1
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Gyenes A, Tapasztó Z, Quirce S, Luna C, Frutos-Rincón L, Gallar J, Acosta MC, Kovács I. Cyclosporine A Decreases Dryness-Induced Hyperexcitability of Corneal Cold-Sensitive Nerve Terminals. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:13025. [PMID: 37629206 PMCID: PMC10455570 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241613025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2023] [Revised: 08/09/2023] [Accepted: 08/17/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Cyclosporine A (CsA) is used for the treatment of dry eye (DE) with good clinical results, improving tear secretion and decreasing subjective symptoms. These effects are attributed to the improved tear film dynamics, but there are no data on the effect of CsA on the abnormal sensory nerve activity characteristic in DE. Our purpose was to evaluate the CsA effect on the enhanced activity of corneal cold thermoreceptors in a tear-deficient DE animal model using in vitro extracellular recording of cold thermoreceptors nerve terminal impulses (NTIs) before and in the presence of CsA. NTI shape was also analyzed. Blinking frequency and tearing rate were also measured in awake animals before and after topical CsA. CsA increased the tearing and blinking of treated animals. CsA significantly decreased the peak response to cold of cold thermoreceptors. Neither their spontaneous NTIs discharge rate nor their cooling threshold were modified. CsA also seemed to reverse some of the changes in NTI shape induced by tear deficiency. These data suggest that, at least in part, the beneficial clinical effects of CsA in DE can be attributed to a direct effect on sensory nerve endings, although the precise mechanisms underlying this effect need further studies to be fully clarified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Gyenes
- Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, 1085 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Zsófia Tapasztó
- Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, 1085 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Susana Quirce
- Instituto de Neurociencias, Universidad Miguel Hernández—CSIC, 03550 San Juan de Alicante, Spain (C.L.); (L.F.-R.); (M.C.A.)
| | - Carolina Luna
- Instituto de Neurociencias, Universidad Miguel Hernández—CSIC, 03550 San Juan de Alicante, Spain (C.L.); (L.F.-R.); (M.C.A.)
| | - Laura Frutos-Rincón
- Instituto de Neurociencias, Universidad Miguel Hernández—CSIC, 03550 San Juan de Alicante, Spain (C.L.); (L.F.-R.); (M.C.A.)
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria y Biomédica de Alicante-ISABIAL, 03010 Alicante, Spain
| | - Juana Gallar
- Instituto de Neurociencias, Universidad Miguel Hernández—CSIC, 03550 San Juan de Alicante, Spain (C.L.); (L.F.-R.); (M.C.A.)
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria y Biomédica de Alicante-ISABIAL, 03010 Alicante, Spain
| | - M. Carmen Acosta
- Instituto de Neurociencias, Universidad Miguel Hernández—CSIC, 03550 San Juan de Alicante, Spain (C.L.); (L.F.-R.); (M.C.A.)
| | - Illés Kovács
- Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, 1085 Budapest, Hungary
- Department of Ophthalmology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10021, USA
- Department of Clinical Ophthalmology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Semmelweis University, 1088 Budapest, Hungary
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2
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Rodrigues YE, Tigaret CM, Marie H, O'Donnell C, Veltz R. A stochastic model of hippocampal synaptic plasticity with geometrical readout of enzyme dynamics. eLife 2023; 12:e80152. [PMID: 37589251 PMCID: PMC10435238 DOI: 10.7554/elife.80152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2022] [Accepted: 03/22/2023] [Indexed: 08/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Discovering the rules of synaptic plasticity is an important step for understanding brain learning. Existing plasticity models are either (1) top-down and interpretable, but not flexible enough to account for experimental data, or (2) bottom-up and biologically realistic, but too intricate to interpret and hard to fit to data. To avoid the shortcomings of these approaches, we present a new plasticity rule based on a geometrical readout mechanism that flexibly maps synaptic enzyme dynamics to predict plasticity outcomes. We apply this readout to a multi-timescale model of hippocampal synaptic plasticity induction that includes electrical dynamics, calcium, CaMKII and calcineurin, and accurate representation of intrinsic noise sources. Using a single set of model parameters, we demonstrate the robustness of this plasticity rule by reproducing nine published ex vivo experiments covering various spike-timing and frequency-dependent plasticity induction protocols, animal ages, and experimental conditions. Our model also predicts that in vivo-like spike timing irregularity strongly shapes plasticity outcome. This geometrical readout modelling approach can be readily applied to other excitatory or inhibitory synapses to discover their synaptic plasticity rules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuri Elias Rodrigues
- Université Côte d’AzurNiceFrance
- Institut de Pharmacologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire (IPMC), CNRSValbonneFrance
- Inria Center of University Côte d’Azur (Inria)Sophia AntipolisFrance
| | - Cezar M Tigaret
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Research Innovation Institute, Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences,School of Medicine, Cardiff UniversityCardiffUnited Kingdom
| | - Hélène Marie
- Université Côte d’AzurNiceFrance
- Institut de Pharmacologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire (IPMC), CNRSValbonneFrance
| | - Cian O'Donnell
- School of Computing, Engineering, and Intelligent Systems, Magee Campus, Ulster UniversityLondonderryUnited Kingdom
- School of Computer Science, Electrical and Electronic Engineering, and Engineering Mathematics, University of BristolBristolUnited Kingdom
| | - Romain Veltz
- Inria Center of University Côte d’Azur (Inria)Sophia AntipolisFrance
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3
