1
|
Carvalho Silva R, Pisanu C, Maffioletti E, Menesello V, Bortolomasi M, Gennarelli M, Baune BT, Squassina A, Minelli A. Biological markers of sex-based differences in major depressive disorder and in antidepressant response. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2023; 76:89-107. [PMID: 37595325 DOI: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2023.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2023] [Revised: 07/27/2023] [Accepted: 07/30/2023] [Indexed: 08/20/2023]
Abstract
Major depressive disorder (MDD) presents different clinical features in women and men, with women being more affected and responding differently to antidepressant treatment. Specific molecular mechanisms underlying these differences are not well studied and this narrative review aims at providing an overview of the neurobiological features underlying sex-differences in biological systems involved in MDD pathophysiology and response to antidepressant treatment, focusing on human studies. The majority of the reviewed studies were performed through candidate gene approaches, focusing on biological systems involved in MDD pathophysiology, including the stress response, inflammatory and immune, monoaminergic, neurotrophic, gamma-aminobutyric acid and glutamatergic, and oxytocin systems. The influence of the endocrine system and sex-specific hormone effects are also discussed. Genome, epigenome and transcriptome-wide approaches are less frequently performed and most of these studies do not focus on sex-specific alterations, revealing a paucity of omics studies directed to unravel sex-based differences in MDD. Few studies about sex-related differences in antidepressant treatment response have been conducted, mostly involving the inflammatory system, with less evidence on the monoaminergic system and sparse evidence in omics approaches. Our review covers the importance of accounting for sex-differences in research, optimizing patient stratification for a more precise diagnostic and individualized treatment for women and men.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rosana Carvalho Silva
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
| | - Claudia Pisanu
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Section of Neuroscience and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Cagliari, Italy
| | - Elisabetta Maffioletti
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
| | - Valentina Menesello
- Genetics Unit, IRCCS Istituto Centro San Giovanni di Dio Fatebenefratelli, Brescia, Italy
| | | | - Massimo Gennarelli
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy; Genetics Unit, IRCCS Istituto Centro San Giovanni di Dio Fatebenefratelli, Brescia, Italy
| | - Bernhard T Baune
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Münster, Münster, Germany; Department of Psychiatry, Melbourne Medical School, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia; The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Alessio Squassina
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Section of Neuroscience and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Cagliari, Italy; Department of Psychiatry, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, B3H 2E2, Canada
| | - Alessandra Minelli
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy; Genetics Unit, IRCCS Istituto Centro San Giovanni di Dio Fatebenefratelli, Brescia, Italy.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Tarif AMM, Islam MN, Jahan MR, Afrin M, Meher MM, Nozaki K, Masumoto KH, Yanai A, Shinoda K. Neurochemical phenotypes of huntingtin-associated protein 1 in reference to secretomotor and vasodilator neurons in the submucosal plexuses of rodent small intestine. Neurosci Res 2022; 191:13-27. [PMID: 36581175 DOI: 10.1016/j.neures.2022.12.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2022] [Revised: 11/21/2022] [Accepted: 12/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Huntingtin-associated protein 1(HAP1) is an immunohistochemical marker of the stigmoid body (STB). Brain and spinal cord regions with lack of STB/HAP1 immunoreactivity are always neurodegenerative targets, whereas STB/HAP1 abundant regions are usually spared from neurodegeneration. In addition to the brain and spinal cord, HAP1 is abundantly expressed in the excitatory and inhibitory motor neurons in myenteric plexuses of the enteric nervous system (ENS). However, the detailed expression of HAP1 and its neurochemical characterization in submucosal plexuses of ENS are still unknown. In this study, we aimed to clarify the expression and neurochemical characterization of HAP1 in the submucosal plexuses of the small intestine in adult mice and rats. HAP1 was highly expressed in the submucosal plexuses of both rodents. The percentage of HAP1-immunoreactive submucosal neurons was not significantly varied between the intestinal segments of these rodents. Double immunofluorescence results revealed that almost all the cholinergic secretomotor neurons containing ChAT/ CGRP/ somatostatin/ calretinin, non-cholinergic secretomotor neurons containing VIP/NOS/TH/calretinin, and vasodilator neurons containing VIP/calretinin expressed HAP1. Our current study is the first to clarify that STB/HAP1 is expressed in secretomotor and vasodilator neurons of submucosal plexuses, suggesting that STB/HAP1 might modulate or protect the secretomotor and vasodilator functions of submucosal neurons in ENS.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Abu Md Mamun Tarif
- Division of Neuroanatomy, Department of Neuroscience, Yamaguchi University Graduate School of Medicine, 1-1-1 Minami-Kogushi, Ube 755-8505, Japan
| | - Md Nabiul Islam
- Division of Neuroanatomy, Department of Neuroscience, Yamaguchi University Graduate School of Medicine, 1-1-1 Minami-Kogushi, Ube 755-8505, Japan
| | - Mir Rubayet Jahan
- Division of Neuroanatomy, Department of Neuroscience, Yamaguchi University Graduate School of Medicine, 1-1-1 Minami-Kogushi, Ube 755-8505, Japan; Department of Anatomy and Histology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh 2202, Bangladesh
| | - Marya Afrin
