Proliferation of dendritic cell progenitors in long term culture is not dependent on granulocyte macrophage-colony stimulating factor

Competent antigen-presenting cells are generated from the long-term culture of splenocytes with granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor

Dendritic cells (DCs) are routinely produced from the culture of mouse bone marrow (BM) with granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) within a period of 10days. Although splenic extramedullary myelopoiesis was suggested to occur under the influence of GM-CSF, the hematopoietic outcome of splenic culture with GM-CSF has not been scrutinized. We have cultured mouse splenocytes with GM-CSF for an extended period of time, where we discovered that the CD11b⁺CD11c⁺ cells began to proliferate prominently after 10days and their number increased until the 4th week of the culture. In parallel experiments, FMS-like tyrosine kinase 3 (FLT3) and its ligand, FLT3L, were not found to influence the culture of splenocytes. Like DCs in the culture of BM with GM-CSF, a distinct population of CD11b⁺CD11c⁺MHC II^hi cells was readily identified as DCs in the long-term culture of splenocytes. After being isolated and plated overnight the CD11b⁺CD11c⁺MHC II^hi cells exhibited non-adherent dendritic morphology, while the other CD11b⁺CD11c⁺ cells became adherent. Besides, these CD11b⁺CD11c⁺MHC II^hi cells possessed relatively weak endocytic and phagocytic abilities but displayed strong antigen-presenting capacities, revealing DC-like characteristics; in contrast, the other CD11b⁺CD11c⁺ cells showed strong endocytosis and phagocytosis of antigens but were poor at antigen presentation, indicating macrophage-like traits. Therefore, we demonstrated that phenotypically as well as functionally genuine DCs are generated in the long-term culture of splenocytes with GM-CSF.

Identification of Barramundi (Lates calcarifer) DC-SCRIPT, a Specific Molecular Marker for Dendritic Cells in Fish

Antigen presentation is a critical step bridging innate immune recognition and specific immune memory. In mammals, the process is orchestrated by dendritic cells (DCs) in the lymphatic system, which initiate clonal proliferation of antigen-specific lymphocytes. However, fish lack a classical lymphatic system and there are currently no cellular markers for DCs in fish, thus antigen-presentation in fish is poorly understood. Recently, antigen-presenting cells similar in structure and function to mammalian DCs were identified in various fish, including rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and zebrafish (Danio rerio). The present study aimed to identify a potential molecular marker for DCs in fish and therefore targeted DC-SCRIPT, a well-conserved zinc finger protein that is preferentially expressed in all sub-types of human DCs. Putative dendritic cells were obtained in culture by maturation of spleen and pronephros-derived monocytes. DC-SCRIPT was identified in barramundi by homology using RACE PCR and genome walking. Specific expression of DC-SCRIPT was detected in barramundi cells by Stellaris mRNA FISH, in combination with MHCII expression when exposed to bacterial derived peptidoglycan, suggesting the presence of DCs in L. calcarifer. Moreover, morphological identification was achieved by light microscopy of cytospins prepared from these cultures. The cultured cells were morphologically similar to mammalian and trout DCs. Migration assays determined that these cells have the ability to move towards pathogens and pathogen associated molecular patterns, with a preference for peptidoglycans over lipopolysaccharides. The cells were also strongly phagocytic, engulfing bacteria and rapidly breaking them down. Barramundi DCs induced significant proliferation of responder populations of T-lymphocytes, supporting their role as antigen presenting cells. DC-SCRIPT expression in head kidney was higher 6 and 24 h following intraperitoneal challenge with peptidoglycan and lipopolysaccharide and declined after 3 days relative to PBS-injected controls. Relative expression was also lower in the spleen at 3 days post challenge but increased again at 7 days. As DC-SCRIPT is a constitutively expressed nuclear receptor, independent of immune activation, this may indicate initial migration of immature DCs from head kidney and spleen to the injection site, followed by return to the spleen for maturation and antigen presentation. DC-SCRIPT may be a valuable tool in the investigation of antigen presentation in fish and facilitate optimisation of vaccines and adjuvants for aquaculture.