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Trans-Anethole Alleviates Trimethyltin Chloride-Induced Impairments in Long-Term Potentiation. Pharmaceutics 2022; 14:pharmaceutics14071422. [PMID: 35890317 PMCID: PMC9320999 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14071422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2022] [Revised: 06/27/2022] [Accepted: 07/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Trans-anethole is an aromatic compound that has been studied for its anti-inflammation, anticonvulsant, antinociceptive, and anticancer effects. A recent report found that trans-anethole exerted neuroprotective effects on the brain via multiple pathways. Since noxious stimuli may both induce neuronal cell injury and affect synaptic functions (e.g., synaptic transmission or plasticity), it is important to understand whether the neuroprotective effect of trans-anethole extends to synaptic plasticity. Here, the effects of trimethyltin (TMT), which is a neurotoxic organotin compound, was investigated using the field recording method on hippocampal slice of mice. The influence of trans-anethole on long-term potentiation (LTP) was also studied for both NMDA receptor-dependent and NMDA receptor–independent cases. The action of trans-anethole on TMT-induced LTP impairment was examined, too. These results revealed that trans-anethole enhances NMDA receptor-dependent and -independent LTP and alleviates TMT-induced LTP impairment. These results suggest that trans-anethole modulates hippocampal LTP induction, prompting us to speculate that it may be helpful for improving cognitive impairment arising from neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer’s disease.
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Serine/Threonine Phosphatases in LTP: Two B or Not to Be the Protein Synthesis Blocker-Induced Impairment of Early Phase. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22094857. [PMID: 34064311 PMCID: PMC8125358 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22094857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2021] [Revised: 04/27/2021] [Accepted: 04/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Dephosphorylation of target proteins at serine/threonine residues is one of the most crucial mechanisms regulating their activity and, consequently, the cellular functions. The role of phosphatases in synaptic plasticity, especially in long-term depression or depotentiation, has been reported. We studied serine/threonine phosphatase activity during the protein synthesis blocker (PSB)-induced impairment of long-term potentiation (LTP). Established protein phosphatase 2B (PP2B, calcineurin) inhibitor cyclosporin A prevented the LTP early phase (E-LTP) decline produced by pretreatment of hippocampal slices with cycloheximide or anisomycin. For the first time, we directly measured serine/threonine phosphatase activity during E-LTP, and its significant increase in PSB-treated slices was demonstrated. Nitric oxide (NO) donor SNAP also heightened phosphatase activity in the same manner as PSB, and simultaneous application of anisomycin + SNAP had no synergistic effect. Direct measurement of the NO production in hippocampal slices by the NO-specific fluorescent probe DAF-FM revealed that PSBs strongly stimulate the NO concentration in all studied brain areas: CA1, CA3, and dentate gyrus (DG). Cyclosporin A fully abolished the PSB-induced NO production in the hippocampus, suggesting a close relationship between nNOS and PP2B activity. Surprisingly, cyclosporin A alone impaired short-term plasticity in CA1 by decreasing paired-pulse facilitation, which suggests bi-directionality of the influences of PP2B in the hippocampus. In conclusion, we proposed a minimal model of signaling events that occur during LTP induction in normal conditions and the PSB-treated slices.
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5
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Michalak A, Pekala K, Budzynska B, Kruk-Slomka M, Biala G. The role of verapamil and SL-327 in morphine- and ethanol-induced state-dependent and cross state-dependent memory. Eur J Pharmacol 2018; 834:318-326. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2018.07.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2018] [Revised: 07/20/2018] [Accepted: 07/26/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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6
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Calcium homeostasis and protein kinase/phosphatase balance participate in nicotine-induced memory improvement in passive avoidance task in mice. Behav Brain Res 2017; 317:27-36. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2016.09.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2016] [Revised: 09/04/2016] [Accepted: 09/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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7
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Cell signaling and mitochondrial dynamics: Implications for neuronal function and neurodegenerative disease. Neurobiol Dis 2012; 51:13-26. [PMID: 22297163 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2012.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2011] [Revised: 01/09/2012] [Accepted: 01/12/2012] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Nascent evidence indicates that mitochondrial fission, fusion, and transport are subject to intricate regulatory mechanisms that intersect with both well-characterized and emerging signaling pathways. While it is well established that mutations in components of the mitochondrial fission/fusion machinery can cause neurological disorders, relatively little is known about upstream regulators of mitochondrial dynamics and their role in neurodegeneration. Here, we review posttranslational regulation of mitochondrial fission/fusion enzymes, with particular emphasis on dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1), as well as outer mitochondrial signaling complexes involving protein kinases and phosphatases. We also review recent evidence that mitochondrial dynamics has profound consequences for neuronal development and synaptic transmission and discuss implications for clinical translation.