- Division of Neuroanatomy, Department of Neuroscience, Yamaguchi University Graduate School of Medicine, 1-1-1 Minami-Kogushi, Ube 755-8505, Japan; Department of Anatomy and Histology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh 2202, Bangladesh
| | - Mirza Mienur Meher
- Division of Neuroanatomy, Department of Neuroscience, Yamaguchi University Graduate School of Medicine, 1-1-1 Minami-Kogushi, Ube 755-8505, Japan; Department of Basic Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Yamaguchi University Graduate School of Medicine, 1-1-1 Minami-Kogushi, Ube 755- 8505, Japan
| | - Kanako Nozaki
- Division of Neuroanatomy, Department of Neuroscience, Yamaguchi University Graduate School of Medicine, 1-1-1 Minami-Kogushi, Ube 755-8505, Japan
| | - Koh-Hei Masumoto
- Division of Neuroanatomy, Department of Neuroscience, Yamaguchi University Graduate School of Medicine, 1-1-1 Minami-Kogushi, Ube 755-8505, Japan
| | - Akie Yanai
- Division of Neuroanatomy, Department of Neuroscience, Yamaguchi University Graduate School of Medicine, 1-1-1 Minami-Kogushi, Ube 755-8505, Japan; Department of Basic Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Yamaguchi University Graduate School of Medicine, 1-1-1 Minami-Kogushi, Ube 755- 8505, Japan
| | - Koh Shinoda
- Division of Neuroanatomy, Department of Neuroscience, Yamaguchi University Graduate School of Medicine, 1-1-1 Minami-Kogushi, Ube 755-8505, Japan.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Bettio LEB, Thacker JS, Rodgers SP, Brocardo PS, Christie BR, Gil-Mohapel J. Interplay between hormones and exercise on hippocampal plasticity across the lifespan. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2020; 1866:165821. [PMID: 32376385 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2020.165821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2019] [Revised: 04/19/2020] [Accepted: 04/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The hippocampus is a brain structure known to play a central role in cognitive function (namely learning and memory) as well as mood regulation and affective behaviors due in part to its ability to undergo structural and functional changes in response to intrinsic and extrinsic stimuli. While structural changes are achieved through modulation of hippocampal neurogenesis as well as alterations in dendritic morphology and spine remodeling, functional (i.e., synaptic) changes can be noted through the strengthening (i.e., long-term potentiation) or weakening (i.e., long-term depression) of the synapses. While age, hormone homeostasis, and levels of physical activity are some of the factors known to module these forms of hippocampal plasticity, the exact mechanisms through which these factors interact with each other at a given moment in time are not completely understood. It is well known that hormonal levels vary throughout the lifespan of an individual and it is also known that physical exercise can impact hormonal homeostasis. Thus, it is reasonable to speculate that hormone modulation might be one of the various mechanisms through which physical exercise differently impacts hippocampal plasticity throughout distinct periods of an individual's life. The present review summarizes the potential relationship between physical exercise and different types of hormones (namely sex, metabolic, and stress hormones) and how this relationship may mediate the effects of physical activity during three distinct life periods, adolescence, adulthood, and senescence. Overall, the vast majority of studies support a beneficial role of exercise in maintaining hippocampal hormonal levels and consequently, hippocampal plasticity, cognition, and mood regulation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Luis E B Bettio
- Division of Medical Sciences and Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada
| | - Jonathan S Thacker
- Division of Medical Sciences and Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada
| | - Shaefali P Rodgers
- Developmental, Cognitive & Behavioral Neuroscience Program, Department of Psychology, Texas Institute for Measurement, Evaluation, and Statistics, University of Houston, TX, USA
| | - Patricia S Brocardo
- Department of Morphological Sciences, Centre of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, SC, Brazil
| | - Brian R Christie
- Division of Medical Sciences and Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada; Island Medical Program, Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Victoria, BC, Canada
| | - Joana Gil-Mohapel
- Division of Medical Sciences and Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada; Island Medical Program, Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Victoria, BC, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Yang TY, Gardner JC, Gao Z, Pan YX, Liang NC. Role of glucocorticoid signaling in exercise-associated changes in high-fat diet preference in rats. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2020; 318:R515-R528. [PMID: 31940232 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00288.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The simultaneous introduction of wheel running (WR) and diet choice (high-carbohydrate chow vs. high-fat diet) results in sex-specific diet choice patterns in rats. WR induces a high-fat (HF) diet avoidance, and such avoidance persists in the majority of males, but not females, throughout a 2-wk period. Exercise is a physiological stressor that activates the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and stimulates glucocorticoid (GC) release, which can alter dietary preferences. Here, we examined the role of the HPA axis and GC signaling in mediating exercise-induced changes in diet preference and the associated neurobiological adaptations that may underlie sex differences in diet choice patterns. Experiment 1 revealed that adrenalectomy did not significantly alter the initiation and persistence of running-induced HF diet avoidance in male rats. Experiment 2 showed that acute WR resulted in greater neural activation than chronic WR in the medial prefrontal (mPFC) and insular cortices (IC) in male rats. Experiment 3 revealed sex differences in the molecular adaptation to exercise and diet preference. First, exercise increased gene expression of fkbp5 in the mPFC, IC, and hippocampus of WR females but had limited influence in males. Second, male and female WR rats that reversed or maintained HF diet avoidance showed distinct sex- and HF diet preference-dependent expression profiles of genes involved in cortical GC signaling (e.g., nr3c1, nr3c2, and src1). Taken together, our results suggest sex differences in region-specific neural adaptations may underlie sex differences in diet preference and the health benefits from exercise.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tiffany Y Yang