Functional identification of dendritic cells in the teleost model, rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

Dendritic cells are specialized antigen presenting cells that bridge innate and adaptive immunity in mammals. This link between the ancient innate immune system and the more evolutionarily recent adaptive immune system is of particular interest in fish, the oldest vertebrates to have both innate and adaptive immunity. It is unknown whether dendritic cells co-evolved with the adaptive response, or if the connection between innate and adaptive immunity relied on a fundamentally different cell type early in evolution. We approached this question using the teleost model organism, rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), with the aim of identifying dendritic cells based on their ability to stimulate naïve T cells. Adapting mammalian protocols for the generation of dendritic cells, we established a method of culturing highly motile, non-adherent cells from trout hematopoietic tissue that had irregular membrane processes and expressed surface MHCII. When side-by-side mixed leukocyte reactions were performed, these cells stimulated greater proliferation than B cells or macrophages, demonstrating their specialized ability to present antigen and therefore their functional homology to mammalian dendritic cells. Trout dendritic cells were then further analyzed to determine if they exhibited other features of mammalian dendritic cells. Trout dendritic cells were found to have many of the hallmarks of mammalian DCs including tree-like morphology, the expression of dendritic cell markers, the ability to phagocytose small particles, activation by toll-like receptor-ligands, and the ability to migrate in vivo. As in mammals, trout dendritic cells could be isolated directly from the spleen, or larger numbers could be derived from hematopoietic tissue and peripheral blood mononuclear cells in vitro.

Hematopoiesis leading to a diversity of dendritic antigen-presenting cell types

Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) undergo expansion and differentiation, giving rise to all terminally differentiated blood cells throughout life. HSCs are found in distinct anatomical sites during development, and in adults, hematopoiesis occurs predominantly on the luminal side of the bone cavity in bone marrow. Millions of newly formed blood cells are generated per second to accommodate the short half-life of hematopoietic cells. For this to happen, HSCs must sustain their self-renewal capacity as well as their capability to commit and differentiate toward multiple cell lineages. Development of the hematopoietic system is finely regulated as the animal ages, so that it does not become exhausted or misdirected. This review covers aspects of hematopoietic development from the embryonic period through adult life in relation to development of dendritic cells. It also considers a role for HSCs in extramedullary sites and their possible role in myelopoiesis, with formation of tissue-specific antigen-presenting cells.

Stromal-mediated protection of tyrosine kinase inhibitor-treated BCR-ABL-expressing leukemia cells

Clinical studies of patients with chronic myeloid leukemia revealed that a common pattern of response is a dramatic fall in the circulating population of blast cells, with a minimal or delayed decrease in marrow blasts, suggesting a protective environment. These observations suggest that a greater understanding of the interaction of stromal cells with leukemic cells is essential. Here, we present an in vivo system for monitoring relative tumor accumulation in leukemic mice and residual disease in leukemic mice treated with a tyrosine kinase inhibitor and an in vitro system for identifying integral factors involved in stromal-mediated cytoprotection. Using the in vivo model, we observed high tumor burden/residual disease in tissues characterized as significant sources of hematopoiesis-promoting stroma, with bone marrow stroma most frequently showing the highest accumulation of leukemia in untreated and nilotinib-treated mice as well as partial protection of leukemic cells from the inhibitory effects of nilotinib. These studies, which showed a pattern of leukemia distribution consistent with what is observed in imatinib- and nilotinib-treated chronic myeloid leukemia patients, were followed by a more in-depth analysis of stroma-leukemia cell interactions that lead to protection of leukemia cells from nilotinib-induced cytotoxicity. For the latter, we used the human BCR-ABL-positive cell line, KU812F, and the human bone marrow stroma cell line, HS-5, to more closely approximate the bone marrow-associated cytoprotection observed in drug-treated leukemia patients. This in vitro system helped to elucidate stromal-secreted viability factors that may play a role in stromal-mediated cytoprotection of tyrosine kinase inhibitor-treated leukemia cells.