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8
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Lee SH, Hahn SJ, Min G, Kim J, Jo SH, Choe H, Choi BH. Inhibitory actions of HERG currents by the immunosuppressant drug cyclosporin a. THE KOREAN JOURNAL OF PHYSIOLOGY & PHARMACOLOGY : OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE KOREAN PHYSIOLOGICAL SOCIETY AND THE KOREAN SOCIETY OF PHARMACOLOGY 2011; 15:291-7. [PMID: 22128262 DOI: 10.4196/kjpp.2011.15.5.291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2011] [Revised: 10/17/2011] [Accepted: 10/19/2011] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The effect of cyclosporin A (CsA), an immunosuppressant, on human ether-a-go-go-related gene (HERG) channel as it is expressed in human embryonic kidney cells was studied using a whole-cell, patch-clamp technique. CsA inhibited the HERG channel in a concentration-dependent manner, with an IC(50) value and a Hill coefficient of 3.17 µM and 0.89, respectively. Pretreatment with cypermethrine, a calcineurin inhibitor, had no effect on the CsA-induced inhibition of the HERG channel. The CsA-induced inhibition of HERG channels was voltage-dependent, with a steep increase over the voltage range of the channel opening. However, the inhibition exhibited voltage independence over the voltage range of fully activated channels. CsA blocked the HERG channels predominantly in the open and inactivated states rather than in the closed state. Results of the present study suggest that CsA acts directly on the HERG channel as an open-channel blocker, and it acts independently of its effect on calcineurin activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seung Ho Lee
- Department of Pharmacology, Institute for Medical Sciences, Chonbuk National University Medical School, Jeonju 561-180, Korea
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9
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Gu J, Lee CW, Fan Y, Komlos D, Tang X, Sun C, Yu K, Hartzell HC, Chen G, Bamburg JR, Zheng JQ. ADF/cofilin-mediated actin dynamics regulate AMPA receptor trafficking during synaptic plasticity. Nat Neurosci 2010; 13:1208-15. [PMID: 20835250 PMCID: PMC2947576 DOI: 10.1038/nn.2634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 248] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2010] [Accepted: 08/17/2010] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Dendritic spines undergo actin-based growth and shrinkage during synaptic plasticity, in which the actin depolymerizing factor (ADF)/cofilin family of actin-associated proteins are important. Elevated ADF/cofilin activities often lead to reduced spine size and immature spine morphology but can also enhance synaptic potentiation in some cases. Thus, ADF/cofilin may have distinct effects on postsynaptic structure and function. We found that ADF/cofilin-mediated actin dynamics regulated AMPA receptor (AMPAR) trafficking during synaptic potentiation, which was distinct from actin's structural role in spine morphology. Specifically, elevated ADF/cofilin activity markedly enhanced surface addition of AMPARs after chemically induced long-term potentiation (LTP), whereas inhibition of ADF/cofilin abolished AMPAR addition. We found that chemically induced LTP elicited a temporal sequence of ADF/cofilin dephosphorylation and phosphorylation that underlies AMPAR trafficking and spine enlargement. These findings suggest that temporally regulated ADF/cofilin activities function in postsynaptic modifications of receptor number and spine size during synaptic plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiaping Gu
- Department of Cell Biology, Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
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10
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Modulation of long-term potentiation in the hippocampus by pharmacological approach: A novel strategy for the development of cognitive enhancers. CHINESE SCIENCE BULLETIN-CHINESE 2010. [DOI: 10.1007/s11434-010-4069-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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11
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Pereira U, Boulais N, Lebonvallet N, Pennec JP, Dorange G, Misery L. Mechanisms of the sensory effects of tacrolimus on the skin. Br J Dermatol 2010; 163:70-7. [PMID: 20302583 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2133.2010.09757.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Tacrolimus is an immunosuppressant drug currently used for the treatment of atopic dermatitis and pruritus. This topical therapy is effective and safe, but transient burning, stinging and itch are frequently reported. OBJECTIVES To understand the mechanisms underlying these burning sensations. METHODS We examined the impact of tacrolimus on substance P (SP) release in an in vitro model of cutaneous neurogenic inflammation. Because phosphorylation of TRPV1 (transient receptor potential subtype vanilloid 1) plays a role in the induction of pain, we investigated whether tacrolimus regulates the phosphorylation state of TRPV1. Finally, we used a macropatch to evaluate the impact of tacrolimus on voltage-gated calcium currents of sensory neurons. RESULTS Tacrolimus was able to induce initial SP release by extracellular calcium influx and inhibited SP release induced by capsaicin after 1, 24 and 72 h of pretreatment. Analysis of TRPV1 phosphorylation by Western blot confirmed the capacity of tacrolimus to favour phosphorylation. An electrophysiological study showed inhibitory effects on calcium currents. CONCLUSIONS The efficacy of tacrolimus in pruritus, as well as the sensory side-effects, could be explained by a direct effect on neurons through an effect on calcineurin, possibly by a desensitization of TRPV1 and calcium currents through the PIP(2) regulation pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- U Pereira
- University of Western Brittany, Laboratory of Neuronal Factors and Tissue Structure (EA 4326), Brest, France
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12
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Group I metabotropic glutamate receptors are involved in TEA-induced long-term potentiation at mossy fiber-CA3 synapses in the rat hippocampus. Brain Res 2009; 1313:45-52. [PMID: 19961834 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2009.11.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2009] [Revised: 11/19/2009] [Accepted: 11/21/2009] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Gq-protein-coupled Group I metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluR) reportedly activate phospholipase C (PLC), leading to Ca(2+) release from intracellular stores and the formation of diacylglycerol (DAG). We electrophysiologically examined the involvement of the Group I mGluR in tetraethylammonium (TEA)-induced long-term potentiation (LTP) at mossy fiber (MF)-CA3 synapses in the rat hippocampus. TEA-induced LTP was almost completely blocked under the selective blockade of either mGluR1 or mGluR5, both of which are Group I mGluR. This result was supported by the blockade of TEA-induced LTP even in the absence of these blockers under low temperature conditions, in which the activation of Group I mGluR is thought not to be fully effective. In addition, the blockade of mGluR1 resulted in lower short-term potentiation (STP) during TEA application compared with the blockade of mGluR5. These results demonstrate the crucial roles of Group I mGluR in the TEA-induced LTP at MF-CA3 synapses and the different contributions of mGluR1 and mGluR5 to the initial component of plasticity.
