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Peach CJ, Edgington-Mitchell LE, Bunnett NW, Schmidt BL. Protease-activated receptors in health and disease. Physiol Rev 2023; 103:717-785. [PMID: 35901239 PMCID: PMC9662810 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00044.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2021] [Revised: 07/08/2022] [Accepted: 07/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Proteases are signaling molecules that specifically control cellular functions by cleaving protease-activated receptors (PARs). The four known PARs are members of the large family of G protein-coupled receptors. These transmembrane receptors control most physiological and pathological processes and are the target of a large proportion of therapeutic drugs. Signaling proteases include enzymes from the circulation; from immune, inflammatory epithelial, and cancer cells; as well as from commensal and pathogenic bacteria. Advances in our understanding of the structure and function of PARs provide insights into how diverse proteases activate these receptors to regulate physiological and pathological processes in most tissues and organ systems. The realization that proteases and PARs are key mediators of disease, coupled with advances in understanding the atomic level structure of PARs and their mechanisms of signaling in subcellular microdomains, has spurred the development of antagonists, some of which have advanced to the clinic. Herein we review the discovery, structure, and function of this receptor system, highlight the contribution of PARs to homeostatic control, and discuss the potential of PAR antagonists for the treatment of major diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chloe J Peach
- Department of Molecular Pathobiology, College of Dentistry, New York University, New York, New York
- Department of Neuroscience and Physiology and Neuroscience Institute, Grossman School of Medicine, New York University, New York, New York
| | - Laura E Edgington-Mitchell
- Department of Biochemistry and Pharmacology, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Bluestone Center for Clinical Research, Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, New York University College of Dentistry, New York, New York
| | - Nigel W Bunnett
- Department of Molecular Pathobiology, College of Dentistry, New York University, New York, New York
- Department of Neuroscience and Physiology and Neuroscience Institute, Grossman School of Medicine, New York University, New York, New York
| | - Brian L Schmidt
- Department of Molecular Pathobiology, College of Dentistry, New York University, New York, New York
- Bluestone Center for Clinical Research, Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, New York University College of Dentistry, New York, New York
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Tomko N, Kluever M, Wu C, Zhu J, Wang Y, Salomon RG. 4-Hydroxy-7-oxo-5-heptenoic acid lactone is a potent inducer of brain cancer cell invasiveness that may contribute to the failure of anti-angiogenic therapies. Free Radic Biol Med 2020; 146:234-256. [PMID: 31715381 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2019.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2019] [Revised: 10/29/2019] [Accepted: 11/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Previously, we discovered that free radical-induced oxidative fragmentation of the docosahexaenoate ester of 2-lysophosphatidylcholine produces 4-hydroxy-7-oxo-5-heptenoic acid (HOHA) lactone that, in turn, promotes the migration and invasion of endothelial cells. This suggested that HOHA lactone might similarly promote migration and invasion of glioblastoma multiformae (GBM) brain cancer stem cells (CSCs). A bioinformatics analysis of clinical cancer genomic data revealed that matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)1 and three markers of oxidative stress - superoxide dismutase 2, NADPH oxidase 4, and carbonic anhydrase 9 - are upregulated in human mesenchymal GBM cancer tissue, and that MMP1 is positively correlated to all three of these oxidative stress markers. In addition, elevated levels of MMP1 are indicative of GBM invasion, while low levels of MMP1 indicate survival. We also explored the hypothesis that the transition from the proneural to the more aggressive mesenchymal phenotype, e.g., after treatment with an anti-angiogenic therapy, is promoted by the effects of lipid oxidation products on GBM CSCs. We found that low micromolar concentrations of HOHA lactone increase the cell migration velocity of cultured GBM CSCs, and induce the expression of MMP1 and two protein biomarkers of the proneural to mesenchymal transition (PMT): p65 NF-κβ and vimentin. Exposure of cultured GBM CSCs to HOHA lactone causes an increase in phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinases and Akt kinases that are dependent on both protease-activated receptor 1 (PAR1) and MMP1 activity. We conclude that HOHA lactone promotes the PMT in GBM through the activation of PAR1 and MMP1. This contributes to a fatal flaw in antiangiogenic, chemo, and radiation therapies: they promote oxidative stress and the generation of HOHA lactone in the tumor that fosters a change from the proliferative proneural to the migratory mesenchymal GBM CSC phenotype that seeds new tumor growth. Inhibition of PAR1 and HOHA lactone are potential new therapeutic targets for impeding GBM tumor recurrence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas Tomko
- Department of Chemistry, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA
| | - Mark Kluever
- Department of Chemistry, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA
| | - Chunying Wu
- Department of Radiology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA
| | - Junqing Zhu
- Department of Radiology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA
| | - Yanming Wang
- Department of Chemistry, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA; Department of Radiology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA
| | - Robert G Salomon
- Department of Chemistry, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA.