Hematopoiesis of immature myeloid dendritic cells in stroma-dependent spleen long-term cultures occurs independently of NF-KB/RelB function

OBJECTIVE

The nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-KB)/RelB transcription factor plays an essential role in development of some dendritic cell (DC) subsets in mice. In this laboratory, immature myeloid DC are produced in vitro in a stroma-dependent murine spleen long-term culture (LTC) system. In LTC, DC differentiate from hematopoietic progenitors maintained within the stromal cell matrix. Expression and function of RelB in development of LTC-DC has been investigated, with a view to assessing the relationship between DC produced in this system and other known subsets of DC.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

RelB expression by LTC-DC was confirmed by detection of protein by Western blotting, RNA by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction, and nuclear protein with DNA-binding function in electrophoretic mobility shift assays. The role of RelB in cell development was assessed by addition of antisense RelB oligonucleotides into LTC and colony assays established above STX3 stromal cells. RelB(-/-) mice were also examined for ability to produce LTC, and for presence of DC progenitors in spleen and bone marrow that can generate DC when overlaid on STX3 in cocultures.

RESULTS

Functional RelB was detected in both LTC-DC and in STX3 stromal cells. A critical role for RelB in DC differentiation from spleen progenitors was confirmed, because antisense RelB oligonucleotides specifically and completely inhibited production of large differentiated myeloid DC in LTC. Further investigation using RelB(-/-) mice revealed that RelB expression by stromal cells rather than hematopoietic cells was required for production of LTC-DC. This was evidenced by a combination of factors, including 1) inability to generate productive LTC from RelB(-/-) mice; 2) presence of DC precursors in RelB(-/-) bone marrow and spleen, which could produce DC in stromal cocultures; and 3) increased myeloid precursor frequency among RelB(-/-) spleen cells over RelB(+/+) control cell populations.

CONCLUSION

Specific development of fully differentiated, but immature myeloid CD11c(+)CD11b(+)MHC-CII(-)CD8alpha(-)CD40(-) DC in spleen LTC is dependent on expression of activated NF-kappaB/Rel-B. However, this appears to relate to stromal cell function rather than to the function of hematopoietic cells. Altogether these data confirm the importance of splenic stromal cells in myelopoiesis leading to development of immature DC as produced in LTC.

Sustained generation of tissue dendritic cells from cats using organ stromal cell cultures

Currently most dendritic cells (DC) for in vitro study are generated from bone marrow or peripheral blood by culture in high concentrations of GM-CSF and other cytokines. However, in mice it is also possible to generate DC from spleen cells using long-term stromal cell cultures. To determine whether tissue DC could be also be generated from cats, we established stromal cell cultures from a number of different tissues of newborn cats. We found that stromal cell cultures from spleen, lung, liver, kidney, brain, and lymph node tissues were all capable of spontaneously generating DC over long periods of time (months), without requiring the addition of exogenous cytokines. The tissue DC generated from these stromal cell cultures could be readily isolated at high purity by simple mechanical detachment. The feline tissue DC expressed high levels of CD11c, CD11b, and MHC Class II and variable levels of CD80 and CD14 and exhibited high levels of spontaneous macropinocytosis. Moreover, DC from spleen stromal cell cultures, but not DC from lung or liver stromal cell cultures, stimulated mixed-lymphocyte reactions. The DC generated from the stromal cell cultures were relatively independent of GM-CSF for survival and proliferation, indicative of a dependence on other growth factors produced by the stromal cells. These results suggest that tissues of young cats contain a population of resident DC progenitor cells that under appropriate conditions are capable of spontaneous proliferation and generation of immature DC.

Use of gene profiling to describe a niche for dendritic cell development

Gene profiling provides a multitude of data on individual gene expression. The view is expressed here that unreplicated data can be used in a descriptive way to compare cell populations in terms of their lineage characteristics and function. In these studies, the aim is to provide a snapshot of gene expression or its absence as a reflection of cell lineage or type, rather than gain a reliable expression measure for all genes expressed. The data set used in this analysis represents gene expression in the splenic stroma STX3 supportive of dendritic cell hematopoiesis and the lymph node stroma 2RL22, which is non-supportive. These were obtained by hybridization of Affymetrix U74Av2 genechips. The use of P-value selection to identify genes with a high probability of differential expression has been used effectively to detect differentially expressed genes. Genes that relate to a niche environment for hematopoiesis have been selected for further study to make predictions about the cell types of supportive stroma.

