1
|
Characterization of a single-domain von Willebrand factor type C protein (HaSVC) from the salivary gland of the tick Hyalomma asiaticum. Exp Parasitol 2021; 232:108190. [PMID: 34848245 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2021.108190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2020] [Revised: 10/11/2021] [Accepted: 11/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
As a widely distributed arthropod and vector for various pathogens, Hyalomma asiaticum presents great risk and potential losses in animal husbandry. Effective measures, including the use of vaccines, are necessary for controlling ticks and tick-borne diseases. A concise understanding of the tick-host interaction associated molecules and pathways is required for vaccine development. In the present study, a protein containing a single-domain von Willebrand factor type C (HaSVC) was isolated from H. asiaticum and was subjected to functional identification. As a result, the full-length sequence of the HaSVC (506 bp) gene was obtained, which putatively encodes 100 amino acids with a predicted molecular mass of 11 kDa, excluding the 23-amino acid signal peptide. HaSVC contains 8 cysteines to form 4 disulfide bonds. The native HaSVC protein was detected in multiple tick organs. HaSVC neither attenuated the anti-coagulation process nor directly affected the blood feeding of adult ticks. However, the purified recombinant protein HaSVC (rHaSVC/GST) significantly increased the proliferation of mice spleen cells. This might suggest a regulatory function for HaSVC on inflammation, thus providing new information that may explain the "crosstalk" between ticks and hosts.
Collapse
|
2
|
Dinkel KD, Herndon DR, Noh SM, Lahmers KK, Todd SM, Ueti MW, Scoles GA, Mason KL, Fry LM. A U.S. isolate of Theileria orientalis, Ikeda genotype, is transmitted to cattle by the invasive Asian longhorned tick, Haemaphysalis longicornis. Parasit Vectors 2021; 14:157. [PMID: 33726815 PMCID: PMC7962341 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-021-04659-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2020] [Accepted: 02/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Theileria orientalis is a tick-borne hemoparasite that causes anemia, ill thrift, and death in cattle globally. The Ikeda strain of T.orientalis is more virulent than other strains, leading to severe clinical signs and death of up to 5% of affected animals. Within the Asia–Pacific region, where it affects 25% of Australian cattle, T.orientalis Ikeda has a significant economic impact on the cattle industry. In 2017, T.orientalis Ikeda was detected in a cattle herd in Albermarle County, Virginia, United States. Months earlier, the U.S. was alerted to the invasion of the Asian longhorned tick, Haemaphysalis longicornis, throughout the eastern U.S. Abundant H.longicornis ticks were identified on cattle in the T.orientalis-affected herd in VA, and a subset of ticks from the environment were PCR-positive for T.orientalis Ikeda. A strain of T.orientalis from a previous U.S. outbreak was not transmissible by H.longicornis; however, H.longicornis is the primary tick vector of T.orientalis Ikeda in other regions of the world. Thus, the objective of this study was to determine whether invasive H.longicornis ticks in the U.S. are competent vectors of T.orientalis Ikeda. Methods Nymphal H.longicornis ticks were fed on a splenectomized calf infected with the VA-U.S.-T.orientalis Ikeda strain. After molting, a subset of adult ticks from this cohort were dissected, and salivary glands assayed for T.orientalis Ikeda via qPCR. The remaining adult ticks from the group were allowed to feed on three calves. Calves were subsequently monitored for T.orientalis Ikeda infection via blood smear cytology and PCR. Results After acquisition feeding on a VA-U.S.-T.orientalis Ikeda-infected calf as nymphs, a subset of molted adult tick salivary glands tested positive by qPCR for T.orientalis Ikeda. Adult ticks from the same cohort successfully transmitted T.orientalis Ikeda to 3/3 naïve calves, each of which developed parasitemia reaching 0.4–0.9%. Conclusions Our findings demonstrate that U.S. H.longicornis ticks are competent vectors of the VA-U.S.-T.orientalis Ikeda strain. This data provides important information for the U.S. cattle industry regarding the potential spread of this parasite and the necessity of enhanced surveillance and control measures.![]() Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13071-021-04659-9.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kelcey D Dinkel
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology & Pathology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA
| | - David R Herndon
- United States, Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Animal Disease Research Unit, Pullman, WA, USA
| | - Susan M Noh
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology & Pathology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA.,United States, Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Animal Disease Research Unit, Pullman, WA, USA
| | - Kevin K Lahmers
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - S Michelle Todd
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - Massaro W Ueti
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology & Pathology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA.,United States, Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Animal Disease Research Unit, Pullman, WA, USA
| | - Glen A Scoles
- United States, Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Animal Disease Research Unit, Pullman, WA, USA.,United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Invasive Insect Biocontrol and Behavior Laboratory, Beltsville, MD, USA
| | - Kathleen L Mason
- United States, Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Animal Disease Research Unit, Pullman, WA, USA
| | - Lindsay M Fry
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology & Pathology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA. .,United States, Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Animal Disease Research Unit, Pullman, WA, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Ilgová J, Kavanová L, Matiašková K, Salát J, Kašný M. Effect of cysteine peptidase inhibitor of Eudiplozoon nipponicum (Monogenea) on cytokine expression of macrophages in vitro. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2019; 235:111248. [PMID: 31874193 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2019.111248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2019] [Revised: 12/18/2019] [Accepted: 12/19/2019] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
The gills of the common carp, whose mucosal surface belongs to the key defence mechanisms of piscine immunity, can be infested with both the larval and adult stage of Eudiplozoon nipponicum (Monogenea). Although on their own, monogeneans do not considerably compromise their hosts' health status, fish with epithelial barriers damaged in parasite feeding and attachment sites are at an increased risk of bacterial challenge with possible harmful consequences. Several studies suggest that helminth parasites of teleost fish evade and manipulate host immune system via their excretory-secretory products, but our knowledge of these processes in the monogeneans is limited. Cysteine peptidase inhibitors (CPI), which are found in the secretions of numerous parasites, often induce immunosuppression by subverting Th1 mechanisms and drawing the immune system towards a Th2/Treg response. We employed the qPCR to test the effect of recently characterised CPI of E. nipponicum (rEnStef) on the mRNA expression of pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-α and anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 produced by porcine macrophages in vitro. After an initial preincubation with rEnStef, we stimulated the macrophages using LPS. By inducing a Th1 pro-inflammatory response, we imitated the immune reaction during a bacterial challenge in tissue damaged by the feeding and attachment of E. nipponicum. We observed a significant dose-dependent downregulation of the expression of TNF-α and IL-10 cytokines. The observed suppression of TNF-alpha expression by rEnStef could result in decreased pathogen control, which might in turn lead to increased rates of secondary bacterial infections in fish infected by E. nipponicum.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jana Ilgová
- Department of Botany and Zoology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, 611 37, Czech Republic.