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Sedda S, Marafini I, Caruso R, Pallone F, Monteleone G. Proteinase activated-receptors-associated signaling in the control of gastric cancer. World J Gastroenterol 2014; 20:11977-11984. [PMID: 25232234 PMCID: PMC4161785 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v20.i34.11977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2013] [Revised: 02/10/2014] [Accepted: 05/05/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Gastric cancer (GC) is the fourth most common cancer in the world and the second cause of cancer-related death. Gastric carcinogenesis is a multifactorial process, in which environmental and genetic factors interact to activate multiple intracellular signals thus leading to uncontrolled growth and survival of GC cells. One such a pathway is regulated by proteinase activated-receptors (PARs), seven transmembrane-spanning domain G protein-coupled receptors, which comprise four receptors (i.e., PAR-1, PAR-2, PAR-3, and PAR-4) activated by various proteases. Both PAR-1 and PAR-2 are over-expressed on GC cells and their activation triggers and/or amplifies intracellular pathways, which sustain gastric carcinogenesis. There is also evidence that expression of either PAR-1 or PAR-2 correlates with depth of wall invasion and metastatic dissemination and inversely with the overall survival of patients. Consistently, data emerging from experimental models of GC suggest that both these receptors can be important targets for therapeutic interventions in GC patients. In contrast, PAR-4 levels are down-regulated in GC and correlate inversely with the aggressiveness of GC, thus suggesting a negative role of this receptor in the control of GC. In this article we review the available data on the expression and role of PARs in GC and discuss whether manipulation of PAR-driven signals may be useful for interfering with GC cell behavior.
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Abstract
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) belong to a superfamily of cell surface signalling proteins that have a pivotal role in many physiological functions and in multiple diseases, including the development of cancer and cancer metastasis. Current drugs that target GPCRs - many of which have excellent therapeutic benefits - are directed towards only a few GPCR members. Therefore, huge efforts are currently underway to develop new GPCR-based drugs, particularly for cancer. We review recent findings that present unexpected opportunities to interfere with major tumorigenic signals by manipulating GPCR-mediated pathways. We also discuss current data regarding novel GPCR targets that may provide promising opportunities for drug discovery in cancer prevention and treatment.
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Expression of proteinase-activated receptor 1-4 (PAR 1-4) in human cancer. J Mol Histol 2010; 41:89-99. [PMID: 20563836 DOI: 10.1007/s10735-010-9274-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2010] [Accepted: 06/02/2010] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Proteinase activated receptors (PAR 1-4) are membrane receptors with a unique way of activation by proteinases like thrombin, trypsin and matrix metalloproteinases which lead to a specific cellular response. To evaluate the significance of expression and co-expression of PAR in cancer we performed a survey on published data. A Pubmed literature search on "PAR, thrombin, cancer" was performed and 46 publications were selected for systematic review based on the availability of information on tumor type, material type, detection method and specification of positive cases. PAR-1 was found in 77.3% of malignant samples (n = 678), PAR-2 in 79.5% (n = 592), PAR-3 in 12.6% (n = 87) and PAR-4 in 54.9% (n = 153). PAR-1 and -2 were present in adenocarcinomas, melanomas, osteosarcomas, glioblastomas, meningiomas, leukaemias and squamous cell carcinomas. Presence of PAR-3 was limited to kidney and liver cancer. The data on PAR-4 expression was inconclusive. Those studies analysing PAR-1 and PAR-2 reported coexpression of the two receptors. PAR-1 and -2 are widely expressed in human tumors suggesting an important role in tumorigenesis and providing potential targets for therapy. PAR-3 and PAR-4 are less frequently detectable, their expression and potential role in tumorigenesis require further investigation.
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Thrombin regulates matrix metalloproteinase-9 expression in human monocytes. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2009; 385:241-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2009.05.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2009] [Accepted: 05/13/2009] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Jahan I, Fujimoto J, Alam SM, Sato E, Sakaguchi H, Tamaya T. Role of protease activated receptor-2 in tumor advancement of ovarian cancers. Ann Oncol 2007; 18:1506-12. [PMID: 17761706 DOI: 10.1093/annonc/mdm190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Protease activated receptor-2 (PAR-2) has been implicated in cellular proliferation, invasion and metastasis with angiogenesis in various tumors. This prompted us to study the role of PAR-2 in tumor advancement of ovarian cancers. MATERIALS AND METHODS Forty-eight patients underwent surgery for ovarian cancers. In ovarian cancers, PAR-2 histoscores and mRNA levels were determined by immunohistochemistry and real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction, respectively. Patient prognosis was analysed with a 36-month survival rate. Microvessel counts were determined by immunohistochemistry for CD31 and factor VIII-related antigen and the rate of cell