- Department of Psychology, University of Illinois-Urbana Champaign, Champaign, Illinois
| | - Jennie C Gardner
- Department of Psychology, University of Illinois-Urbana Champaign, Champaign, Illinois
| | - Zijun Gao
- Department of Psychology, University of Illinois-Urbana Champaign, Champaign, Illinois
| | - Yuan-Xiang Pan
- Food Science and Human Nutrition, University of Illinois-Urbana Champaign, Champaign, Illinois.,Division of Nutritional Sciences, University of Illinois-Urbana Champaign, Champaign, Illinois
| | - Nu-Chu Liang
- Department of Psychology, University of Illinois-Urbana Champaign, Champaign, Illinois.,Division of Nutritional Sciences, University of Illinois-Urbana Champaign, Champaign, Illinois.,Neuroscience Program, University of Illinois-Urbana Champaign, Champaign, Illinois
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Kokras N, Hodes GE, Bangasser DA, Dalla C. Sex differences in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis: An obstacle to antidepressant drug development? Br J Pharmacol 2019; 176:4090-4106. [PMID: 31093959 PMCID: PMC6877794 DOI: 10.1111/bph.14710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2018] [Revised: 04/11/2019] [Accepted: 04/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction has long been implicated in the pathophysiology of depression, and HPA axis-based compounds have served as potential new therapeutic targets, but with no success. This review details sex differences from animal and human studies in the function of HPA axis elements (glucocorticoids, corticotropin releasing factor, and vasopressin) and related compounds tested as candidate antidepressants. We propose that sex differences contribute to the failure of novel HPA axis-based drugs in clinical trials. Compounds studied preclinically in males were tested in clinical trials that recruited more, if not exclusively, women, and did not control, but rather adjusted, for potential sex differences. Indeed, clinical trials of antidepressants are usually not stratified by sex or other important factors, although preclinical and epidemiological data support such stratification. In conclusion, we suggest that clinical testing of HPA axis-related compounds creates an opportunity for targeted, personalized antidepressant treatments based on sex. LINKED ARTICLES: This article is part of a themed section on The Importance of Sex Differences in Pharmacology Research. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v176.21/issuetoc.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nikolaos Kokras
- Department of PharmacologyNational and Kapodistrian University of AthensAthensGreece
- First Department of Psychiatry, Eginition HospitalNational and Kapodistrian University of AthensAthensGreece
| | - Georgia E. Hodes
- School of NeuroscienceVirginia Polytechnic Institute and State UniversityBlacksburgVirginia
| | | | - Christina Dalla
- Department of PharmacologyNational and Kapodistrian University of AthensAthensGreece
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Kim GH, Baek HK, Lee JS, Kim SJ, Yi SS. Chronic Oral Administration of Tenebrio molitor Extract Exhibits Inhibitory Effect on Glucocorticoid Receptor Overexpression in the Hippocampus of Ovariectomy-Induced Estrogen Deficient Mice. J Food Sci 2019; 84:687-694. [PMID: 30714630 DOI: 10.1111/1750-3841.14454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2018] [Revised: 01/03/2019] [Accepted: 01/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
It has been reported that estrogen deficiency in female disrupts systemic endocrinologic regulatory mechanisms, finally leading to osteoporotic condition. Estrogen deficiency also down-regulates brain functions due to its deficits of its original roles in a number of neurological events. Therefore, it is necessary to find alternative materials that can prevent osteoporotic condition and maintain normal brain functions to correct such hormone deficiency. In the present study, we found that novel compounds originated from larvae of Tenebrio molitor (TM) possessed anti-osteoporotic effect. They could also prevent abnormal progressive brain function by deaccelerating enhanced HPA-axis negative feedback while maintaining neurogenesis in hippocampus. We daily administered TM to ovariectomized (OVX) ddY mice for 4 weeks and then performed histological and hormonal evaluations for its anti-osteoporotic effects. In addition, we investigated glucocorticoid receptor (GR) expression and neuroblast expression (DCX) in the hippocampal dentate gyrus morphologically by immunohistochemistry analysis. According to our results, TM has anti-osteoporotic effects. It also tends to bring interfered brain environment back to normal condition. These results suggest that TM might have anti-osteoporosis effect and enhancing effects on enrichment of environment in brain by being antidestroyed hormonal deficiency simultaneously. This is the first study to report that TM can be used as source of bioactive substance to prevent decreased neurogenesis and impaired HPA axis driven by high GR expression in the hippocampus in hormonal deficient female animals. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Anti-osteoporosis effect and stress resistance due to improved brain function caused by the ingestion of Tenebrio molitor extract were observed in postmenopausal women. T. molitor is available as a nutritional supplement for bone and brain health, which menopausal women need most.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gwang-Ho Kim