| | - Lenka Kavanová
- Department of Immunology, Veterinary Research Institute, Brno, 621 00, Czech Republic
| | - Katarína Matiašková
- Department of Immunology, Veterinary Research Institute, Brno, 621 00, Czech Republic
| | - Jiří Salát
- Department of Virology, Veterinary Research Institute, Brno, 621 00, Czech Republic
| | - Martin Kašný
- Department of Botany and Zoology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, 611 37, Czech Republic
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Bakshi M, Kim TK, Porter L, Mwangi W, Mulenga A. Amblyomma americanum ticks utilizes countervailing pro and anti-inflammatory proteins to evade host defense. PLoS Pathog 2019; 15:e1008128. [PMID: 31756216 PMCID: PMC6897422 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1008128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2019] [Revised: 12/06/2019] [Accepted: 10/05/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Feeding and transmission of tick-borne disease (TBD) agents by ticks are facilitated by tick saliva proteins (TSP). Thus, defining functional roles of TSPs in tick evasion is expected to reveal potential targets in tick-antigen based vaccines to prevent TBD infections. This study describes two types of Amblyomma americanum TSPs: those that are similar to LPS activate macrophage (MΦ) to express pro-inflammation (PI) markers and another set that suppresses PI marker expression by activated MΦ. We show that similar to LPS, three recombinant (r) A. americanum insulin-like growth factor binding-related proteins (rAamIGFBP-rP1, rAamIGFBP-rP6S, and rAamIGFBP-rP6L), hereafter designated as PI-rTSPs, stimulated both PBMC -derived MΦ and mice RAW 267.4 MΦ to express PI co-stimulatory markers, CD40, CD80, and CD86 and cytokines, TNFα, IL-1, and IL-6. In contrast, two A. americanum tick saliva serine protease inhibitors (serpins), AAS27 and AAS41, hereafter designated as anti-inflammatory (AI) rTSPs, on their own did not affect MΦ function or suppress expression of PI markers, but enhanced expression of AI cytokines (IL-10 and TGFβ) in MΦ that were pre-activated by LPS or PI-rTSPs. Mice paw edema test demonstrated that in vitro validated PI- and AI-rTSPs are functional in vivo since injection of HEK293-expressed PI-rTSPs (individually or as a cocktail) induced edema comparable to carrageenan-induced edema and was characterized by upregulation of CD40, CD80, CD86, TNF-α, IL-1, IL-6, and chemokines: CXCL1, CCL2, CCL3, CCL5, and CCL11, whereas the AI-rTSPs (individually and cocktail) were suppressive. We propose that the tick may utilize countervailing PI and AI TSPs to regulate evasion of host immune defenses whereby TSPs such as rAamIGFBP-rPs activate host immune cells and proteins such as AAS27 and AAS41 suppress the activated immune cells. Several studies have documented immuno-suppressive activities in whole tick saliva and salivary gland protein extracts. We have made contribution toward understanding the molecular basis of tick feeding, as we have described functions of defined tick saliva immuno-modulatory proteins. We have shown that A. americanum injects two groups of functionally opposed tick saliva proteins: those that could counter-intuitively be characterized as pro-host defense, and those that are expected to have anti-host immune defense functions. Based on our data, we propose that the tick evades host defense using countervailing pro- and anti- inflammatory proteins in which the pro-host defense tick saliva proteins stimulate host immune cells such as macrophages, and the anti-host defense tick saliva proteins suppress functions of the activated immune cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mariam Bakshi
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, TAMU, College Station, Texas, United States of America
| | - Tae Kwon Kim
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, TAMU, College Station, Texas, United States of America
| | - Lindsay Porter
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, TAMU, College Station, Texas, United States of America
| | - Waithaka Mwangi
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, TAMU, College Station, Texas, United States of America
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, United States of America
| | - Albert Mulenga
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, TAMU, College Station, Texas, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Barros MS, Lara PG, Fonseca MT, Moretti EH, Filgueiras LR, Martins JO, Capurro ML, Steiner AA, Sá-Nunes A. Aedes aegypti saliva impairs M1-associated proinflammatory phenotype without promoting or affecting M2 polarization of murine macrophages. Parasit Vectors 2019; 12:239. [PMID: 31097013 PMCID: PMC6524299 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-019-3487-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2018] [Accepted: 05/06/2019] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND During the feeding process, the mouthparts of hematophagous mosquitoes break the skin barrier and probe the host tissue to find the blood. The saliva inoculated in this microenvironment modulates host hemostasis, inflammation and adaptive immune responses. However, the mechanisms involved in these biological activities remain poorly understood and few studies explored the potential roles of mosquito saliva on the individual cellular components of the immune system. Here, we report the immunomodulatory activities of Aedes aegypti salivary cocktail on murine peritoneal macrophages. RESULTS The salivary gland extract (SGE) of Ae. aegypti inhibited the production of nitric oxide and inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-6 (IL-6) and IL-12, as well as the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase and NF-κB by murine macrophages stimulated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) plus interferon-γ (IFN-γ). The spare respiratory capacity, the phagocytic and microbicidal activities of these macrophages were also reduced by Ae. aegypti SGE. These phenotypic changes are consistent with SGE suppressing the proinflammatory program of M1 macrophages. On the other hand, Ae. aegypti SGE did not influence M2-associated markers (urea production, arginase-1 and mannose receptor-1 expression), either in macrophages alternatively activated by IL-4 or in those classically activated by LPS plus IFN-γ. In addition, Ae. aegypti SGE did not display any cytokine-binding activity, nor did it affect macrophage viability, thus excluding supposed experimental artifacts. CONCLUSIONS Given the importance of macrophages in a number of biological processes, our findings help to enlighten how vector saliva modulates vertebrate host immunity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michele S Barros
- Laboratory of Experimental Immunology, Department of Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, SP, 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Priscila G Lara
- Laboratory of Experimental Immunology, Department of Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, SP, 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Monique T Fonseca
- Laboratory of Sepsis Neurobiology, Department of Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, SP, 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Eduardo H Moretti
- Laboratory of Sepsis Neurobiology, Department of Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, SP, 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Luciano R Filgueiras