proliferation was determined by immunohistochemistry for Ki67. RESULTS Immunohistochemical staining revealed distribution of PAR-2, dominantly in cancer cells and faintly in stromal cells of the tumor. PAR-2 histoscores in cancer cells and mRNA levels both significantly increased in ovarian cancers with clinical stages (I < II < III < IV, P < 0.05), regardless of histopathological type. The 36-month survival rate of 24 patients with high PAR-2 was poor (58%), while that of the other 24 patients with low PAR-2 was significantly higher (83%). There were significant correlations between PAR-2 histoscores in cancer cells and mRNA levels with microvessel counts and with the rate of cell proliferation in ovarian cancers. CONCLUSIONS PAR-2 was up-regulated during ovarian cancer progression. Therefore, PAR-2 might work on tumor advancement of ovarian cancers via angiogenic activity and is considered to be a novel prognostic indicator in ovarian cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Jahan
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Gifu University School of Medicine, 1-1 Yanagido, Gifu City 501-1194, Japan
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Tellez CS, Davis DW, Prieto VG, Gershenwald JE, Johnson MM, McCarty MF, Bar-Eli M. Quantitative Analysis of Melanocytic Tissue Array Reveals Inverse Correlation between Activator Protein-2α and Protease-Activated Receptor-1 Expression during Melanoma Progression. J Invest Dermatol 2007; 127:387-93. [PMID: 16946713 DOI: 10.1038/sj.jid.5700539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The identification of molecular markers of melanoma progression is needed to more accurately stage and identify treatments for patients with malignant melanoma. Previously, we demonstrated that loss of the activator protein-2alpha (AP-2alpha) expression results in overexpression of the protease-activated receptor-1 (PAR-1) in human melanoma cell lines. Here, we used a tissue microarray platform that consisted of 64 melanocytic lesions, including dysplastic nevi (N=21), primary melanoma (N=20), and metastatic melanoma (N=23). We analyzed the expression of AP-2 and PAR-1 simultaneously by immunofluorescent microscopy with an automated quantification laser scanning cytometer. AP-2 was highly expressed in normal cutaneous melanocytes and dysplastic nevi but not in melanoma metastases. We observed a significantly higher number of AP-2-positive cells in the dysplastic nevi (P=0.0013) and primary melanoma (P=0.0023) compared to the metastatic melanoma. In contrast, we observed a significantly higher percentage of PAR-1-positive cells in the metastatic melanoma compared to dysplastic nevi (P=0.0072) and primary melanoma (P=0.0138). Increased expression of PAR-1 in metastatic melanomas contributes to tumor progression by modulating expression of genes, such as IL-8, matrix metalloproteinase-2, vascular endothelial growth factor, platelet-derived growth factor, and integrins. These findings support our hypothesis that loss of AP-2 is a crucial event in the progression of human melanoma and contributes to the acquisition of the metastatic phenotype via upregulation of PAR-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmen S Tellez
- Department of Leukemia, The University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
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Abstract
G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), the largest family of cell-surface molecules involved in signal transmission, have recently emerged as crucial players in tumour growth and metastasis. Malignant cells often hijack the normal physiological functions of GPCRs to survive, proliferate autonomously, evade the immune system, increase their blood supply, invade their surrounding tissues and disseminate to other organs. This Review will address our current understanding of the many roles of GPCRs and their signalling circuitry in tumour progression and metastasis. We will also discuss how interfering with GPCRs might provide unique opportunities for cancer prevention and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert T Dorsam
- Oral and Pharyngeal Cancer Branch, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-4330, USA
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Abstract
Cancer may arise because the developmental programs that create the dramatic alterations in form and structure in embryonic development are potentially corrupted. The cells in our bodies retain memories of these processes and cancer can occur later in life if imperfections occur in the fidelity of these pathways. This article is particularly interested in the phenomenon of epithelial to mesenchymal transition, which occurs in embryogenesis. Also reviewed are the small molecules and pathways that are involved both in homeostasis in adult epithelium and embryogenesis in utero. There are five such pathways in particular selected for review in this article: the Wnt pathway, Hedgehog, Notch, PAR and Bone morphogenetic peptide/TGF beta. These are usually conserved throughout mammalian evolution. Though they have been arbitrarily separated in this article they are not exclusive from one another. Their pathologically altered expression is found especially frequently in childhood tumours where they may recapitulate their developmental role, and in tumours that resemble primitive precursor cells. These pathways are important for selecting cell fates, cellular rearrangements, cytological context and morphologic design in embryology as well as participating in epithelial function in adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fergal C Kelleher
- Department of Medical Oncology, St. Vincent's University Hospital, Dublin, Ireland.