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13
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Suzuki E, Okada T. TEA-induced long-term potentiation at hippocampal mossy fiber-CA3 synapses: characteristics of its induction and expression. Brain Res 2008; 1247:21-7. [PMID: 18977337 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2008.09.101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2008] [Revised: 09/04/2008] [Accepted: 09/30/2008] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Potassium ion channel blockade by tetraethylammonium (TEA) reportedly induces long-term potentiation (LTP) at hippocampal mossy fiber (MF)-CA3 synapses, but the characteristics of induction, expression, and modulation of the LTP remain unclear. In the present study, these features of TEA-induced LTP at MF-CA3 synapses were electrophysiologically examined using rat hippocampal slices. Synaptic responses recorded from MF-CA3 synapses were enhanced long-term by TEA application even under the blockade of NMDA receptors with D-AP5, whereas selective pharmacological blockade of T-type voltage-dependent calcium channels (VDCCs) strongly inhibited TEA-induced LTP. Decrease of the paired-pulse facilitation ratio after LTP induction by TEA suggests the involvement of increased neurotransmitter release probability from MF terminals as LTP expression. The facilitative modulation of MF-CA3 LTP by GABA(A) receptor activation reported previously was reversed when bumetanide, a blocker of Na(+)-K(+)-Cl(-) co-transporters (NKCCs), was applied, suggesting that the region-specific modulation of TEA-induced LTP by GABAergic inputs at MF-CA3 synapses is due to the dominance of NKCC action at MF terminals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Etsuko Suzuki
- Department of Psychology, Graduate School of the Humanities, Senshu University, 2-1-1 Higashimita, Tama-ku, Kawasaki, Kanagawa 214-8580, Japan
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14
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Suzuki E, Okada T. Regional differences in GABAergic modulation for TEA-induced synaptic plasticity in rat hippocampal CA1, CA3 and dentate gyrus. Neurosci Res 2007; 59:183-90. [PMID: 17669533 DOI: 10.1016/j.neures.2007.06.1472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2006] [Revised: 06/07/2007] [Accepted: 06/21/2007] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Tetraethylammonium (TEA), a K(+)-channel blocker, reportedly induces long-term potentiation (LTP) of hippocampal CA1 synaptic responses, but at CA3 and the dentate gyrus (DG), the characteristics of TEA-induced plasticity and modulation by inhibitory interneurons remain unclear. This study recorded field EPSPs from CA1, CA3 and DG to examine the involvement of GABAergic modulation in TEA-induced synaptic plasticity for each region. In Schaffer collateral-CA1 synapses and associational fiber (AF)-CA3 synapses, bath application of TEA-induced LTP in the presence and absence of picrotoxin (PTX), a GABA(A) receptor blocker, whereas TEA-induced LTP at mossy fiber (MF)-CA3 synapses was detected only in the absence of GABA(A) receptor blockers. MF-CA3 LTP showed sensitivity to Ni(2+), but not to nifedipine. In DG, synaptic plasticity was modulated by GABAergic inputs, but characteristics differed between the afferent lateral perforant path (LPP) and medial perforant path (MPP). LPP-DG synapses showed TEA-induced LTP during PTX application, whereas at MPP-DG synapses, TEA-induced long-term depression (LTD) was seen in the absence of PTX. This series of results demonstrates that TEA-induced DG and CA3 plasticity displays afferent specificity and is exposed to GABAergic modulation in an opposite manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Etsuko Suzuki
- Department of Psychology, Graduate School of the Humanities, Senshu University, 2-1-1 Higashimita, Tama, Kawasaki, Kanagawa 214-8580, Japan
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15
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Ahn HS, Kim SE, Choi BH, Choi JS, Kim MJ, Rhie DJ, Yoon SH, Jo YH, Kim MS, Sung KW, Kwon OJ, Hahn SJ. Calcineurin-independent inhibition of KV1.3 by FK-506 (tacrolimus): a novel pharmacological property. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2007; 292:C1714-22. [PMID: 17166943 DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.00258.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The interaction of FK-506 with KV1.3, stably expressed in Chinese hamster ovary cells, was investigated with the whole cell patch-clamp technique. FK-506 inhibited KV1.3 in a reversible, concentration-dependent manner with an IC50of 5.6 μM. Rapamycin, another immunosuppressant, produced effects that were similar to those of FK-506 (IC50= 6.7 μM). Other calcineurin inhibitors (cypermethrin or calcineurin autoinhibitory peptide) alone had no effect on the amplitude or kinetics of KV1.3. In addition, the inhibitory action of FK-506 continued, even after the inhibition of calcineurin activity. The inhibition produced by FK-506 was voltage dependent, increasing in the voltage range for channel activation. At potentials positive to 0 mV (where maximal conductance is reached), however, no voltage-dependent inhibition was found. FK-506 exhibited a strong use-dependent inhibition of KV1.3. FK-506 shifted the steady-state inactivation curves of KV1.3 in the hyperpolarizing direction in a concentration-dependent manner. The apparent dissociation constant for FK-506 to inhibit KV1.3 in the inactivated state was estimated from the concentration-dependent shift in the steady-state inactivation curve and was calculated to be 0.37 μM. Moreover, the rate of recovery from inactivation of KV1.3 was decreased. In inside-out patches, FK-506 not only reduced the current amplitude but also accelerated the rate of inactivation during depolarization. FK-506 also inhibited KV1.5 and KV4.3 in a concentration-dependent manner with IC50of 4.6 and 53.9 μM, respectively. The present results indicate that FK-506 inhibits KV1.3 directly and that this effect is not mediated via the inhibition of the phosphatase activity of calcineurin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hye Sook Ahn
- Department of Physiology, Collge of Medicine, Catholic University of Korea, 505 Banpo-dong, Socho-gu, Seoul 137-701, Korea
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16