- Laboratory of Immunopharmacology, Department of Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, SP, 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Joilson O Martins
- Laboratory of Immunoendocrinology, Department of Clinical and Toxicological Analyses, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, SP, 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Margareth L Capurro
- Laboratory of Genetically Modified Mosquitoes, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, SP, 05508-000, Brazil.,National Institute of Science and Technology on Molecular Entomology, National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (INCT-EM/CNPq), Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Alexandre A Steiner
- Laboratory of Sepsis Neurobiology, Department of Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, SP, 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Anderson Sá-Nunes
- Laboratory of Experimental Immunology, Department of Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, SP, 05508-000, Brazil. .,National Institute of Science and Technology on Molecular Entomology, National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (INCT-EM/CNPq), Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Manning JE, Cantaert T. Time to Micromanage the Pathogen-Host-Vector Interface: Considerations for Vaccine Development. Vaccines (Basel) 2019; 7:E10. [PMID: 30669682 PMCID: PMC6466432 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines7010010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2018] [Revised: 01/10/2019] [Accepted: 01/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The current increase in vector-borne disease worldwide necessitates novel approaches to vaccine development targeted to pathogens delivered by blood-feeding arthropod vectors into the host skin. A concept that is gaining traction in recent years is the contribution of the vector or vector-derived components, like salivary proteins, to host-pathogen interactions. Indeed, the triad of vector-host-pathogen interactions in the skin microenvironment can influence host innate and adaptive responses alike, providing an advantage to the pathogen to establish infection. A better understanding of this "bite site" microenvironment, along with how host and vector local microbiomes immunomodulate responses to pathogens, is required for future vaccines for vector-borne diseases. Microneedle administration of such vaccines may more closely mimic vector deposition of pathogen and saliva into the skin with the added benefit of near painless vaccine delivery. Focusing on the 'micro'⁻from microenvironments to microbiomes to microneedles⁻may yield an improved generation of vector-borne disease vaccines in today's increasingly complex world.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jessica E Manning
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Phnom Penh 12201, Cambodia.
| | - Tineke Cantaert
- Immunology Unit, Institut Pasteur du Cambodge, Institut Pasteur International Network, Phnom Penh 12201, Cambodia.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Zeng B, Chai J, Deng Z, Ye T, Chen W, Li D, Chen X, Chen M, Xu X. Functional Characterization of a Novel Lipopolysaccharide-Binding Antimicrobial and Anti-Inflammatory Peptide in Vitro and in Vivo. J Med Chem 2018; 61:10709-10723. [PMID: 30427189 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.8b01358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are key components of host immune defense of vertebrates against microbial invasions. Here, we report a new AMP (esculentin-1GN) characterized from the skin of the frog Hylarana guentheri. Esculentin-1GN (GLFSKKGGKGGKSWIKGVFKGIKGIGKEVGGDVIRTGIEIAACKIKGEC) with high amphipathic α-helical structure in membrane-mimetic environments has the microbial-killing activity by destruction of the cell membrane. Moreover, esculentin-1GN inhibits LPS-induced expression of proinflammatory nitric oxide, interleukin-1β, interleukin-6, and tumor necrosis factor while it enhances expression of interleukin-10. Furthermore, esculentin-1GN can bind to d-(+)-galacturonic acid and LPS. Meanwhile, esculentin-1GN suppresses the activation of inflammatory response pathway induced by LPS. In addition, esculentin-1GN significantly reduces acute inflammation in carrageenan-induced mice paw. Taken together, the novel LPS-binding esculentin-1GN with antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory activities will be an excellent temple for designing new antibiotic formulations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Baishuang Zeng
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Southern Medical University , Guangzhou 510515 , China
| | - Jinwei Chai
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Southern Medical University , Guangzhou 510515 , China
| | - Zhenhui Deng
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Southern Medical University , Guangzhou 510515 , China
| | - Tiaofei Ye
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Southern Medical University , Guangzhou 510515 , China
| | - Wenbin Chen
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Southern Medical University , Guangzhou 510515 , China
| | - Dan Li
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Southern Medical University , Guangzhou 510515 , China
| | - Xin Chen
- Department of Respiratory Medicine , Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University , Guangzhou 510282 , China
| | - Ming Chen
- State Key Laboratory for the Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Medicinal Resources, School of Chemistry and Pharmacy , Guangxi Normal University , Guilin 541004 , China
| | - Xueqing Xu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Southern Medical University , Guangzhou 510515 , China
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Abreu MRD, Pereira MC, Simioni PU, Nodari EF, Paiatto LN, Camargo-Mathias MI. Immunomodulatory and morphophysiological effects of Rhipicephalus sanguineus s. l. (Acari: Ixodidae) salivary gland extracts. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2018; 207:36-45. [PMID: 30593349 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2018.11.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2018] [Revised: 10/03/2018] [Accepted: 11/23/2018] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Rhipicephalus sanguineus s. l. is popularly known as the "brown dog tick" since dogs are its preferential hosts, but the species has been reported to parasitize other mammals, including humans, with significant medical-veterinary importance since it transmits several important pathogenic agents during the feeding period. The tick saliva is a complex mixture that has several functions, including the capability to modulate the hemostatic, inflammatory and immunologic systems of the host, allowing pathogens to settle. Despite knowledge about the immunosuppressive action of tick saliva, little is known about the mechanisms involved in this process and the morphophysiological effects caused by exposure to the salivary gland extract, taking into consideration the different periods of the glandular cycle. Thus, the objective of this study was to analyze the in vitro effects of salivary gland extracts obtained from R. sanguineus s. l. females fed on host rabbits for two (SGE2 - Salivary Gland Extracts of 2 days) and four days (SGE4 - Salivary Gland Extracts of 4 days) on J774 cells (monocyte macrophage cell line) and verify the occurrence of morphological and immunomodulatory alterations in these cells when exposed to different concentrations of these extracts. The results showed that: (i) SGE2 and SGE4 at the concentration of 4 μg/mL presented cytotoxicity to the J774 cells exposed for 24 and 48 hours; (ii) SGE2 at the concentrations of 2 μg/mL(48-hour exposure) and 1 μg/mL (24-hour exposure) and SGE4 at the concentrations of 2 and 1 μg/mL (48-hour exposure) showed proinflammatory activity, confirmed by the increased secretion of NO and proinflammatory cytokine (IL-2), and the presence of morphological characteristics detected by microscopy; and (iii) SGE2 and SGE4 at the concentrations of 0.5 and 0.1 μg/mL had immunomodulatory activity, demonstrated by decreases in the secretion of NO and proinflammatory cytokines (IL2, IL-6 and TNF-α) and increase in the synthesis of IL-10, confirmed by the morphophysiological analysis. These unprecedented data are extremely relevant for future research to identify the processes involved in the ectoparasite-host relationship, as well to develop more efficient tick control strategies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marina Rodrigues de Abreu