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Niimi S, Harashima M, Takayama K, Hara M, Hyuga M, Seki T, Ariga T, Kawanishi T, Hayakawa T. Thrombomodulin enhances the invasive activity of mouse mammary tumor cells. J Biochem 2005; 137:579-86. [PMID: 15944410 DOI: 10.1093/jb/mvi070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Thrombomodulin (TM) is a thrombin receptor on the surface of endothelial cells that converts thrombin from a procoagulant to an anticoagulant. Thrombin promotes invasion by various tumor cells, and positive or negative correlations are found between the expression of TM and tumorigenesis in some patients. In this study, we used an invasion assay to investigate the effect of TM on the invasive activity of a mouse mammary tumor cell line, MMT cells, and the effects of TM were compared with those of thrombin as a positive control. In the presence of 1% fetal calf serum (FCS), TM significantly stimulated MMT cell invasion in a dose-dependent manner, resulting in an approximately 3-fold increase at 1-10 pg/ml over the untreated control. Thrombin also caused a similar degree of stimulation at 50 ng/ml. Since thrombin activity was detected in the components of the assay system, an invasion assay was also performed in a thrombin-activity-depleted assay system constructed to eliminate the effect of thrombin activity; TM (10 pg/ml) plus thrombin (1 pg/ml) stimulated invasion by approximately 3.5-fold in this assay system. Hirudin, a specific thrombin inhibitor, inhibited stimulation by TM as well as by thrombin in both the presence and absence of 1% FCS. Investigations of the effects of TM on proliferation, adhesion and chemotaxis to clarify the mechanism of stimulation by TM revealed that TM does not affect proliferation or adhesion in the presence of 1% FCS, but stimulates chemotaxis by approximately 2.3-fold. Similar results were obtained in experiments using thrombin. TM (10 pg/ml) plus thrombin (1 pg/ml), on the other hand, stimulated chemotaxis by approximately 2.3-fold in the thrombin-activity-depleted assay system. Binding studies using [125I]-thrombin revealed that the cells have specific saturable binding sites for thrombin. These results show that TM stimulates the invasive activity of MMT cells, probably by acting as a cofactor for the thrombin-stimulated invasion of the cells via its receptor and lowering the effective concentration of thrombin. The findings also indicate that the stimulation of invasive activity in the presence of 1% FCS and in the thrombin-activity-depleted assay system may mainly be mediated by the stimulation of chemotaxis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shingo Niimi
- Division of Biological Chemistry and Biologicals, National Institute of Health Sciences, Kamiyoga 1-18-1, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo 158-8501.
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Vesey DA, Cheung CW, Kruger WA, Poronnik P, Gobe G, Johnson DW. Thrombin stimulates proinflammatory and proliferative responses in primary cultures of human proximal tubule cells. Kidney Int 2005; 67:1315-29. [PMID: 15780084 DOI: 10.1111/j.1523-1755.2005.00209.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Fibrin deposition is frequently observed within the tubulointerstitium in various forms of chronic renal disease. This suggests the presence of active components of the coagulation pathway, which may contribute to the progressive deterioration in renal function. The aim of this study was to investigate the proinflammatory and fibroproliferative effects of the coagulation protease thrombin on human proximal tubular cells (PTC) in culture. METHODS Primary cultures of PTC were established from normal kidney tissue and grown under serum-free conditions with or without thrombin or the protease-activated receptor (PAR) activating peptides TFLLRN-NH(2), SLIGKV-NH(2), and SFLLRN-NH(2) (100 to 400 micromol/L). DNA synthesis (thymidine incorporation), intracellular Ca(2+) mobilization (fura-2 fluorimetry), fibronectin secretion [enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), immunoblotting], monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) secretion (ELISA), and transforming growth factor-beta1 (TGF-beta1) secretion (ELISA) were measured. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) was used to assess PAR mRNA expression in these cells. RESULTS Thrombin enhanced DNA synthesis, fibronectin secretion, MCP-1 secretion, and TGF-beta1 secretion in a concentration-dependent manner. Cell injury [lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release] and cellular protein levels were unaffected. RT-PCR showed that cultures of PTC expressed mRNA transcripts for the thrombin receptors PAR-1 and PAR-3, but not PAR-4. Thrombin and each of the PAR activating peptides enhanced intracellular calcium mobilization. However, the other effects of thrombin were only fully reproduced by the PAR-2-specific peptide, SLIGKV-NH(2), only partially by SFLLRN-NH(2), (a PAR-1 peptide that can activate PAR-2), and not at all by the PAR-1-specific peptide, TFLLRN-NH(2). Thrombin-induced DNA synthesis, fibronectin, and MCP-1 secretion were unaffected by a TGF-beta neutralizing antibody, the matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) inhibitor, GM6001 and the epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor kinase inhibitor AG1478. CONCLUSION Thrombin initiates both proinflammatory and fibroproliferative responses in human PTC. These responses which are dependent on its protease activity appear not to be mediated by PAR-1 activation, the autocrine action of thrombin-induced TGF-beta1 secretion, MMP activation, or EGF receptor transactivation. The proinflammatory and fibroproliferative actions of thrombin on human PTC may help explain the extent of tubulointerstitial fibrosis observed in kidney diseases where fibrin deposition is evident.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Vesey
- Department of Renal Medicine, University of Queensland, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Brisbane, Queenlsand, Australia.
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MacNaughton WK. Epithelial effects of proteinase-activated receptors in the gastrointestinal tract. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2005; 100 Suppl 1:211-5. [PMID: 15962125 DOI: 10.1590/s0074-02762005000900036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The intestinal epithelium plays a crucial role in providing a barrier between the external environment and the internal milieu of the body. A compromised mucosal barrier is characteristic of mucosal inflammation and is a key determinant of the development of intestinal diseases such as Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis. The intestinal epithelium is regularly exposed to serine proteinases and this exposure is enhanced in numerous disease states. Thus, it is important to understand how proteinase-activated receptors (PARs), which are activated by serine proteinases, can affect intestinal epithelial function. This review surveys the data which demonstrate the wide distribution of PARs, particularly PAR-1 and PAR-2, in the gastrointestinal tract and accessory organs, focusing on the epithelium and those cells which communicate with the epithelium to affect its function. PARs have a role in regulating secretion by epithelia of the salivary glands, stomach, pancreas and intestine. In addition, PARs located on subepithelial nerves, fibroblasts and mast cells have important implications for epithelial function. Recent data outline the importance of the cellular site of PAR expression, as PARs expressed on epithelia may have effects that are countered by PARs expressed on other cell types. Finally, PARs and their ability to promote epithelial cell proliferation are discussed in terms of colon cancer.
