; in this group topical steroids can be outlined for the capacity of them to restore the histology and the esophageal motility in parallel to vanishment of inflammation.

Esofagitis eosinofílica. Revisión de los conceptos fisiopatológicos y clínicos actuales

Eosinophilc esophagitis (EE) is an emerging disease which is characterized by a dense infiltration of the esophagus by eosinophilic leukocytes. The main symptoms of this disease are dysphagia and frequent food impaction in esophagus, and they are due to a hypersentivity response to different foods or aeroallergens. Eosinophil accumulation in the esophageal epithelium is determined by local production of eosinophilotropic cytokines and chemokines, which have been well defined as a TH2-type hypersensitivity reaction in animal models of the disease. Esophageal epithelium, after T CD4+ lymphocytes stimulation, contains all the necessary cell types for the development of local immunoallergic responses. However, there is increasing data on the significant role that humoral immunity could play in the pathophysiology of EE, by means of the action of IgE over mast cells function. The high density of T CD8+ lymphocytes in inflammatory infiltrate suggests that a TH1-type reaction could also participate in the mechanism of the disease. Proteins contained in cytoplasmic granules of activated eosinophils and mast cells could act over neural and muscular components of the esophageal wall, triggering motor disturbances which can be measured by means of manometric recordings and justify the esophageal symptoms. This paper aims to review the newest clinical aspects of EE and the results of studies directed at investigating the pathophysiology of the disease. Furthermore, we carry out a critical review of available therapeutic options.

A dual antagonist for chemokine CCR3 receptor and histamine H1 receptor

Eosinophilic chemokines and histamine play distinct but important roles in allergic diseases. Inhibition of both eosinophilic chemokines and histamine, therefore, is an ideal strategy for the treatment of allergic inflammation, such as asthma, allergic rhinitis, and atopic dermatitis. YM-344484 was found to potently inhibit both the CCL11-induced Ca2+ influx in human CCR3-expressing cells (Kb=1.8 nM) and histamine-induced Ca2+ influx in histamine H1 receptor-expressing PC3 cells (Kb=47 nM). YM-344484 also inhibited the CCL11-induced chemotaxis of human CCR3-expressing cells (IC50=6.2 nM) and CCL11-induced eosinophil-derived neurotoxin release from human eosinophils (IC50=19 nM). Orally administered YM-344484 inhibited the increase in histamine-induced vascular permeability in mice (82% inhibition at a dose of 10 mg/kg) and the accumulation of eosinophils in a mouse asthma model (74% at a dose of 300 mg/kg). These results indicate that YM-344484, a novel and functional dual antagonist for chemokine CCR3 receptor and histamine H1 receptor, is an attractive candidate for development as a novel anti-allergic inflammation drug.

Rosmarinic acid as a downstream inhibitor of IKK-beta in TNF-alpha-induced upregulation of CCL11 and CCR3

1. Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha is known to induce the expression of CCL11 and CCR3 via the activation of NF-kappaB. CCL11 (eotaxin), the C-C chemokine, is a potent chemoattractant for eosinophils and Th2 lymphocytes, and CCR3 is the receptor for CCL11. 2. In order to determine the effects of rosmarinic acid on the TNF-alpha-induced upregulation of CCL11 and CCR3 in human dermal fibroblasts, we performed an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for CCL11 and a Western blot assay for CCR3. The TNF-alpha-induced expression of CCL11 and CCR3 genes was attenuated by rosmarinic acid. 3. In our NF-kappaB luciferase reporter system, TNF-alpha-induced NF-kappaB activation was observed to be reduced by rosmarinic acid. In accordance with this result, rosmarinic acid also inhibited TNF-alpha-induced phosphorylation and degradation of IkappaB-alpha, as well as nuclear translocation of NF-kappaB heterodimer induced by TNF-alpha. This suggests that rosmarinic acid downregulates the expression of CCL11 and CCR3 via the inhibition of NF-kappaB activation signaling. 4. Using the NF-kappaB luciferase reporter system, Western blot analysis, and IKK-beta activity assay, we determined that rosmarinic acid inhibits IKK-beta activity in NF-kappaB signaling, which upregulates the expression of CCL11 and CCR3. Additionally, TNF-alpha-induced secretion of soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 and soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 molecules was found to be attenuated by rosmarinic acid. 5. Our results show that rosmarinic acid inhibits the expression of CCL11 and CCR3 by suppressing the IKK-beta activity in NF-kappaB activation signaling. Further, these results suggest that rosmarinic acid might inhibit the expression of NF-kappaB promoter-related genes.