- Biology Department, Biosciences Institute, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Avenida 24 A, 1515, 13506-900 Rio Claro, SP, Brazil
| | - Melissa Carolina Pereira
- Biology Department, Biosciences Institute, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Avenida 24 A, 1515, 13506-900 Rio Claro, SP, Brazil
| | - Patrícia Ucelli Simioni
- Biology Department, Biosciences Institute, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Avenida 24 A, 1515, 13506-900 Rio Claro, SP, Brazil; Department of Biomedical Science, Faculty of Americana, FAM, Americana, SP, Brazil
| | - Elen Fernanda Nodari
- Biology Department, Biosciences Institute, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Avenida 24 A, 1515, 13506-900 Rio Claro, SP, Brazil
| | | | - Maria Izabel Camargo-Mathias
- Biology Department, Biosciences Institute, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Avenida 24 A, 1515, 13506-900 Rio Claro, SP, Brazil.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Breijo M, Esteves E, Bizzarro B, Lara PG, Assis JB, Rocha S, Pastro L, Fernández C, Meikle A, Sá-Nunes A. Hematobin is a novel immunomodulatory protein from the saliva of the horn fly Haematobia irritans that inhibits the inflammatory response in murine macrophages. Parasit Vectors 2018; 11:435. [PMID: 30053916 PMCID: PMC6064106 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-018-3017-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2018] [Accepted: 07/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The horn fly Haematobia irritans is a blood-sucking ectoparasite responsible for substantial economic loss of livestock. Like other hematophagous arthropods species, the successful blood-feeding of H. irritans is highly dependent on the modulation of the host’s hemostasis and immune system. Here, we evaluated the biological activity of hematobin (HTB), a protein recently identified in the H. irritans saliva, on macrophage biology. The goal was to understand the putative interactions between the components of H. irritans saliva and the early host immune responses. Results Thioglycolate-elicited peritoneal macrophages from BALB/c mice were stimulated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) plus interferon-γ (IFN-γ) in the presence or absence of recombinant HTB. The presence of the salivary protein in the cultures inhibited nitric oxide production and decreased the inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression induced by LPS plus IFN-γ. The tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-12p40 (IL-12p40) levels were also reduced in the macrophages pre-incubated with HTB; these findings correlated to the decreased NF-κB expression. The biological activities described here were not associated with changes in annexin V binding to macrophages suggesting that HTB does not induce cell death. In addition, the activity of HTB seems to be specific to macrophages because no changes were observed in lymphocyte proliferation or cytokine production. Conclusions We describe here the first bioactive salivary protein of H. irritans. We characterized its ability to modulate macrophage inflammatory response, and the results can help explain how horn flies modulate the host immune system to feed on blood. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s13071-018-3017-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Martin Breijo
- Unidad de Reactivos y Biomodelos de Experimentación, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de la República, Gral. Flores, 2125, Montevideo, Uruguay.
| | - Eliane Esteves
- Department of Immunology, Laboratory of Experimental Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, SP, 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Bruna Bizzarro
- Department of Immunology, Laboratory of Experimental Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, SP, 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Priscila G Lara
- Department of Immunology, Laboratory of Experimental Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, SP, 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Josiane B Assis
- Department of Immunology, Laboratory of Experimental Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, SP, 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Sergio Rocha
- Unidad de Reactivos y Biomodelos de Experimentación, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de la República, Gral. Flores, 2125, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Lucía Pastro
- Laboratorio de Interacciones Moleculares, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República, Iguá, 4225, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Cecilia Fernández
- Cátedra de Inmunología, Facultad de Química, Universidad de la República, Av. Alfredo Navarro, 3051, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Ana Meikle
- Laboratorio de Técnicas Nucleares, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de la República, Lasplaces, 1550, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Anderson Sá-Nunes
- Department of Immunology, Laboratory of Experimental Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, SP, 05508-000, Brazil. .,National Institute of Science and Technology in Molecular Entomology, National Council of Scientific and Technological Development (INCT-EM/CNPq), Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Ticks and Tick-Borne Infections: Complex Ecology, Agents, and Host Interactions. Vet Sci 2018; 5:vetsci5020060. [PMID: 29925800 PMCID: PMC6024845 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci5020060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2018] [Revised: 06/11/2018] [Accepted: 06/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Ticks transmit the most diverse array of infectious agents of any arthropod vector. Both ticks and the microbes they transmit are recognized as significant threats to human and veterinary public health. This article examines the potential impacts of climate change on the distribution of ticks and the infections they transmit; the emergence of novel tick-borne pathogens, increasing geographic range and incidence of tick-borne infections; and advances in the characterization of tick saliva mediated modulation of host defenses and the implications of those interactions for transmission, establishment, and control of tick infestation and tick-borne infectious agents.