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Massi D, Naldini A, Ardinghi C, Carraro F, Franchi A, Paglierani M, Tarantini F, Ketabchi S, Cirino G, Hollenberg MD, Geppetti P, Santucci M. Expression of protease-activated receptors 1 and 2 in melanocytic nevi and malignant melanoma. Hum Pathol 2005; 36:676-85. [PMID: 16021575 DOI: 10.1016/j.humpath.2005.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Protease-activated receptors (PARs) are members of the G protein-coupled receptor superfamily that are activated by the proteolytic cleavage of their amino terminal domain. PAR-1 activation by thrombin results in several biologic effects, including platelet adhesion to other cells or extracellular matrix, fibroblast, and endothelial cell growth, whereas PAR-2, activated by trypsin, has mainly a proinflammmatory and angiogenetic role. PAR-1 and PAR-2 modulate cell proliferation in physiopathologic cell invasion processes, suggesting that they may play a role in the setting of cancer growth and metastasis. Here, we have investigated the expression of PAR-1 and PAR-2 proteins by immunohistochemistry in a series of benign and malignant melanocytic lesions: 20 melanocytic lesions (10 common melanocytic nevi and 10 atypical or "dysplastic" melanocytic nevi) and 50 melanomas (10 in situ melanomas, 10 melanomas T1, 10 melanomas T2, 10 melanomas T3 to T4, and 10 metastatic melanomas). PAR-1 was significantly overexpressed in atypical nevi and melanomas in comparison with common melanocytic nevi. PAR-2 was strongly and diffusely expressed by immunohistochemistry in all melanocytic lesions, with no statistically significant differences between nevi and melanomas. Because we found a differential expression in PAR-1 protein, but not in PAR-2, we next investigated the expression of PAR-1 messenger RNA (mRNA) by ribonuclease protection assay in paraffin-embedded tissues using a paraffin block RNA isolation procedure. Similarly to immunohistochemical results, PAR-1 mRNA expression was significantly higher in atypical nevi and melanomas in comparison with common nevi and controls. Overexpression of PAR-1 in atypical nevi and melanomas supports a role for PAR-1 in the initial phases of melanoma development as well as in tumor progression and metastasis. Conversely, the significance of PAR-2 up-regulation in both benign and malignant melanocytic lesions requires further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Massi
- Department of Human Pathology and Oncology, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
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15
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Xie WZ, Leibl M, Clark MR, Dohrmann P, Kunze T, Gieseler F. Activation of the coagulation system in cancerogenesis and metastasation. Biomed Pharmacother 2005; 59:70-5. [PMID: 15795099 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2005.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2004] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The activation of the coagulation system in cancer patients is a well-known phenomenon responsible for recurrent clinical problems. A number of fascinating molecular mechanisms have been recognized showing that the tumor not only activates the coagulation system, but vice versa, activated coagulation proteins are able to induce molecular effects in tumor cells. The molecular basis is the expression of defined membrane receptors by tumor cells that are activated, for example, by thrombin. As the liberation of thrombin from prothrombin is one of the key events in coagulation, it's impact upon biological processes, such as cancerogenesis and metastasation, seems to be a regular pathophysiological consequence. These perceptions are not only interesting for the comprehension of cancerogenesis, metastasation, and clinical phenomena, but they also have a high impact upon modern strategies of tumor therapy. Especially, the development of clinically useful coagulation inhibitors, such as modern low molecular weight heparins or melagatran, created the possibility of therapies that combine cell biological approaches with apoptosis-inducing principals such as chemotherapy. Several clinical studies that demonstrate the implication of these strategies have already been published recently. In this article the cell biological basics for these approaches are reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Z Xie
- Department of Internal Medicine, Section Hematology/Oncology, University of Kiel, Germany
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Abstract
Protease-activated receptor (PAR) 1, PAR3, and PAR4 are considered "thrombin receptors" because thrombin specifically cleaves the extracellular N-termini of the receptor to unmask a new amino acid terminus, which in turn acts as a peptide ligand by binding intramolecularly to the body of the receptor. Among those 3 family members, PAR1 is the predominant thrombin receptor. Although the thrombin-mediated regulation of clot formation has been studied extensively over the past decades, the possible role of thrombin in tumor metastasis via PAR1 has only recently received attention and is briefly discussed herein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ta-Chun Yuan
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198-5870, USA
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17
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Kirszberg C, Rumjanek VM, Monteiro RQ. Assembly and regulation of prothrombinase complex on B16F10 melanoma cells. Thromb Res 2005; 115:123-9. [PMID: 15567463 DOI: 10.1016/j.thromres.2004.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2004] [Revised: 07/30/2004] [Accepted: 08/04/2004] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