Splenic Endothelial Cell Lines Support Development of Dendritic Cells from Bone Marrow

Although growth factors are commonly used to generate dendritic cells (DCs) in vitro, the role of the microenvironment necessary for DC development is still poorly understood. The mixed splenic stromal cell population STX3 defines an in vitro microenvironment supportive of DC development. Dissection of cellular components of the STX3 stroma should provide information about a niche for DC development. STX3 was therefore cloned by single-cell sorting, and a panel of 102 splenic stromal cell lines was established. Four representative splenic stromal cell lines that support hematopoiesis from bone marrow are described here in terms of stromal cell type and DC production. All four stromal lines express the endothelial genes Acvrl1, Cd34, Col18a1, Eng, Flt1, Mcam, and Vcam1 but not Cd31 or Vwf. Three of the four lines form tube-like structures when cultured on Matrigel. Their endothelial maturity correlates with the ability to support myeloid DC development from bone marrow. A fourth cell line, unable to form tube-like structures in Matrigel, produced large granulocytic cells expressing CD11b and CD86 but not CD11c and CD80. Conditioned media from splenic stromal cell lines also support DC production, indicating that soluble growth factors and cytokines produced by stromal lines drive DC development. This article reports characterization of immature endothelial cell lines derived from spleen that are supportive of DC development and predicts the existence of such a cell type in vivo which regulates DC development within spleen.

The immunogenicity of dendritic cell-derived exosomes

Exosome production represents an alternate endocytic pathway for secretion. Multivesicular endosomes (MVE) fuse with the plasma membrane expelling internal vesicles or exosomes from cells. Exosome production has been recently described for immune cells including B cells, dendritic cells (DC), mast cells, macrophages and T cells. Exosomes derived from some DC populations stimulate T lymphocyte proliferation in vitro and have potent capacity to generate anti-tumour immune responses in vivo. These reported studies have involved in vitro grown mature DC expanded from precursors with cytokines. However, immature DC produce higher numbers of exosomes than mature DC and this is thought to be due to a reduction in endocytosis as DC mature, associated with reduced reformation of MVE and reduced exosome formation. This lab pioneered a method to generate immature DC in spleen long-term cultures (LTC). DC produced in cultures represent immature myeloid DC, highly endocytic but with weak capacity to stimulate T cells. LTC-DC produce exosomes and contain many MVE. This prompted a study of immunogenic potential with a view to the potential use of exosomes in vaccination and immunotherapy. DC produced in cultures represent immature myeloid DC, highly endocytic but with weak capacity to stimulate T cells. Exosomes were isolated by differential centrifugation from LTC-DC and shown by marker expression to arise by budding from the LAMP-1+ limiting endosomal membrane of MVE. These LTC-derived exosomes appear however to lack immunostimulatory markers like CD86, CD40, MHC-I and MHC-II. While LTC-DC can stimulate antigen-specific proliferation of CD4+ T cells, exosome preparations derived from antigen-pulsed DC were unable to stimulate purified naïve T cells in vitro. They were however found to weakly activate allogeneic CD8+ T cells in vitro. Tumour antigen-pulsed LTC-DC or their exosomes could induce a protective response in mice against growth of a transplanted tumour but could not induce a response to clear an existing tumour. Exosomes derived from immature DC can modulate immune responses, but do not function in direct T cell activation in vitro. Modulation of immune responses by exosomes produced by immature DC may be dependent on the presence of other antigen presenting DC subsets in the animal. The possible function of immature DC and their exosomes in maintenance of tolerance and in the induction of immunity is discussed.

Molecular definition of an in vitro niche for dendritic cell development

OBJECTIVE

Although dendritic cell (DC) precursors have been isolated from many lymphoid sites, the regulation and location of early DC development is still poorly understood. Here we describe a splenic microenvironment that supports DC hematopoiesis in vitro and identify gene expression specific for that niche.