- Dept. of Biomedical Lab. Science, College of Medical Sciences, Soonchunhyang Univ., Asan, 31538, Republic of Korea
| | - Hye Kyung Baek
- Dept. of Biomedical Lab. Science, College of Medical Sciences, Soonchunhyang Univ., Asan, 31538, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong Suk Lee
- Biocenter, Gyeonggido Business and Science Accelerator (GBSA), Suwon, 16229, Republic of Korea
| | - Sung-Jo Kim
- Dept. of Biotechnology, Hoseo Univ., Asan, 31499, Republic of Korea
| | - Sun Shin Yi
- Dept. of Biomedical Lab. Science, College of Medical Sciences, Soonchunhyang Univ., Asan, 31538, Republic of Korea
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Green MR, Marcolin ML, McCormick CM. The effects of ovarian hormones on stressor-induced hormonal responses, glucocorticoid receptor expression and translocation, and genes related to receptor signaling in adult female rats. Stress 2018; 21:90-100. [PMID: 29189098 DOI: 10.1080/10253890.2017.1409719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Estradiol potentiates hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal activity and delays the return of glucocorticoid secretion to baseline after a stressor exposure in female rats; we investigated whether estradiol effects involve actions on glucocorticoid receptor (GR) translocation and expression of receptor co-chaperones. In Experiment 1 intact females and ovariectomized (OVX) females were treated for four days with vehicle (VEH), 17β-estradiol benzoate (EB), or EB and progesterone (EB + P). Samples were taken from rats in the home cage (baseline) or after 30 min of restraint stress in a plastic restrainer (post-restraint) (n = 10/group). OVX-VEH treatment reduced baseline and post-restraint plasma concentrations of corticosterone versus all other treatments. Western blots indicated that OVX-VEH treated rats had greater hippocampal cytosolic GR expression than other treatments. Stress increased hippocampal nuclear GR expression, but without treatment differences. In Experiment 2 OVX rats were treated daily with VEH, EB, or EB + P (n = 8/group). OVX-VEH rats showed a lower stimulation of corticosterone secretion by restraint stress than other treatments and OVX-EB + P treated rats had lower concentrations than the OVX-EB group, suggesting progesterone mitigated estradiol effects. Quantitative polymerase chain reaction experiments indicated that stress increased Fkbp5 mRNA in the ventral hippocampus, with no effect of stress or treatment on Nr3c1 (GR), Nr3c2 (MR), Fkbp4, Bag1, or Ncoa1 (SRC-1) expression. Thus, the hypothesis is that estradiol effects on negative feedback are mediated by altered expression of receptor co-chaperones or co-modulators in the hippocampus was not supported. Estradiol may blunt feedback by limiting the availability of cytosolic GR protein.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew R Green
- a Psychology Department , Brock University , St Catharines , Canada
| | - Marina L Marcolin
- b Biological Sciences Department , Brock University , St Catharines , Canada
| | - Cheryl M McCormick
- a Psychology Department , Brock University , St Catharines , Canada
- b Biological Sciences Department , Brock University , St Catharines , Canada
- c Centre for Neuroscience , Brock University , St Catharines , Canada
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Hiroi R, Carbone DL, Zuloaga DG, Bimonte-Nelson HA, Handa RJ. Sex-dependent programming effects of prenatal glucocorticoid treatment on the developing serotonin system and stress-related behaviors in adulthood. Neuroscience 2016; 320:43-56. [PMID: 26844389 PMCID: PMC4840233 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2016.01.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2015] [Revised: 01/12/2016] [Accepted: 01/26/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Prenatal stress and overexposure to glucocorticoids (GC) during development may be associated with an increased susceptibility to a number of diseases in adulthood including neuropsychiatric disorders, such as depression and anxiety. In animal models, prenatal overexposure to GC results in hyper-responsiveness to stress in adulthood, and females appear to be more susceptible than males. Here, we tested the hypothesis that overexposure to GC during fetal development has sex-specific programming effects on the brain, resulting in altered behaviors in adulthood. We examined the effects of dexamethasone (DEX; a synthetic GC) during prenatal life on stress-related behaviors in adulthood and on the tryptophan hydroxylase-2 (TpH2) gene expression in the adult dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN). TpH2 is the rate-limiting enzyme for serotonin (5-HT) synthesis and has been implicated in the etiology of human affective disorders. Timed-pregnant rats were treated with DEX from gestational days 18-22. Male and female offspring were sacrificed on the day of birth (postnatal day 0; P0), P7, and in adulthood (P80-84) and brains were examined for changes in TpH2 mRNA expression. Adult animals were also tested for anxiety- and depressive- like behaviors. In adulthood, prenatal DEX increased anxiety- and depressive- like behaviors selectively in females, as measured by decreased time spent in the center of the open field and increased time spent immobile in the forced swim test, respectively. Prenatal DEX increased TpH2 mRNA selectively in the female caudal DRN at P7, whereas it decreased TpH2 mRNA selectively in the female caudal DRN in adulthood. In animals challenged with restraint stress in adulthood, TpH2 mRNA was significantly lower in rostral DRN of prenatal DEX-treated females compared to vehicle-treated females. These data demonstrated that prenatal overexposure to GC alters the development of TpH2 gene expression and these alterations correlated with lasting behavioral changes found in adult female offspring.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R Hiroi
- Basic Medical Sciences, University of Arizona College of Medicine - Phoenix, 550 E. Van Buren Street, Phoenix, AZ 85004, USA; Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, 950 S. McAllister Avenue, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA.