A number of studies indicate that coagulation proteases play significant roles in cancer biology. Melanoma is a highly metastatic cancer, and there is evidence that thrombin contributes to this aggressive pattern. However, few studies correlate this type of cancer with formation of the prothrombinase complex, which is responsible for conversion of prothrombin into thrombin in the coagulation system. The aim of this study was to investigate the assembly and regulation of prothrombinase complex on the murine melanoma cell line, B16F10. B16F10 cells were unable to activate prothrombin except when previously incubated with factor Xa. This effect was dependent on factor Xa binding to cell membranes, since no activation was detected with Gla-domainless factor Xa. The thrombin formation by B16F10-bound factor Xa was enhanced approximately 10 fold in the presence of factor Va, indicating the assembly of prothrombinase complex. Differently from platelets, B16F10-assembled prothrombinase complex was inhibited by prothrombin fragment 1 but not by fragment 2. In addition, bothrojaracin, a specific ligand of proexosite I on prothrombin, caused a significant decrease in the zymogen activation. Our data demonstrate that B16F10 melanoma cells generate thrombin by promoting assembly of the prothrombinase complex. This ability might be correlated with the increased metastatic potential of this cell line. Moreover, B16F10-assembled prothrombinase complex seems to be modulated in a different way from that found for the physiological complex assembled on platelets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clarice Kirszberg
- Departamento de Bioquímica Médica, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Cidade Universitária, Ilha do Fundão, Avenida Bauhínia 400, Rio de Janeiro, CEP-21941-590, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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18
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Zhang X, Hunt JL, Landsittel DP, Muller S, Adler-Storthz K, Ferris RL, Shin DM, Chen ZG. Correlation of Protease-Activated Receptor-1 With Differentiation Markers in Squamous Cell Carcinoma of the Head and Neck and Its Implication in Lymph Node Metastasis. Clin Cancer Res 2004; 10:8451-9. [PMID: 15625067 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-04-0546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Protease-activated receptor-1 (PAR-1) is a G-protein-coupled receptor that contributes to multiple signal transduction pathways. Although the functions of PAR-1 in many normal cells, such as platelets and astrocytes, have been well studied, its roles in cancer progression and metastasis have not been fully elucidated, and studies to date appear contradictory. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN To clarify the function of PAR-1 in metastasis of squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck (SCCHN), we examined PAR-1 expression in clinical specimens by immunohistochemistry and in SCCHN cell lines by immunoblotting. Furthermore, par-1 cDNA-transfected SCCHN cell lines were also used to verify PAR-1-mediated pathway. RESULTS The metastatic tumors showed a lower percentage of PAR-1-positive cells (46%) and lower levels of PAR-1 expression (median weight index = 10) than node negative primary tumors (80% and median weight index = 60, respectively). In addition, expression level of PAR-1 positively correlated with levels of keratinocyte differentiation markers keratin-1, -10, and -11. Additional studies using sense and antisense par-1 cDNA-transfected SCCHN cell lines illustrated that the presence of PAR-1 was required for the expression of involucrin, a keratinocyte differentiation marker. PAR-1 expression also contributes to activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway. Blocking MAPK activation by a mitogen-activated protein/extracellular signal-regulated kinase inhibitor, not by a phosphatidylinositol 3'-kinase inhibitor, reduced level of involucrin, suggesting that regulation of involucrin by PAR-1 is partially through the MAPK signaling pathway. CONCLUSIONS Our study suggests that PAR-1 signaling induces differentiation markers in SCCHN cells, and its expression is conversely correlated with cervical lymph node metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Zhang
- Department of Hematology-Oncology, Emory University Winship Cancer Institute, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA
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19
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Wilson SR, Gallagher S, Warpeha K, Hawthorne SJ. Amplification of MMP-2 and MMP-9 production by prostate cancer cell lines via activation of protease-activated receptors. Prostate 2004; 60:168-74. [PMID: 15162383 DOI: 10.1002/pros.20047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) are a family of proteolytic enzymes involved in facilitating cancer metastasis. Protease-activated receptors (PARs) have previously been shown to be involved in pathways of MMP upregulation by tumor cells. METHODS Two androgen independent prostate cancer cell lines, PC3 and DU-145, and one androgen dependent prostate cancer line LNCaP, were investigated. PAR expression was detected using RT-PCR and immunofluorochemistry (IFC) techniques. MMP activity assays were used to quantify the levels of MMP-2 and -9 on all three prostate cell lines after PAR activation. RESULTS RT-PCR and IFC showed the presence of PAR-1 and PAR-2 in all cell lines investigated, only LNCaP showed PAR-3 and PAR-4 expression. Increased levels of MMP-2 and MMP-9 activity, up to sevenfold depending on prostate cancer cell line, following PAR activation by specific PAR peptides was shown. CONCLUSION Preliminary studies show the activation of PAR-1 or PAR-2 produced increased levels of MMP-2 and MMP-9 activity in prostate cancer cell lines, indicating their potential role in the metastasis of prostate cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan R Wilson
- School of Pharmacy, Medical Biology Centre, Queens University Belfast, 97 Lisburn Road, Belfast, United Kingdom
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20