Collapse
|
11
|
Rezkova M, Kopecky J. Anti-tumour necrosis factor activity in saliva of various tick species and its appearance during the feeding period. Folia Parasitol (Praha) 2017; 64. [PMID: 29063857 DOI: 10.14411/fp.2017.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2017] [Accepted: 09/14/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Tumour necrosis factor (TNF) plays a central role in the inflammatory process. In the skin, it contributes to immune containment of tick-transmitted pathogens like Borrelia burgdorferi. In the saliva of some tick species, active compounds are present that inhibit detection of TNF in specific ELISA. We compared the presence of anti-TNF activity in saliva or salivary gland extract from 11 tick species from the family Ixodidae and demonstrated it in genera Ixodes Latreille, 1795 and Haemaphysalis Koch, 1844. Analysis of anti-TNF activity in Ixodes ricinus (Linnaeus, 1758) saliva during the feeding period showed that it is present in the late, rapid phase of engorgement. Significance of anti-TNF activity for tick feeding and transmission of tick-borne pathogens is discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marketa Rezkova
- Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Kopecky
- Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Schoeler GB, Wikel SK. Modulation of host immunity by haematophagous arthropods. ANNALS OF TROPICAL MEDICINE AND PARASITOLOGY 2016. [DOI: 10.1080/00034983.2001.11813695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
|
13
|
Kotál J, Langhansová H, Lieskovská J, Andersen JF, Francischetti IMB, Chavakis T, Kopecký J, Pedra JHF, Kotsyfakis M, Chmelař J. Modulation of host immunity by tick saliva. J Proteomics 2015; 128:58-68. [PMID: 26189360 PMCID: PMC4619117 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2015.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2015] [Revised: 06/30/2015] [Accepted: 07/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Next generation sequencing and proteomics have helped to comprehensively characterize gene expression in tick salivary glands at both the transcriptome and the proteome level. Functional data are, however, lacking. Given that tick salivary secretions are critical to the success of the tick transmission lifecycle and, as a consequence, for host colonization by the pathogens they spread, we thoroughly review here the literature on the known interactions between tick saliva (or tick salivary gland extracts) and the innate and adaptive vertebrate immune system. The information is intended to serve as a reference for functional characterization of the numerous genes and proteins expressed in tick salivary glands with an ultimate goal to develop novel vector and pathogen control strategies. SIGNIFICANCE We overview all the known interactions of tick saliva with the vertebrate immune system. The provided information is important, given the recent developments in high-throughput transcriptomic and proteomic analysis of gene expression in tick salivary glands, since it may serve as a guideline for the functional characterization of the numerous newly-discovered genes expressed in tick salivary glands.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jan Kotál
- Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, Budweis, Czech Republic; Laboratory of Genomics and Proteomics of Disease Vectors, Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre, Czech Academy of Sciences, Budweis, Czech Republic
| | - Helena Langhansová
- Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, Budweis, Czech Republic
| | - Jaroslava Lieskovská
- Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, Budweis, Czech Republic
| | - John F Andersen
- Section of Vector Biology, Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Ivo M B Francischetti
- Section of Vector Biology, Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Triantafyllos Chavakis
- Department of Clinical Pathobiochemistry, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Jan Kopecký
- Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, Budweis, Czech Republic
| | - Joao H F Pedra
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Michail Kotsyfakis
- Laboratory of Genomics and Proteomics of Disease Vectors, Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre, Czech Academy of Sciences, Budweis, Czech Republic.
| | - Jindřich Chmelař
- Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, Budweis, Czech Republic; Department of Clinical Pathobiochemistry, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Kazimírová M, Štibrániová I. Tick salivary compounds: their role in modulation of host defences and pathogen transmission. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2013; 3:43. [PMID: 23971008 PMCID: PMC3747359 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2013.00043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 212] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2013] [Accepted: 07/26/2013] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Ticks require blood meal to complete development and reproduction. Multifunctional tick salivary glands play a pivotal role in tick feeding and transmission of pathogens. Tick salivary molecules injected into the host modulate host defence responses to the benefit of the feeding ticks. To colonize tick organs, tick-borne microorganisms must overcome several barriers, i.e., tick gut membrane, tick immunity, and moulting. Tick-borne pathogens co-evolved with their vectors and hosts and developed molecular adaptations to avoid adverse effects of tick and host defences. Large gaps exist in the knowledge of survival strategies of tick-borne microorganisms and on the molecular mechanisms of tick-host-pathogen interactions. Prior to transmission to a host, the microorganisms penetrate and multiply in tick salivary glands. As soon as the tick is attached to a host, gene expression and production of salivary molecules is upregulated, primarily to facilitate feeding and avoid tick rejection by the host. Pathogens exploit tick salivary molecules for their survival and multiplication in the vector and transmission to and establishment in the hosts. Promotion of pathogen transmission by bioactive molecules in tick saliva was described as saliva-assisted transmission (SAT). SAT candidates comprise compounds with anti-haemostatic, anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory functions, but the molecular mechanisms by which they mediate pathogen transmission are largely unknown. To date only a few tick salivary molecules associated with specific pathogen transmission have been identified and their functions partially elucidated. Advanced molecular techniques are applied in studying tick-host-pathogen interactions and provide information on expression of vector and pathogen genes during pathogen acquisition, establishment and transmission. Understanding the molecular events on the tick-host-pathogen interface may lead to development of new strategies to control tick-borne diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mária Kazimírová
- Institute of Zoology, Slovak Academy of Sciences Bratislava, Slovakia.
| | | |
Collapse
|
15
|
Rhipicephalus microplus lipocalins (LRMs): Genomic identification and analysis of the bovine immune response using in silico predicted B and T cell epitopes. Int J Parasitol 2013; 43:739-52. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2013.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2013] [Revised: 04/23/2013] [Accepted: 04/25/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
|
16
|
Abstract
Is chronic illness in patients with Lyme disease caused by persistent infection? Three decades of basic and clinical research have yet to produce a definitive answer to this question. This review describes known and suspected mechanisms by which spirochetes of the Borrelia genus evade host immune defenses and survive antibiotic challenge. Accumulating evidence indicates that Lyme disease spirochetes are adapted to persist in immune competent hosts, and that they are able to remain infective despite aggressive antibiotic challenge. Advancing understanding of the survival mechanisms of the Lyme disease spirochete carry noteworthy implications for ongoing research and clinical practice.