| | - D L Carbone
- Basic Medical Sciences, University of Arizona College of Medicine - Phoenix, 550 E. Van Buren Street, Phoenix, AZ 85004, USA.
| | - D G Zuloaga
- Basic Medical Sciences, University of Arizona College of Medicine - Phoenix, 550 E. Van Buren Street, Phoenix, AZ 85004, USA.
| | - H A Bimonte-Nelson
- Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, 950 S. McAllister Avenue, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA.
| | - R J Handa
- Basic Medical Sciences, University of Arizona College of Medicine - Phoenix, 550 E. Van Buren Street, Phoenix, AZ 85004, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Fernandez JW, Grizzell JA, Wecker L. The role of estrogen receptor β and nicotinic cholinergic receptors in postpartum depression. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2013; 40:199-206. [PMID: 23063492 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2012.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2012] [Revised: 10/02/2012] [Accepted: 10/02/2012] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Postpartum depression (PPD) is a devastating disease occurring in approximately 20% of women. Women who suffer from PPD appear to be more sensitive to postpartum hormonal changes than women who do not experience this form of depression. Furthermore, women who quit smoking prior to or during pregnancy, and who develop PPD, are at an increased risk of smoking relapse. Unfortunately, the mechanistic relationship between the pathophysiology of PPD and smoking relapse is unknown. Here we review the roles of both estrogen receptor beta (ERβ) and cholinergic nicotinic receptors (nAChRs) in the pathogenesis of depression and propose a mechanistic rationale to explain the high rate of smoking relapse exhibited by women who develop PPD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jamie Winderbaum Fernandez
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, 3515 E. Fletcher Avenue, Tampa, FL, 33611, USA.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
Bousalham R, Benazzouz B, Hessni AE, Ouichou A, Mesfioui A. Maternal Separation Affects Mothers’ Affective and Reproductive Behaviors as Well as Second Offspring’s Emotionality. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013. [DOI: 10.4236/jbbs.2013.35042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
|
11
|
Hydrocortisone infusion exerts dose- and sex-dependent effects on attention to emotional stimuli. Brain Cogn 2012; 81:247-55. [PMID: 23262179 DOI: 10.1016/j.bandc.2012.10.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2011] [Revised: 09/10/2012] [Accepted: 10/21/2012] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Glucocorticoid administration has been shown to exert complex effects on cognitive and emotional processing. In the current study we investigated the effects of glucocorticoid administration on attention towards emotional words, using an Affective Go/No-go task on which healthy humans have shown an attentional bias towards positive as compared to negative words. Healthy volunteers received placebo and either low-dose (0.15mg/kg) or high-dose (0.45mg/kg) hydrocortisone intravenously during two separate visits in a double-blind, randomized design. Seventy-five minutes post-infusion, the subjects performed tests of attention (Rapid Visual Information Processing [RVIP]), spatial working memory (Spatial Span) and emotional processing (Affective Go/No-go task [AGNG]). On the attention task, performance was impaired under both hydrocortisone doses relative to placebo, though the effect on error rate was not significant after controlling for age; Spatial Span performance was unaffected by hydrocortisone administration. On the AGNG task, relative to the placebo condition the low-dose hydrocortisone infusion decreased response time to emotional words while high-dose hydrocortisone increased response time. In the females specifically, both high and low dose hydrocortisone administration attenuated the normal attentional bias toward positively valenced words. These data suggest that, in healthy women, the modulation of attention by the emotional salience of stimuli is influenced by glucocorticoid hormone concentrations.
Collapse
|
12
|
Characterization of the "sporadically lurking HAP1-immunoreactive (SLH) cells" in the hippocampus, with special reference to the expression of steroid receptors, GABA, and progenitor cell markers. Neuroscience 2012; 210:67-81. [PMID: 22421101 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2012.02.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2011] [Revised: 01/29/2012] [Accepted: 02/14/2012] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Huntingtin-associated protein 1 (HAP1) is a neural huntingtin interactor that is widely expressed as a core molecule of the stigmoid body (a neurocytoplasmic inclusion) in the limbic and hypothalamic regions and has putative protective functions against some neurodegenerative diseases (HAP1 protection hypothesis). Although HAP1 has been reported to be intimately associated with several steroid receptors, HAP1-immunoreactive (HAP1-ir) cells remain to be identified in the hippocampus, which is one of the major steroidal targets. In this study, we determined the distribution of hippocampal HAP1-ir cells in light and fluorescence microscopy and characterized their morphological relationships with steroid receptors, markers of adult neurogenesis, and the GABAergic system in adult male and female Wistar rats. HAP1-ir cells, which were sporadically distributed particularly in the subgranular zone (SGZ) of the dentate gyrus and in the interface between the stratum lacunosum-moleculare and stratum radiatum of Ammon's horn, were identified as the "sporadically lurking HAP1-ir (SLH)" cells. The SLH cells showed no clear association with neural progenitor/proliferating or migrating cell markers of adult neurogenesis, such as Ki-67, proliferating cell nuclear antigen, doublecortin, and glial fibrillary acidic protein in the SGZ, whereas all the SLH cells expressed a neuronal specific nuclear protein (NeuN). More than 90% of the SLH cells expressed nuclear estrogen receptor (ER) α but neither ERβ nor the androgen receptor, whereas glucocorticoid receptor was differently stained in the SLH cells depending on the antibodies. More than 60% of them exhibited GABA immunoreactivity in the SGZ, suggestive of basket cells, but they were distinct from the ones expressing cholecystokinin or parvalbumin. We conclude that SLH cells, which should be stable against apoptosis due to putative HAP1 protectivity, might be involved in estrogen-dependent maturation, remodeling and activation of hippocampal memory and learning functions via ERα and partly through GABAergic regulation.