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Uehara A. Inflammatory and Immunological Responses of Human Oral Mucosal Cells through Protease-Activated Receptors. J Oral Biosci 2004. [DOI: 10.1016/s1349-0079(04)80004-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Tellez C, McCarty M, Ruiz M, Bar-Eli M. Loss of activator protein-2alpha results in overexpression of protease-activated receptor-1 and correlates with the malignant phenotype of human melanoma. J Biol Chem 2003; 278:46632-42. [PMID: 12975361 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m309159200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Increasing evidence implicates the protease-activated receptor-1 (PAR-1) as a contributor to tumor invasion and metastasis of human melanoma. Here we demonstrate that the metastatic potential of human melanoma cells correlates with overexpression of PAR-1. We also provide evidence that an inverse correlation exists between the expression of activator protein-2alpha (AP-2) and the expression of PAR-1 in human melanoma cells. Reexpression of AP-2 in WM266-4 melanoma cells, which are AP-2-negative, resulted in decreased mRNA and protein expression of PAR-1. The promoter of the PAR-1 gene contains multiple putative consensus elements for the transcription factors AP-2 and specificity protein 1 (Sp1). Chromatin immunoprecipitation analysis of the PAR-1 promoter regions bp -365 to -329 (complex 1) and bp -206 to -180 (complex 2) demonstrated that Sp1 was predominantly bound to the PAR-1 promoter in metastatic cells, whereas AP-2 was bound to the PAR-1 promoter in nonmetastatic cells. In vitro analysis of complex 1 demonstrated that AP-2 and Sp1 bound to this region in a mutually exclusive manner. Transfection experiments with full-length and progressive deletions of the PAR-1 promoter luciferase constructs demonstrated that metastatic melanoma cells had increased PAR-1 promoter activity compared with low and nonmetastatic melanoma cells. Our data show that exogenous AP-2 expression decreased promoter activity, whereas transient expression of Sp1 further increased expression of the reporter gene. Mutational analysis of complex 1 within PAR-1 luciferase constructs further demonstrated that the regulation of PAR-1 was mediated through interactions with AP-2 and Sp1. Our data suggest that loss of AP-2 in metastatic cells alters the AP-2/Sp1 ratio, resulting in overexpression of PAR-1. Taken together, our results provide strong evidence that loss of AP-2 correlates with overexpression of PAR-1, which in turn contributes to the acquisition of the malignant phenotype of human melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmen Tellez
- Department of Cancer Biology 173, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Boulevard, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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Abstract
To determine treatment strategies and predict the clinical outcome of patients with melanoma it is important to understand the etiology of this disease. Recently, there has been some insight into molecular basis of melanoma including identification of a few of the regulatory factors and genes involved in this disease. For instance, the transcription factor AP-2 plays a tumor suppressor-like role in melanoma progression by regulating genes involved in tumor growth and metastasis. Previously, we have shown that the progression of human melanoma to the metastatic phenotype is associated with loss of AP-2 expression and deregulation of target genes such as MUC18/MCAM, c-KIT, and MMP-2. Increasing evidence demonstrates that the thrombin receptor (protease-activated receptor-1, PAR-1) plays a major role in tumor invasion and contributes to the metastatic phenotype of human melanoma. This review focuses on the role of the thrombin receptor in melanoma and its regulation by AP-2. We show that loss of AP-2 expression in metastatic melanoma cells correlates with overexpression of the thrombin receptor. Our analysis of AP-2/Sp1 complexes within the regulatory region of the thrombin receptor demonstrates that AP-2 binds the proximal 3' region of the promoter and diminishes PAR-1 expression. Levels of AP-2 and Sp1 proteins in a panel of melanoma cell lines demonstrated a marked decrease in the ratio of AP-2/Sp1, a decrease that correlated with overexpression of PAR-1 in metastatic melanoma cells. We propose that loss of AP-2 results in increased expression of the thrombin receptor, which subsequently contributes to the metastatic phenotype of melanoma by upregulating the expression of adhesion molecules, proteases, and angiogenic molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmen Tellez
- Department of Cancer Biology, The University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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Darmoul D, Gratio V, Devaud H, Lehy T, Laburthe M. Aberrant expression and activation of the thrombin receptor protease-activated receptor-1 induces cell proliferation and motility in human colon cancer cells. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2003; 162:1503-13. [PMID: 12707033 PMCID: PMC1851194 DOI: 10.1016/s0002-9440(10)64283-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 143] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The traditional view on the role of serine proteases in tumor biology has changed with the recent discovery of a family of protease-activated receptors (PARs). In this study we explored the expression and functional role of the thrombin receptor PAR-1 in human colon cancer cells. Reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction analysis showed that PAR-1 mRNAs are present in 11 of 14 human colon cancer cell lines tested but not in normal human colonic epithelial cells. This is in line with the immunolocalization of PAR-1 in human colon tumors and its absence in normal human colonic mucosa. The functional significance of the aberrant expression of PAR-1 in colon cancer cells was then investigated. We found that 1) a prompt increase in intracellular calcium concentration was observed on thrombin (10 nmol/L) or PAR-1 agonist AP1 (100 micro mol/L) challenge of HT29 cells; 2) HT29 quiescent cells treated with thrombin (0.01 to 20 nmol/L) or AP1 (1 to 300 micro mol/L) exhibited dramatic mitogenic responses (3.5-fold increase in cell number). Proliferative effects of thrombin or AP1 were also observed in other colon cancer cell lines expressing PAR-1. This effect was reversed by the MEK inhibitor PD98059 in consonance with the ability of thrombin or AP1 to induce phosphorylation of p42/p44 extracellular-regulated protein kinases. 3) PAR-1 activation by thrombin or AP1 led to a two-fold increase in cell motility of wounded HT29-D4. Our results demonstrate for the first time the aberrant expression of the functional thrombin receptor PAR-1 in colon cancers and its important involvement in cell proliferation and motility. Thrombin should now be considered as a growth factor for human colon cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dalila Darmoul
- Neuroendocrinologie et Biologie Cellulaire Digestives, INSERM U410, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Paris, France.