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Abstract
Increasing evidence suggests that reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as superoxide and hydrogen peroxide, act as necessary signaling molecules in processes underlying cognition. Moreover, ROS have been shown to be necessary in molecular process underlying signal transduction, synaptic plasticity, and memory formation. Research from several laboratories suggests that NADPH oxidase is an important source of superoxide in the brain. Evidence is presented here to show that ROS are in fact important signaling molecules involved in synaptic plasticity and memory formation. Moreover, evidence that the NADPH oxidase complex is a key regulator of ROS generation in synaptic plasticity and memory formation is discussed. Understanding redox signaling in the brain, including the sources and molecular targets of ROS, are important for a full understanding of the signaling pathways that underlie synaptic plasticity and memory. Knowledge of ROS function in the brain also is critical for understanding aging and neurodegenerative diseases of the brain given that several of these disorders, including Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson disease, may be exacerbated by the unregulated generation of ROS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth T Kishida
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA
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17
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Statler KD. Pediatric posttraumatic seizures: epidemiology, putative mechanisms of epileptogenesis and promising investigational progress. Dev Neurosci 2006; 28:354-63. [PMID: 16943659 DOI: 10.1159/000094162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2005] [Accepted: 03/03/2006] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Posttraumatic seizures and epilepsy are common in children experiencing traumatic brain injury and portend worse functional outcome. Unfortunately, the pathogenesis of pediatric posttraumatic seizures and epilepsy remains poorly understood, and no efficacious preventive therapy for post-traumatic epilepsy has been identified. This article reviews the epidemiology of pediatric posttraumatic seizures, discusses prominent putative mechanisms of posttraumatic epileptogenesis and highlights recent promising progress in experimental investigations of posttraumatic seizures and epilepsy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimberly D Statler
- Division of Critical Care, Department of Pediatrics, The University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, Utah 84158-0289, USA.
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19
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Chen KJ, Chen LW, Liao JM, Chen CH, Ho YC, Ho YC, Cheng CL, Lin JJ, Huang PC, Lin TB. Effects of a calcineurin inhibitor, tacrolimus, on glutamate-dependent potentiation in pelvic-urethral reflex in anesthetized rats. Neuroscience 2005; 138:69-76. [PMID: 16359812 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.10.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2005] [Revised: 10/20/2005] [Accepted: 10/26/2005] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Effects of tacrolimus, a protein phosphatase 2B inhibitor, on the reflex plasticity between the pelvic afferent nerve fibers and the urethra were examined in urethane-anesthetized rats. Repetitive stimulation (1 Hz) induced a potentiation (0.9+/-0.2 and 10.5+/-1.6 spikes in control and repetitive stimulation groups, respectively, P<0.01, N=10) in the activities of the pelvic-urethral reflex. Intrathecal tacrolimus (0.1 mM, 10 microl, bolus) blocked repetitive stimulation-induced potentiation in pelvic-urethral reflex activities (3.2+/-0.9 spikes in tacrolimus group versus 10.5+/-1.6 spikes in repetitive stimulation group, P<0.01, N=10). Glutamate (intrathecal, 0.1 mM, 10 microl, bolus) and N-methyl-D-aspartic acid (intrathecal, 0.1 mM, 10 microl, bolus) both reversed the blocking effects exerted by tacrolimus on repetitive stimulation-induced pelvic-urethral reflex potentiation (15.0+/-1.4 spikes in glutamate group and 11.4+/-1.4 spikes in N-methyl-D-aspartic acid group versus 3.2+/-0.9 spikes in tacrolimus-treated repetitive stimulation group, P<0.01, N=7). In addition, the reversal effect elicited by these two agonists of glutamate receptors showed no statistical difference (P=NS, N=7). All these results demonstrated that tacrolimus could block glutamatergic N-methyl-D-aspartic acid receptor-mediated potentiation in pelvic-urethral reflex activities. This finding may be pathologically relevant in patients who take tacrolimus as immunosuppressant therapy. Whether tacrolimus will induce urine incontinence in such patients or not needs further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- K-J Chen
- Institute of Medicine, Chung-Shan Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
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20
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Abstract
The molecular mechanisms of learning and memory, and the underlying bidirectional changes in synaptic plasticity that sustain them largely implicate protein kinases and phosphatases. Specifically, Ca(2+)-dependent kinases and phosphatases actively control neuronal processing by forming a tightly regulated balance in which they oppose each other. In this balance, calcineurin (PP2B) is a critical protein phosphatase whose main function is to negatively modulate learning, memory, and plasticity. It acts by dephosphorylating numerous substrates in different neuronal compartments. This review outlines some of CN neuronal targets and their implication in synaptic functions, and describes the role of CN in the acquisition, storage, retrieval, and extinction of memory, as well as in bidirectional plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabelle M Mansuy
- Department of Biology, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, ETH Hönggerberg HPM D24, CH-8093, Zurich, Switzerland
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Abstract