Collapse
|
13
|
Prager EM, Brielmaier J, Bergstrom HC, McGuire J, Johnson LR. Localization of mineralocorticoid receptors at mammalian synapses. PLoS One 2010; 5:e14344. [PMID: 21179518 PMCID: PMC3002274 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0014344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2010] [Accepted: 11/21/2010] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
In the brain, membrane associated nongenomic steroid receptors can induce fast-acting responses to ion conductance and second messenger systems of neurons. Emerging data suggest that membrane associated glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid receptors may directly regulate synaptic excitability during times of stress when adrenal hormones are elevated. As the key neuron signaling interface, the synapse is involved in learning and memory, including traumatic memories during times of stress. The lateral amygdala is a key site for synaptic plasticity underlying conditioned fear, which can both trigger and be coincident with the stress response. A large body of electrophysiological data shows rapid regulation of neuronal excitability by steroid hormone receptors. Despite the importance of these receptors, to date, only the glucocorticoid receptor has been anatomically localized to the membrane. We investigated the subcellular sites of mineralocorticoid receptors in the lateral amygdala of the Sprague-Dawley rat. Immunoblot analysis revealed the presence of mineralocorticoid receptors in the amygdala. Using electron microscopy, we found mineralocorticoid receptors expressed at both nuclear including: glutamatergic and GABAergic neurons and extra nuclear sites including: presynaptic terminals, neuronal dendrites, and dendritic spines. Importantly we also observed mineralocorticoid receptors at postsynaptic membrane densities of excitatory synapses. These data provide direct anatomical evidence supporting the concept that, at some synapses, synaptic transmission is regulated by mineralocorticoid receptors. Thus part of the stress signaling response in the brain is a direct modulation of the synapse itself by adrenal steroids.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eric M. Prager
- Program in Neuroscience, Uniformed Services University, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Jennifer Brielmaier
- Department of Psychiatry, Uniformed Services University, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Hadley C. Bergstrom
- Department of Psychiatry, Uniformed Services University, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Jennifer McGuire
- Department of Psychiatry, Uniformed Services University, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Luke R. Johnson
- Program in Neuroscience, Uniformed Services University, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
- Department of Psychiatry, Uniformed Services University, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
- Center for the Study of Traumatic Stress, Uniformed Services University, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Specificity of glucocorticoid receptor primary antibodies for analysis of receptor localization patterns in cultured cells and rat hippocampus. Brain Res 2010; 1331:1-11. [PMID: 20307510 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2010.03.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2009] [Revised: 03/02/2010] [Accepted: 03/14/2010] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
After glucocorticoid stimulation, glucocorticoid receptors (GRs) are translocated to the nucleus to modulate transcription of glucocorticoid target genes. The subcellular distribution and trafficking of GR in cultured cells has been studied quite intensively using several techniques. However, the intracellular localization of nuclear receptors in ligand-free and stimulated conditions in vivo is still controversial, in part because of inconsistent results with different antibodies. Knowledge of trafficking of GR in vivo could greatly contribute to understanding nuclear receptor signaling. Therefore, in this study we systematically compared a panel of different primary GR antibodies using immunohistochemistry and confocal imaging. Nuclear translocation patterns at different time points after glucocorticoid stimulation were compared in cultured AtT20 cells and rat hippocampal CA1 and dentate gyrus cells. The BuGR2 antibody consistently detected GR nuclear translocation patterns between in vivo and in vitro settings, but the other GR primary antibodies provided contradictory results. While GR H300 and P20 strongly detected nuclear GR immunoreactivity after glucocorticoid stimulation in both CA1 and dentate gyrus cells, the same antibodies provided poor results in cultured cells. The opposite was found for the primary GR M20 antibody. These data indicate that with a particular glucocorticoid receptor antibody the findings in cell culture studies cannot always be extrapolated to in vivo situations. Moreover, different antibodies disclose different features of the glucocorticoid receptor translocation process.