Collapse
|
17
|
Fontaine A, Diouf I, Bakkali N, Missé D, Pagès F, Fusai T, Rogier C, Almeras L. Implication of haematophagous arthropod salivary proteins in host-vector interactions. Parasit Vectors 2011; 4:187. [PMID: 21951834 PMCID: PMC3197560 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-4-187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2011] [Accepted: 09/28/2011] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
The saliva of haematophagous arthropods contains an array of anti-haemostatic, anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory molecules that contribute to the success of the blood meal. The saliva of haematophagous arthropods is also involved in the transmission and the establishment of pathogens in the host and in allergic responses. This survey provides a comprehensive overview of the pharmacological activity and immunogenic properties of the main salivary proteins characterised in various haematophagous arthropod species. The potential biological and epidemiological applications of these immunogenic salivary molecules will be discussed with an emphasis on their use as biomarkers of exposure to haematophagous arthropod bites or vaccine candidates that are liable to improve host protection against vector-borne diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Albin Fontaine
- Unité de Parasitologie - UMR6236 - IFR48, Antenne Marseille de l'Institut de Recherche Biomédicale des Armées (IRBA), Le Pharo, BP 60109, 13 262 Marseille Cedex 07, France
| | - Ibrahima Diouf
- Unité de Parasitologie - UMR6236 - IFR48, Antenne Marseille de l'Institut de Recherche Biomédicale des Armées (IRBA), Le Pharo, BP 60109, 13 262 Marseille Cedex 07, France
| | - Nawal Bakkali
- Unité de Parasitologie - UMR6236 - IFR48, Antenne Marseille de l'Institut de Recherche Biomédicale des Armées (IRBA), Le Pharo, BP 60109, 13 262 Marseille Cedex 07, France
| | - Dorothée Missé
- Laboratoire de Génétique et Evolution des Maladies infectieuses, UMR 2724 CNRS/IRD, Montpellier, France
| | - Frédéric Pagès
- Unité d'Entomologie Médicale, Antenne Marseille de l'Institut de Recherche Biomédicale des Armées (IRBA), Le Pharo, BP 60109, 13 262 Marseille Cedex 07, France
| | - Thierry Fusai
- Unité de Parasitologie - UMR6236 - IFR48, Antenne Marseille de l'Institut de Recherche Biomédicale des Armées (IRBA), Le Pharo, BP 60109, 13 262 Marseille Cedex 07, France
| | - Christophe Rogier
- Unité de Parasitologie - UMR6236 - IFR48, Antenne Marseille de l'Institut de Recherche Biomédicale des Armées (IRBA), Le Pharo, BP 60109, 13 262 Marseille Cedex 07, France
- Institut Pasteur de Madagascar, B.P. 1274, Ambohitrakely, 101 Antananarivo, Madagascar
| | - Lionel Almeras
- Unité de Parasitologie - UMR6236 - IFR48, Antenne Marseille de l'Institut de Recherche Biomédicale des Armées (IRBA), Le Pharo, BP 60109, 13 262 Marseille Cedex 07, France
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Harrington DWJ, Robinson K, Sparagano OAE. Immune responses of the domestic fowl to Dermanyssus gallinae under laboratory conditions. Parasitol Res 2010; 106:1425-34. [PMID: 20333400 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-010-1821-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2010] [Accepted: 03/02/2010] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
There appear to be few reports in the literature regarding the host-poultry red mite (Dermanyssus gallinae) immunological relationship, despite the negative impact D. gallinae can have on both bird welfare and egg production, as well as its potential to act as a reservoir of zoonotic infections. The current study investigated the effect of either continuous infestation (CI) for 22 days or repeated infestation (RI) for four 24-h periods 7 days apart with D. gallinae on humoral immunity (IgM and IgY) and Th1/Th2 cytokine mRNA expression in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) compared to non-infested controls. Serum IgY levels and IgM concentration were significantly higher in CI than RI and control birds although Th1 and Th2 mRNA expression in PBMC did not differ significantly between groups. D. gallinae appeared to modify reproductive behaviour and progeny survival following successive feeding events. In the RI group, the proportion of eggs/mite was significantly higher (P < 0.05) after first infestation than later infestations while larval/nymphal mortality was significantly higher (P < 0.05) after the first two infestations than later infestations. These data suggest that D. gallinae might adopt a feeding strategy of minimal host interference while D. gallinae could determine host immune status via nymphal/larval survival rates. Further research is required to better understand the host immunomodulation or avoidance strategy of D. gallinae as well as whether the mite is able to determine host immunocompetence perhaps using progeny survival.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David W J Harrington
- School of Agriculture, Food and Rural Development, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU England, UK
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
19
|
Francischetti IMB, Sa-Nunes A, Mans BJ, Santos IM, Ribeiro JMC. The role of saliva in tick feeding. FRONT BIOSCI-LANDMRK 2009; 14:2051-88. [PMID: 19273185 PMCID: PMC2785505 DOI: 10.2741/3363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 376] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
When attempting to feed on their hosts, ticks face the problem of host hemostasis (the vertebrate mechanisms that prevent blood loss), inflammation (that can produce itching or pain and thus initiate defensive behavior on their hosts) and adaptive immunity (by way of both cellular and humoral responses). Against these barriers, ticks evolved a complex and sophisticated pharmacological armamentarium, consisting of bioactive lipids and proteins, to assist blood feeding. Recent progress in transcriptome research has uncovered that hard ticks have hundreds of different proteins expressed in their salivary glands, the majority of which have no known function, and include many novel protein families (e.g., their primary structure is unique to ticks). This review will address the vertebrate mechanisms of these barriers as a guide to identify the possible targets of these large numbers of known salivary proteins with unknown function. We additionally provide a supplemental Table that catalogues over 3,500 putative salivary proteins from various tick species, which might assist the scientific community in the process of functional identification of these unique proteins. This supplemental file is accessble fromhttp://exon.niaid.nih.gov/transcriptome/tick_review/Sup-Table-1.xls.gz.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ivo M B Francischetti