From the most basic of nervous systems to the intricate circuits found within the human brain, a fundamental requirement of neuronal function is that it be malleable, altering its output based upon experience. A host of cellular proteins are recruited for this purpose, which themselves are regulated by protein phosphorylation. Over the past several decades, research has demonstrated that the Ca(2+) and calmodulin-dependent protein phosphatase calcineurin (protein phosphatase 2B) is a critical regulator of a diverse array of proteins, leading to both short- and long-term effects on neuronal excitability and function. This review describes many of the influences of calcineurin on a variety of proteins, including ion channels, neurotransmitter receptors, enzymes, and transcription factors. Intriguingly, due to the bi-directional influences of Ca(2+) and calmodulin on calcineurin activity, the strength and duration of particular stimulations may cause apparently antagonistic functions of calcineurin to work in concert.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel D Groth
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, 6-145 Jackson Hall, 321 Church St. SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
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22
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Luo J, Yin JH, Wei Q. The effect of calcineurin activator, extracted from Chinese herbal medicine, on memory and immunity in mice. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2003; 75:749-54. [PMID: 12957215 DOI: 10.1016/s0091-3057(03)00148-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Calcineurin (CN) is a highly abundant phosphatase in the brain and it is the only Ca(2+)- and calmodulin-dependent protein serine/threonine phosphatase. There is considerable evidence to suggest that CN plays an essential role in activity-dependent modulation of synaptic efficacy. It has been shown recently that inhibitors of CN, such as CsA or FK506, impair memory formation in day-old chicks. In our present study, extract of Fructus cannabis (EFC) with activation of CN, extracted from Chinese traditional medicine, was used to determine the effects on memory and immunity. In the step-down-type passive avoidance test, the plant extract (0.2 g/kg) significantly improved amnesia induced by chemical drugs in mice, and greatly enhanced the ability of cell-mediated type hypersensitivity and nonspecific immune responses in normal mice. The present study provided pharmacological evidence for Chinese herbal medicine screening from molecular model.
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MESH Headings
- Amnesia, Transient Global/chemically induced
- Amnesia, Transient Global/drug therapy
- Animals
- Calcineurin/metabolism
- Cannabis
- Drugs, Chinese Herbal/isolation & purification
- Drugs, Chinese Herbal/pharmacology
- Drugs, Chinese Herbal/therapeutic use
- Hypersensitivity, Delayed/chemically induced
- Hypersensitivity, Delayed/drug therapy
- Hypersensitivity, Delayed/immunology
- Immunity, Cellular/drug effects
- Immunity, Cellular/immunology
- Male
- Medicine, Chinese Traditional/methods
- Memory/drug effects
- Memory/physiology
- Mice
- Seeds
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Luo
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Beijing Normal University, China
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23
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Sharma SK, Bagnall MW, Sutton MA, Carew TJ. Inhibition of calcineurin facilitates the induction of memory for sensitization in Aplysia: requirement of mitogen-activated protein kinase. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2003; 100:4861-6. [PMID: 12672952 PMCID: PMC153646 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0830994100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2002] [Accepted: 02/19/2003] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The induction of both synaptic plasticity and memory is thought to depend on the balance between opposing molecular regulatory factors, such as protein kinases and phosphatases. Here we show that inhibition of protein phosphatase 2B (calcineurin, CaN) facilitates the induction of intermediate-term memory (ITM) and long-term memory (LTM) for tail shock-induced sensitization in Aplysia without any effect on short-term memory. To identify the molecular cascade underlying the improvement of memory by inhibition of CaN, we examined the role of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2/mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK). Molecular experiments revealed that one pulse of serotonin, which by itself does not activate MAPK, leads to significant MAPK activation in the sensory neurons of the pleural ganglia when CaN is inhibited. Extending these observations, behavioral experiments showed that the facilitated induction of ITM and LTM produced by CaN inhibition depends on MAPK activity. These results demonstrate: (i) that CaN acts as an inhibitory constraint in the formation of long-lasting phases of memory, and (ii) that facilitated induction of ITM and LTM by CaN inhibition requires MAPK activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiv K Sharma
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior and Center for the Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
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24
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Abstract
Unlike the proposed role of reactive oxygen species in neurodegeneration, acute effects of reactive oxygen on synaptic plasticity are poorly understood. Using rat hippocampal slices, we found that exposure to a high concentration (0.5-5 mm) of H(2)O(2) reduces EPSPs in both potentiated and nonpotentiated synapses. Exposure of the slices to 20 microm H(2)O(2) did not affect expression of preestablished long-term potentiation (LTP) but prevented induction of new LTP and enhanced long-term depression (LTD). Surprisingly, 1 microm H(2)O(2) caused a twofold increase in LTP compared with controls, and it further enhanced NMDA-independent LTP. A low concentration of H(2)O(2) also suppressed LTD. Nifedipine, an L-type calcium channel blocker, did not affect control LTP but blocked effects of both 1 and 20 microm H(2)O(2). Calcineurin inhibitors [FK506 (FR900506) and cyclosporin A but not rapamycin] acted similarly and also restored LTP in the presence of 20 microm H(2)O(2). These results suggest that H(2)O(2) alters NMDA-independent, voltage-gated calcium channel-mediated LTP by activating calcineurin.