Collapse
|
15
|
Fujinaga R, Takeshita Y, Uozumi K, Yanai A, Yoshioka K, Kokubu K, Shinoda K. Microtubule-dependent formation of the stigmoid body as a cytoplasmic inclusion distinct from pathological aggresomes. Histochem Cell Biol 2009; 132:305-18. [DOI: 10.1007/s00418-009-0618-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/16/2009] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
|
16
|
Ferreira-Silva IA, Helena CVV, Franci CR, Lucion AB, Anselmo-Franci JA. Modulatory role of locus coeruleus and estradiol on the stress response of female rats. Endocrine 2009; 35:166-76. [PMID: 19130315 DOI: 10.1007/s12020-008-9139-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2008] [Revised: 10/19/2008] [Accepted: 10/20/2008] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis is modulated by the norepinephrinergic system and, in females, also by the ovarian hormones. We investigated the role of ovarian steroids and the locus coeruleus (LC) on stress-induced corticosterone secretion in female rats. Ovariectomized rats without hormonal replacement (OVX) or treated with estradiol (OVE) or estradiol plus progesterone (OVEP) were subjected to jugular cannulation. Immediately after that, each hormonal treatment group was subjected to LC lesion or sham surgery or no brain surgery. After 24 h, blood samples of all 9 groups were collected before and after ether inhalation. Other four groups (OVX control, sham and lesioned, and OVE) were perfused for glucocorticoid receptor (GR) immunocytochemistry in hippocampal CA1 neurons and paraventricular nucleus (PVN). Estradiol replacement decreased while LC lesions increased stress-induced corticosterone secretion. The effect of LC lesion was potentiated with the removal of ovarian steroids. Since GR expression of lesioned animals decreased in the hippocampus, but not in PVN, we suggest that the effect of LC lesion on corticosterone secretion could be due to a reduction in the efficiency of the negative feedback system in the CA1 neurons. However, this mechanism is not involved in the estradiol modulation on corticosteroid secretion, as no change in GR expression was observed in estradiol-treated animals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Isac Alexandre Ferreira-Silva
- Departamento de Fisiologia, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
17
|
Crema LM, Vendite D, Horn AP, Diehl LA, Aguiar AP, Nunes E, Vinade L, Fontella FU, Salbego C, Dalmaz C. Effects of chronic restraint stress and estradiol replacement on glutamate release and uptake in the spinal cord from ovariectomized female rats. Neurochem Res 2008; 34:499-507. [PMID: 18712597 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-008-9810-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2008] [Accepted: 07/15/2008] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Glutamate is an excitatory neurotransmitter involved in neuronal plasticity and neurotoxicity. Chronic stress produces several physiological changes on the spinal cord, many of them presenting sex-specific differences, which probably involve glutamatergic system alterations. The aim of the present study was to verify possible effects of exposure to chronic restraint stress and 17beta-estradiol replacement on [3H]-glutamate release and uptake in spinal cord synaptosomes of ovariectomized (OVX) rats. Female rats were subjected to OVX, and half of the animals received estradiol replacement. Animals were subdivided in controls and chronically stressed. Restraint stress or estradiol had no effect on [3H]-glutamate release. The chronic restraint stress promoted a decrease and 17beta-estradiol induced an increase on [3H]-glutamate uptake, but the uptake observed in the restraint stress +17beta-estradiol group was similar to control. Furthermore, 17beta-estradiol treatment caused a significant increase in the immunocontent of the three glutamate transporters present in spinal cord. Restraint stress had no effect on the expression of these transporters, but prevented the 17beta-estradiol effect. We suggest that changes in the glutamatergic system are likely to take part in the mechanisms involved in spinal cord plasticity following repeated stress exposure, and that 17beta-estradiol levels may affect chronic stress effects in this structure.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Leonardo Machado Crema
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Neurociências, ICBS, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
18
|
Fujinaga R, Yanai A, Nakatsuka H, Yoshida K, Takeshita Y, Uozumi K, Zhao C, Hirata K, Kokubu K, Nagano M, Shinoda K. Anti-human placental antigen complex X-P2 (hPAX-P2) anti-serum recognizes C-terminus of huntingtin-associated protein 1A common to 1B as a determinant marker for the stigmoid body. Histochem Cell Biol 2007; 128:335-48. [PMID: 17687563 DOI: 10.1007/s00418-007-0315-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2007] [Accepted: 07/04/2007] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The anti-serum against an unknown human placental antigen complex X-P2 (hPAX-P2) immunohistochemically recognizes three putative molecules (hPAX-P2S, hPAX-P2N, and hPAX-P2R), each of which is associated with the stigmoid bodies (STBs), necklace olfactory glomeruli (NOGs), or reticulo-filamentous structures (RFs) in the rat brain. The STBs also contain huntingtin-associated protein 1 (HAP1), and the HAP1-cDNA transfection induces STB-like inclusions in cultured cells. In order to clarify the relationship between hPAX-P2S and HAP1 isoforms (A/B), we performed Western blotting, immuno-histo/cytochemistry for light- and electron-microscopy and pre-adsorption tests with HAP1 deletion fragments. The results showed that the anti-hPAX-P2 anti-serum recognizes HAP1(474-577) of HAP1A/B in Western blotting and strongly immunostains HAP1A-induced STB-like inclusions but far weakly detects HAP1B-induced diffuse structures in HAP1-transfected HEK 293 cells. In the rat brain, immunoreactivity of the anti-hPAX-P2 anti-serum for the STBs was eliminated by pre-adsorption with HAP1(474-577), whereas no pre-adsorption with any different HAP1 fragments can suppress immunoreactivity for the NOGs and RFs, which were not immunoreactive to anti-HAP1 anti-serum. These findings indicate that hPAX-P2S, which is distinct from hPAX-P2N and hPAX-P2R, is identical with STB-constituted HAP1 and that the HAP1-induced/immunoreactive inclusions correspond to the hPAX-P2-immunoreactive STBs previously identified in the brain.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ryutaro Fujinaga