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Bethesda MD, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
|
21
|
Konnai S, Nakajima C, Imamura S, Yamada S, Nishikado H, Kodama M, Onuma M, Ohashi K. Suppression of cell proliferation and cytokine expression by HL-p36, a tick salivary gland-derived protein of Haemaphysalis longicornis. Immunology 2008; 126:209-19. [PMID: 18624730 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2567.2008.02890.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Previously, a putative immunosuppressant-coding gene was identified from a complementary DNA library derived from the salivary glands of partially-fed Haemaphysalis longicornis. Using real-time polymerase chain reaction, the gene was shown to be predominantly expressed during blood feeding with the site of expression being mainly in the salivary glands; this was confirmed by Western blotting analysis. To investigate the function of this novel protein, in this study, we examined the proliferative responses of bovine mononuclear cells and murine splenic cells as well as the expression of profiles of several cytokines in these cells in the presence of the recombinant protein (H. longicornis-derived 36 000 molecular weight protein: rHL-p36). The addition of rHL-p36 at the beginning of the 72 hr cultivation period clearly inhibited proliferation of several mitogen-stimulated cells in a dose-dependent manner, with concomitantly significant down-regulation of messenger RNA levels for interleukin-2. The inhibitory response could be abrogated by blockage of HL-p36 with antibody, suggesting the direct involvement of rHL-p36 in the cell proliferation. Furthermore, the proliferative response of splenocytes isolated from rHL-p36-inoculated mice was significantly lower than for those from control mice, suggesting that rHL-p36 could also directly suppress immune responses in vivo. Interestingly, microarray analysis of the splenocytes showed that the expression of several immunomodulating genes was down-regulated by rHL-p36 inoculation. In conclusion, these results suggest that HL-p36 is an immunosuppressor that might play an important role in the modulation of host immune responses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Satoru Konnai
- Department of Disease Control, Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
22
|
The tick salivary protein Salp15 inhibits the killing of serum-sensitive Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato isolates. Infect Immun 2008; 76:2888-94. [PMID: 18426890 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00232-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Borrelia burgdorferi, the agent of Lyme disease, is transmitted by ticks. During transmission from the tick to the host, spirochetes are delivered with tick saliva, which contains the salivary protein Salp15. Salp15 has been shown to protect spirochetes against B. burgdorferi-specific antibodies. We now show that Salp15 from both Ixodes ricinus and Ixodes scapularis protects serum-sensitive isolates of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato against complement-mediated killing. I. ricinus Salp15 showed strong protective effects compared to those of I. scapularis Salp15. Deposition of terminal C5b to C9 (one molecule each of C5b, C6, C7, and C8 and one or more molecules of C9) complement complexes, part of the membrane attack complex, on the surface of B. burgdorferi was inhibited in the presence of Salp15. In the presence of normal human serum, serum-sensitive Borrelia burgdorferi requires protection against complement-mediated killing, which is provided, at least in part, by the binding to the tick salivary protein Salp15.
Collapse
|
23
|
In vitro splenocyte proliferation responses of BALB/c mice to salivary gland extracts of three ixodid tick species (Acari: Ixodidae). Biologia (Bratisl) 2007. [DOI: 10.2478/s11756-007-0141-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
|
24
|
Cytokine responses of CD4+ T cells during a Plasmodium chabaudi chabaudi (ER) blood-stage infection in mice initiated by the natural route of infection. Malar J 2007; 6:77. [PMID: 17555592 PMCID: PMC1904224 DOI: 10.1186/1475-2875-6-77] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2007] [Accepted: 06/07/2007] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Investigation of host responses to blood stages of Plasmodium spp, and the immunopathology associated with this phase of the life cycle are often performed on mice infected directly with infected red blood cells. Thus, the effects of mosquito bites and the pre-erythrocytic stages of the parasite, which would be present in natural infection, are ignored In this paper, Plasmodium chabaudi chabaudi infections of mice injected directly with infected red blood cells were compared with those of mice infected by the bites of infected mosquitoes, in order to determine whether the courses of primary infection and splenic CD4 T cell responses are similar. METHODS C57Bl/6 mice were injected with red blood cells infected with P. chabaudi (ER) or infected via the bite of Anopheles stephensi mosquitoes. Parasitaemia were monitored by Giemsa-stained thin blood films. Total spleen cells, CD4+ T cells, and cytokine production (IFN-gamma, IL-2, IL-4, IL-10) were analysed by flow cytometry. In some experiments, mice were subjected to bites of uninfected mosquitoes prior to infectious bites in order to determine whether mosquito bites per se could affect a subsequent P. chabaudi infection. RESULTS P. chabaudi (ER) infections initiated by mosquito bite were characterized by lower parasitaemia of shorter duration than those observed after direct blood challenge. However, splenomegaly was comparable suggesting that parasitaemia alone does not account for the increase in spleen size. Total numbers of CD4 T cells and those producing IFN-gamma, IL-10 and IL-2 were reduced in comparison to direct blood challenge. By contrast, the reduction in IL-4 producing cells was less marked suggesting that there is a proportionally lower Th1-like response in mice infected via infectious mosquitoes. Strikingly, pre-exposure to bites of uninfected mosquitoes reduced the magnitude and duration of the subsequent mosquito-transmitted infection still further, but enhanced the response of CD4 T cells producing IFN-gamma and IL-4. CONCLUSION The data in this paper suggest that studying early host responses in blood stage malaria infections measured after direct blood challenge of mice may not completely reflect the natural situation, and more detailed investigations of blood-stage immunity after mosquito transmission in experimental models should be considered.