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25
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Weeber EJ, Levy M, Sampson MJ, Anflous K, Armstrong DL, Brown SE, Sweatt JD, Craigen WJ. The role of mitochondrial porins and the permeability transition pore in learning and synaptic plasticity. J Biol Chem 2002; 277:18891-7. [PMID: 11907043 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m201649200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 141] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitochondrial outer membrane permeability is conferred by a family of porin proteins. Mitochondrial porins conduct small molecules and constitute one component of the permeability transition pore that opens in response to apoptotic signals. Because mitochondrial porins have significant roles in diverse cellular processes including regulation of mitochondrial ATP and calcium flux, we sought to determine their importance in learning and synaptic plasticity in mice. We show that fear conditioning and spatial learning are disrupted in porin-deficient mice. Electrophysiological recordings of porin-deficient hippocampal slices reveal deficits in long and short term synaptic plasticity. Inhibition of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore by cyclosporin A in wild-type hippocampal slices reproduces the electrophysiological phenotype of porin-deficient mice. These results demonstrate a dynamic functional role for mitochondrial porins and the permeability transition pore in learning and synaptic plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edwin J Weeber
- Division of Neuroscience, Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
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26
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Fuhrer DK, Kobayashi M, Jiang H. Insulin release and suppression by tacrolimus, rapamycin and cyclosporin A are through regulation of the ATP-sensitive potassium channel. Diabetes Obes Metab 2001; 3:393-402. [PMID: 11903410 DOI: 10.1046/j.1463-1326.2001.00150.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
AIM By focusing on the pancreatic beta cell response to tacrolimus, cyclosporin A (CsA) and rapamycin we hoped to identify immunophilin, calcineurin and/or novel mechanism involvement and advance the understanding of immunosuppressant regulated insulin control. METHODS A glucose responsive beta cell model was established in which the glucose response was blocked by immunosuppressant treatment and this model was used to further characterise this effect. Quantification of insulin release to immunosuppressants and specific inhibitors was used to identify the mechanism involved. RESULTS It was found that upon the addition of tacrolimus, rapamycin, or CsA, rapid and significant exocytosis of cellular insulin was seen. A dose response study of this effect revealed optimal concentration windows of 50- 80 nm for tacrolimus, 100-300 nm for rapamycin, and 7-12 mm for CsA in RIN-5F cells. Optimal insulin release for HIT-T15 cells was similar. Additional experiments demonstrate that immunosuppressant pretreatment blocked the subsequent immunosuppressant induced insulin release but not that of a thapsigargin control, suggesting that suppression and release are non-toxic, specific and in the same pathway. Further experiments showed that this insulin release was a calcium dependent process, which was blocked by inhibitors of l-type calcium channels. Continued studies showed that the specific ATP-sensitive potassium channel agonist diazoxide (150 mm) also blocked immunosuppressant-induced insulin release. CONCLUSIONS A model that fits this data is a novel calcineurin-independent immunophilin mediated partial closing of the ATP-sensitive potassium channel, which would lead to an initial insulin release but would reduce subsequent responses through this pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- D K Fuhrer
- Basic Research, Fujisawa Research Institute of America, Northwestern University/Evanston Research Park, Evanston, IL 60201-3135, USA
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27
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Bernard C, Marsden DP, Wheal HV. Changes in neuronal excitability and synaptic function in a chronic model of temporal lobe epilepsy. Neuroscience 2001; 103:17-26. [PMID: 11311784 DOI: 10.1016/s0306-4522(00)00524-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Long-term potentiation and depression of glutamatergic synaptic responses are accompanied by an increased firing probability of neurons in response to a given excitatory input. This property, named excitatory postsynaptic potential/spike potentiation, has also been described in epileptic tissue and has pro-epileptic consequences. In this study, we show that excitatory postsynaptic potential/spike potentiation can be reversed in the kainic acid lesioned rat hippocampus, a chronic model of temporal lobe epilepsy. Simultaneous in vitro extracellular recordings in stratum radiatum and stratum pyramidale were performed in the CA1 area of the kainic acid lesioned rat hippocampal slices. Fifteen minutes, application of the K(+) channel blocker tetraethylammonium