- Division of Neuroanatomy, Department of Neuroscience, Yamaguchi University School of Medicine, Minami-Kogushi 1-1-1, Ube, Yamaguchi, 755-8505, Japan
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
19
|
Zhao C, Fujinaga R, Tanaka M, Yanai A, Nakahama KI, Shinoda K. Region-specific expression and sex-steroidal regulation on aromatase and its mRNA in the male rat brain: immunohistochemical and in situ hybridization analyses. J Comp Neurol 2007; 500:557-73. [PMID: 17120292 DOI: 10.1002/cne.21193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
The brain has an estrogen-biosynthetic potential resulting from the presence of neuronal aromatase, which controls the intraneural sex-steroidal milieu and is involved in brain sexual differentiation, psychobehavioral regulation, and neuroprotection. In the rat brain, three distinct aromatase-P450-immunoreactive (AromP450-I) neural groups have been categorized in terms of their peak expression time (fetal, fetoneonatal, and young-to-adult groups), suggesting the presence of region-specific regulation on brain AromP450. In the present study, we compared the expressions between AromP450 protein and mRNA by using immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization with an ovary-derived cRNA probe in serial sections of fetal, fetoneonatal, and adult male rat brains and then performed steroidal manipulations to evaluate the sex-steroidal effects on AromP450 in adult orchiectomized and adrenalectomized (OCX + ADX) male rats. As a result, prominent mRNA signals were detected in the fetal (i.e., the anterior medial preoptic nucleus) and fetoneonatal (i.e., the medial preopticoamygdaloid neuronal arc) groups, although no detectable signal was found in the "young-to-adult" group (i.e., the central amygdaloid nucleus). In addition, the "fetoneonatal" AromP450-I neurons were prominently reduced in number and intensity after OCX + ADX and then were reinstated by the administration of dihydrotestosterone, testosterone, or 17beta-estradiol. In contrast, none of the sex steroids had any significant effects on the young-to-adult group. Several possible explanations were explored for why the young-to-adult group may differ in aromatase expression and regulation, including the possibility that distinct splicing variants or isozymes for aromatase exist in the rat brain.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Changjiu Zhao
- Division of Neuroanatomy, Department of Neuroscience, Yamaguchi University School of Medicine, Yamaguchi 755-8505, Japan
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
Sheng Z, Kawano J, Yanai A, Fujinaga R, Tanaka M, Watanabe Y, Shinoda K. Expression of estrogen receptors (alpha, beta) and androgen receptor in serotonin neurons of the rat and mouse dorsal raphe nuclei; sex and species differences. Neurosci Res 2004; 49:185-96. [PMID: 15140561 DOI: 10.1016/j.neures.2004.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2003] [Accepted: 02/20/2004] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Sex steroids have been inferred to be involved in the regulation of affective status at least partly through the serotonergic (5-HT) system, particularly in the dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN), which innervates enormous projections to the cerebral cortex and limbic system. In the present study, the expression of estrogen receptors-alpha and -beta (ERalpha, ERbeta), androgen receptor (AR) and 5-HT was examined immunohistochemically in the rat and mouse DRN in both sexes. The results showed that large numbers of ERalpha- and/or ERbeta-immunoreactive (ERalpha-I, ERbeta-I) cells were found in the DRN of both male and female mice, whereas only small numbers of ERalpha-I cells and no ERbeta-I cells were seen in the rat DRN of each sex. With respect to AR-immunoreactive (AR-I) cells, moderate numbers of such cells were present only in male rats and mice, and no or very few could be observed in female ones. The ERalpha-I, ERbeta-I, and AR-I cells were mainly distributed in the rostral DRN. In double-immunostaining, many 5-HT-I neurons were found to show ERalpha and/or ERbeta expression specifically in the rostral DRN (particularly dorsal, ventral and interfascicular parts) of mice of both sexes, but not in that of rats. In contrast, only a few 5-HT neurons were observed to show AR expression in the DRN of both rodents. The current results strongly suggest that sex steroids can modulate the affective regulation of the serotonergic system through ERalpha and/or ERbeta in 5-HT neurons of the mouse rostral DRN (but not so much through AR), and that such effects might be different depending on the sex and species, as shown by the prominent sex differences in AR expression and prominent species differences in ERalpha and ERbeta expression.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zijing Sheng
- Division of Neuroanatomy, Department of Neuroscience, Yamaguchi University School of Medicine, 1-1-1 Minami-Kogushi, Ube, Yamaguchi 755-8505, Japan
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|