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Cooper CR, Chay CH, Gendernalik JD, Lee HL, Bhatia J, Taichman RS, McCauley LK, Keller ET, Pienta KJ. Stromal factors involved in prostate carcinoma metastasis to bone. Cancer 2003; 97:739-47. [PMID: 12548571 DOI: 10.1002/cncr.11181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Prostate carcinoma (PC) frequently metastasizes to bone, where it causes significant morbidity and mortality. Stromal elements in the primary and metastatic target organs are important mediators of tumor cell intravasation, chemoattraction, adhesion to target organ microvascular endothelium, extravasation, and growth at the metastatic site. METHODS The role of stromal factors in bone metastasis was determined with a cyclic DNA microarray comparison of a bone-derived cell PC cell line with a soft tissue-derived cell PC cell line and by evaluating the effects of selected stromal components on PC cell chemotaxis, cell adhesion to human bone marrow endothelium (HBME), and PC cell growth. RESULTS The authors demonstrate that PC cells express protease-activated receptor 1 (PAR1; thrombin receptor), and its expression is up-regulated in PC compared with normal prostate tissue. In addition, this overexpression was very pronounced in bone-derived PC cell lines (VCaP and PC-3) compared with soft tissue PC cell lines (DUCaP, DU145, and LNCaP). The authors report that bone stromal factors, including stromal cell-derived factor 1 (SDF-1) and collagen Type I peptides, are chemoattractants for PC cells, and they demonstrate that some of these factors (e.g., extracellular matrix components, transforming growth factor beta, bone morphogenic proteins [BMPs], and SDF-1) significantly alter PC-HBME interaction in vitro. Finally, stromal factors, such as BMPs, can regulate the proliferation of PC cells in vitro. CONCLUSIONS Soluble and insoluble elements of the stroma are involved in multiple steps of PC metastasis to bone. The authors hypothesize that PAR1 may play a central role in prostate tumorigenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlton R Cooper
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Hematology/Oncology, University of Michigan Comprehensive Cancer Center, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-0946, USA
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Zhang X, Liu Y, Gilcrease MZ, Yuan XH, Clayman GL, Adler-Storthz K, Chen Z. A lymph node metastatic mouse model reveals alterations of metastasis-related gene expression in metastatic human oral carcinoma sublines selected from a poorly metastatic parental cell line. Cancer 2002; 95:1663-72. [PMID: 12365014 DOI: 10.1002/cncr.10837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Greater than 40% of patients with squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) of the oral cavity have lymph node metastasis at the time of diagnosis and a 5-year survival rate of less than 50%. Changes in gene expression that regulate metastasis of SCC to lymph nodes have not been identified. METHODS To study metastasis of oral SCC, highly metastatic oral SCC cell lines from a poorly metastatic oral SCC cell line were established by in vivo selection using a lymph node metastatic mouse model. The metastatic potential of the cells was studied using Matrigel invasion and cell surface protein adhesion assays. mRNA and protein encoded from metastasis-related genes in the metastatic derivatives and in their parental cells were examined using Northern blot analysis, immunoblotting, rapid analysis of gene expression, and a cDNA microarray technique. RESULTS The in vivo selected metastatic cells showed much higher Matrigel invasion capability than the parental cells. They also showed alterations in their adhesion properties to three cell surface proteins. Comparison of metastatic and nonmetastatic cells revealed several significant alterations in the expression of metastasis-related genes, including up-regulation of the urokinase-type plasminogen activator receptor, integrin beta1, membrane type 1-matrix metalloproteinase, and down-regulation of protease-activated receptor-1. CONCLUSIONS To the authors' knowledge, the current study is the first to report on gene expression analysis using a lymph node metastatic mouse model of human oral SCC. The data suggest that certain alterations of metastasis-related gene expression favor invasion of oral SCC and that cell surface proteins may play major roles in the metastasis of oral SCC to the lymph nodes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Zhang
- Department of Head and Neck Surgery, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, USA
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