METHODS

The DC supportive function of the STX3 splenic stroma and the lymph node-derived 2RL22 stroma for overlaid bone marrow cells was assessed by coculture over 2 weeks. The DC supportive function of SXT3 was identified in terms of specific gene expression in STX3 and not 2RL22 using Affymetrix microchips.

RESULTS

STX3 supports DC differentiation from overlaid bone marrow precursors while 2RL22 does not. A dataset of 154 genes specifically expressed in STX3 and not 2RL22 was retrieved from Affymetrix results. Functional annotation has led to selection of 26 genes as candidate regulators of the microenvironment supporting DC hematopoiesis. Specific expression of 14 of these genes in STX3 and not 2RL22 was confirmed by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction.

CONCLUSION

Some genes specifically expressed in STX3 have been previously associated with hematopoietic stem cell niches. A high proportion of genes encode growth factors distinct from those commonly used for in vitro development of DC from precursors. Potential regulators of a DC microenvironment include genes involved in angiogenesis, hematopoiesis, and development, not previously linked to DC hematopoiesis.

Dendritic Cell Development in Long-Term Spleen Stromal Cultures

The cellular microenvironments in which dendritic cells (DCs) develop are not known. DCs are commonly expanded from CD34+ bone marrow precursors or blood monocytes using a cocktail of growth factors including GM-CSF. However, cytokine-supported cultures are not suitable for studying the intermediate stages of DC development, since progenitors are quickly driven to become mature DCs that undergo limited proliferation and survive for only a short period of time. This lab has developed a long-term culture (LTC) system from spleen which readily generates a high yield of DCs. Hematopoietic cells develop under more normal physiological conditions than in cultures supplemented with cytokines. A spleen stromal cell monolayer supports stem cell maintenance, renewal, and the specific differentiation of only DCs and no other hematopoietic cells. Cultures maintain continuous production of a small population of small-sized progenitors and a large population of fully developed DCs. Cell-cell interaction between stromal cells and progenitor cells is critical for DC differentiation. The progenitors maintained in LTC appear to be quite distinct from bone marrow-derived DC progenitors that respond to GM-CSF. The majority of cells produced in LTC are large-sized cells with a phenotype reflecting myeloid-like DC precursors or immature DCs. These cells are highly endocytotic and weakly immunostimulatory for T cells. This model system predicts in situ production of DCs in spleen from endogenous progenitors, as well as a central role for spleen in DC hematopoiesis.

Identification of differentially expressed genes representing dendritic cell precursors and their progeny

The development of dendritic cells (DCs) from hematopoietic progenitors is not well understood. Using a spleen-derived long-term culture (LTC) system, it has been possible to continuously generate DCs from progenitors maintained in culture. The nonadherent LTC-DC population is composed of 2 major subsets. These are the small LTC-DC or DC precursors and their progeny, the large LTC-DCs that phenotypically resemble immature DCs. In this study, subtracted cDNA libraries were generated containing sequences differentially expressed in small or large LTC-DCs. Differential screening was then used on plated library clones to select genes expressed in either the small or the large cell population. Real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) has been used to verify the selection procedure for several genes of particular interest. Known genes isolated from subtracted libraries were related to stages in DC development and supported previous findings regarding the function of small and large LTC-DCs. Large LTC-DCs expressed a number of immunologically important genes encoding CD86, CCR1, osteopontin, and lysozyme. Small LTC-DCs resembled progenitor DCs expressing genes related to the organization of the cytoskeleton, the regulation of antigen processing, and a number of mitochondrial and ribosomal proteins. Novel transcripts were isolated from small and large LTC-DC-subtracted libraries that could encode novel proteins important in DC development. This study describes changes in gene expression related to the development of CD11c+CD11b+ major histocompatibility complex 2 low (MHC2lo) CD8alpha- DCs from precursors in a stroma-dependent culture system in the absence of exogenous cytokines.