resulted in excitatory postsynaptic potential/spike potentiation (measured 90min after the start of the washout period) which could be reversed by subsequent low-frequency or tetanic stimuli. Excitatory postsynaptic potential/spike potentiation and its subsequent reversal by an electrical conditioning stimulus were found to have a N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor-independent component. Tetraethylammonium treatment also resulted in excitatory postsynaptic potential/spike potentiation of pharmacologically isolated N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor-mediated responses which could be reversed by subsequent low-frequency or tetanic stimuli. We conclude that excitatory postsynaptic potential/spike potentiation can be reversed in epileptic tissue, even in the absence of synaptic plasticity. These results suggest the presence of endogenous regulatory mechanisms which are able to decrease cell excitability.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Bernard
- Centre for Neuroscience, School of Biological Sciences, University of Southampton, Bassett Crescent East, Southampton, SO16 7PX, UK
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Aramburu J, Rao A, Klee CB. Calcineurin: from structure to function. CURRENT TOPICS IN CELLULAR REGULATION 2000; 36:237-95. [PMID: 10842755 DOI: 10.1016/s0070-2137(01)80011-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 248] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- J Aramburu
- Department of Pathology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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29
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Bultynck G, De Smet P, Weidema AF, Ver Heyen M, Maes K, Callewaert G, Missiaen L, Parys JB, De Smedt H. Effects of the immunosuppressant FK506 on intracellular Ca2+ release and Ca2+ accumulation mechanisms. J Physiol 2000; 525 Pt 3:681-93. [PMID: 10856121 PMCID: PMC2269973 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7793.2000.t01-1-00681.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The immunophilin FKBP12 associates with intracellular Ca2+ channels and this interaction can be disrupted by the immunosuppressant FK506. We have investigated the effect of FK506 on Ca2+ release and Ca2+ uptake in permeabilized cell types. Changes in medium free [Ca2+] were detected by the fluorescent Ca2+ indicator fluo-3 in digitonin-permeabilized SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells, DT40 and R23-11 (i.e. triple inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) receptor knockout cells) chicken B lymphocytes and differentiated and undifferentiated BC3H1 skeletal muscle cells. 45Ca2+ fluxes were studied in saponin-permeabilized A7r5 rat smooth muscle cells. Addition of FK506 to permeabilized SH-SY5Y cells led to a sustained elevation of the medium [Ca2+] corresponding to approximately 30 % of the Ca2+ ionophore A23187-induced [Ca2+] rise. This rise in [Ca2+] was not dependent on mitochondrial activity. This FK506-induced [Ca2+] rise was related to the inhibition of the sarcoplasmic/endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-Mg2+-ATPase (SERCA) Ca2+ pump. Oxalate-facilitated 45Ca2+ uptake in SH-SY5Y microsomes was inhibited by FK506 with an IC50 of 19 microM. The inhibition of the SERCA Ca2+ pump was not specific since several macrocyclic lactone compounds (ivermectin > FK506, ascomycin and rapamycin) were able to inhibit Ca2+ uptake activity. FK506 (10 microM) did not affect IP3-induced Ca2+ release in permeabilized SH-SY5Y and A7r5 cells, but enhanced caffeine-induced Ca2+ release via the ryanodine receptor (RyR) in differentiated BC3H1 cells. In conclusion, FK506 inhibited active Ca2+ uptake by the SERCA Ca2+ pump; in addition, FK506 enhanced intracellular Ca2+ release through the RyR, but it had no direct effect on IP3-induced Ca2+ release.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antiprotozoal Agents/pharmacology
- Aorta/cytology
- B-Lymphocytes/cytology
- Biological Transport/drug effects
- Biological Transport/physiology
- Caffeine/pharmacology
- Calcimycin/pharmacology
- Calcium/pharmacokinetics
- Calcium Channels/physiology
- Calcium Signaling/drug effects
- Calcium Signaling/physiology
- Calcium-Transporting ATPases/metabolism
- Chickens
- Enzyme Inhibitors/pharmacology
- Humans
- Immunosuppressive Agents/pharmacology
- Inositol 1,4,5-Trisphosphate Receptors
- Ionophores/pharmacology
- Ivermectin/pharmacology
- Mice
- Microsomes/chemistry
- Microsomes/enzymology
- Muscle, Smooth, Vascular/chemistry
- Muscle, Smooth, Vascular/cytology
- Muscle, Smooth, Vascular/enzymology
- Neuroblastoma
- Oxalates/pharmacology
- Phosphodiesterase Inhibitors/pharmacology
- Rats
- Receptors, Cytoplasmic and Nuclear/physiology
- Sirolimus/pharmacology
- Spermine/pharmacology
- Tacrolimus/analogs & derivatives
- Tacrolimus/pharmacology
- Thapsigargin/pharmacology
- Tumor Cells, Cultured
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Affiliation(s)
- G Bultynck
- Laboratorium voor Fysiologie, K.U.Leuven Campus Gasthuisberg O/N, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium.
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