Dynamics of dendritic cell development from precursors maintained in stroma-dependent long-term cultures

Two distinct subsets of dendritic cells are produced within the non-adherent cell population of the stroma-dependent long-term culture system. These are the small subset containing dendritic cell precursors and their progeny, large long-term culture-dendritic cells, which resemble immature CD11c+CD11b+MHCIIloCD8alpha- dendritic cells. The replicative and developmental potential of cells produced in long-term culture were investigated as a model for production of dendritic cells from progenitors. Cell proliferation and apoptosis were examined by labelling with bromodeoxyuridine and Annexin-V, respectively. The developmental potential of cells was analysed following transfer on to stromal monolayers or into in vitro colony and transwell assays. Results demonstrate that small long-term culture-dendritic cells are stromal cell-dependent. In the absence of stroma, they become apoptotic and die. Furthermore, direct contact with stromal cells is necessary for the differentiation and proliferation of small precursor cells. The small cell subset contains no long-term self-renewing cells, but instead appears to contain cells committed to developing into large long-term culture dendritic cells. The large long-term culture dendritic cell subset also contains dividing cells. Survival of large long-term culture-dendritic cells is dependent on soluble stroma-derived factor(s) and not direct contact with the stromal layer. All data suggest that the long-term culture system supports dendritic cell development from a self-renewing progenitor population resident within the stroma that gives rise to committed dendritic cell precursors and immature dendritic cells.

Microgravity culture condition reduces immunogenicity and improves function of pancreatic islets1

BACKGROUND

The failure of pancreatic islet allotransplants observed in almost all clinical attempts is related to poor initial islet function and allograft rejection. To remedy these problems we cultured islets in microgravity conditions to improve their function and to reduce their immunogenicity.

METHODS

Fresh mouse islets or mouse islets cultured in stationary dishes or microgravity bioreactors were transplanted to streptozotocin-induced diabetic mouse recipients.

RESULTS

Both allogeneic dish- or bioreactor-cultured islets survived more than 100 days compared with fresh allogeneic islets, which were rejected in less than 15 days. Islet titration studies revealed that 250 fresh or dish-cultured, but only 30 to 120 bioreactor-cultured, islets were necessary to produce euglycemia. Furthermore, glucose tolerance tests showed that bioreactor-cultured islets functioned better compared with fresh and dish-cultured islets on day 30 postgrafting. Immunostaining and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analyses showed the gradual disappearance of dendritic cells in cultured islets compared with fresh islets. TEM revealed that the ultrastructure of islets from bioreactor, but not dish, appeared healthy and closely resembled fresh islets. Interestingly, TEM and scanning electron microscopy showed that only bioreactor-cultured islets developed unique and multiple nutritional channels between arrays of islet cells. TEM with colloidal lanthanum tracer revealed that only bioreactor islet cell cultures were devoid of tight junctional complexes, which may facilitate channel formation.

CONCLUSION

Microgravity condition decreases immunogenicity and significantly improves the function of secretory cells.

Identification of progenitor cells in long-term spleen stromal cultures that produce immature dendritic cells

Dendritic cells (DC) are produced continuously by a unique, long-term culture (LTC) system in which hemopoiesis is supported by a splenic stromal cell layer in the absence of added growth factors. Flow cytometric analysis reveals the production of two distinct cell subsets. The more predominant large-cell subset resembles highly endocytic DC that are large, granular, and possess membrane extensions. They also express high levels of the DC markers CD11c, CD11b, DEC-205, and CD80 on their cell surface. They do not resemble mature DC because they express low levels of MHC type II and CD86 molecules, as well as c-kit and Fc receptor (FcR). These are known characteristics of immature DC. Small cells are smaller and less granular than large cells, with negative to low expression of CD11c, DEC-205, and CD86. A majority of small cells express varying levels of CD11b and CD80. Subpopulations of small cells express low levels of c-kit, FcR, and MHC type II, and only a 20% subpopulation is weakly endocytic. Upon transfer to an irradiated stromal layer, cells within the small subset proliferate and differentiate to resemble the large cells in size, complexity, membrane extensions, and CD11c and CD86 expression. The two cell subsets produced in LTC are developmentally linked, with the heterogeneous small-cell subset containing progenitors of the larger homogeneous, immature DC subset. LTC represent a valuable model system for studying DC development from hemopoietic progenitors.