Collapse
|
25
|
Fast MD, Johnson SC, Eddy TD, Pinto D, Ross NW. Lepeophtheirus salmonis secretory/excretory products and their effects on Atlantic salmon immune gene regulation. Parasite Immunol 2007; 29:179-89. [PMID: 17371455 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3024.2007.00932.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
We have previously shown that Lepeophtheirus salmonis produces trypsin and prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)) that are most likely responsible for the limited inflammatory response of Atlantic salmon to infection. After removal of the dopamine and PGE(2), the immunomodulatory activity of unfractionated and pools of the fractionated secretions was determined by examining the effects of the secretions on Atlantic salmon immune gene expression. Incubation of macrophage-enriched isolates of Atlantic salmon head kidney cells with the unfractionated secretion + PGE(2) revealed a significant inhibition of interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta) and major histocompatibility class I gene expression. Inhibition of lipopolysaccharide-induced IL-1beta expression in the Atlantic salmon head kidney cell line (SHK-1) was observed when three pools of the secretory/excretory products were tested. Further purification of products within these pools revealed that fraction 1-2 could account fully for the inhibition of IL-1beta expression in SHK-1 cells observed in pooled fraction 1. This study demonstrates that there are other immunomodulatory compounds produced by L. salmonis, in addition to PGE(2) and trypsin, that can inhibit the expression of Atlantic salmon immune-related genes in vitro.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M D Fast
- Institute for Marine Biosciences, National Research Council, Halifax, NS, Canada.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
26
|
Koník P, Slavíková V, Salát J, Reznícková J, Dvoroznáková E, Kopecký J. Anti-tumour necrosis factor-? activity in Ixodes ricinus saliva. Parasite Immunol 2006; 28:649-56. [PMID: 17096644 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3024.2006.00899.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) is one of the most prominent inflammatory mediators playing a central role in starting off the inflammatory reactions of the innate immune system. We identified a TNF-alpha-inhibitory activity in the saliva and salivary gland extract (SGE) from partially fed Ixodes ricinus ticks. Using mouse and human TNF-alpha specific ELISA, we showed that tick saliva or SGE markedly reduced the level of detectable cytokine. Both saliva and SGE inhibited the cytotoxic effect of TNF-alpha in a bioassay. Elimination of the TNF-alpha-inhibitory activity in SGE by trypsin digestion demonstrated that the anti-TNF-alpha factor is a protein. Fast protein liquid chromatography fractionation of SGE showed one peak of TNF-alpha-inhibitory activity corresponding to a protein with estimated molecular mass 23 kDa. The likely mechanism of the inhibitory effect is a direct binding of the cytokine. The TNF-alpha-inhibitory molecule seems to play an important role in the anti-inflammatory effect of tick saliva at the tick feeding site, providing a gateway to the host for tick-borne pathogens.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- P Koník
- Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of South Bohemia, Ceské Budejovice, Czech Republic
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
27
|
Abstract
There is now abundant evidence that vaccination with defined protein antigens is able to induce significant immunity to tick infestation. In a limited number of cases, this immunity has been duplicated by vaccination with recombinant antigens, a critical step on the pathway to commercial vaccine production. The existence of two commercial vaccines has allowed a number of field studies showing that the existing products can make an important contribution to an integrated approach to the control of ticks in the field. Under most circumstances however, the use of a tick vaccine as the single, stand alone control technology is likely to require more efficacious vaccines than those currently available. Increases in efficacy are most likely to come through the discovery of additional, effective vaccine antigens. The number of antigens with demonstrated effect is increasing, though only slowly, while the number of potential antigens that remain to be evaluated is increasing more quickly. There is limited, though convincing, evidence that some of these antigens will show effective cross-species protection, though in a poorly understood and unpredictable way. The groundwork has been laid; the potential of the field is still to be effectively exploited.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- P Willadsen
- CSIRO Livestock Industries, Queensland Bioscience Precinct, 306 Carmody Road, St Lucia, Queensland 4067, Australia.
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Abstract
Ticks are of vast medical and veterinary public health importance due to direct damage caused by feeding and their roles in transmitting well known and emerging infectious agents. Ticks and tick-borne pathogens stimulate the immune system of the host. Those immune interactions are of importance in tick biology, pathogen transmission and control of ticks and tick-borne diseases. Both innate and specific acquired immune defenses are involved in the responses of vertebrate hosts to infestation. Ticks have evolved countermeasures to circumvent host immune defenses. This review addresses the immunobiology of the tick-host interface from the perspectives of the pharmacology of tick saliva; relationship of tick saliva to pathogen transmission; host immune responses to infestation; tick modulation of host immune defences; and genomic/proteomic strategies for studying tick salivary gland molecules.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M Brossard
- Institute of Zoology, University of Neuchatel, Emile-Argand 11, CH-2007, Neuchatel, Switzerland
| | | |
Collapse
|
29
|
Titus RG, Bishop JV, Mejia JS. The immunomodulatory factors of arthropod saliva and the potential for these factors to serve as vaccine targets to prevent pathogen transmission. Parasite Immunol 2006; 28:131-41. [PMID: 16542315 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3024.2006.00807.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
In general, attempts to develop vaccines for pathogens transmitted by arthropods have met with little or no success. It has been widely observed that the saliva of arthropods that transmit disease enhances the infectivity of pathogens the arthropod transmits to the vertebrate host. Indeed, it has been observed that vaccinating against components of the saliva of arthropods or against antigens expressed in the gut of arthropods can protect the host from infection and decrease the viability of the arthropod. These results suggest that multi-subunit vaccines that target the pathogen itself as well as arthropod salivary gland components and arthropod gut antigens may be the most effective at controlling arthropod-borne pathogens as these vaccines would target several facets of the lifecycle of the pathogen. This review covers known immunomodulators in arthropod salivary glands, instances when arthropod saliva has been shown to enhance infection and a limited number of examples of antiarthropod vaccines, with emphasis on three arthropods: sandflies, mosquitoes and hard ticks.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R G Titus
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, 80523, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
30
|
Pechová J, Kopecký J, Salát J. Effect of tick salivary gland extract on the cytokine production by mouse epidermal cells. Folia Parasitol (Praha) 2004. [DOI: 10.14411/fp.2004.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
|
31
|
Fast MD, Ross NW, Craft CA, Locke SJ, MacKinnon SL, Johnson SC. Lepeophtheirus salmonis: characterization of prostaglandin E2 in secretory products of the salmon louse by RP-HPLC and mass spectrometry. Exp Parasitol 2004; 107:5-13. [PMID: 15208032 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2004.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2003] [Revised: 01/21/2004] [Accepted: 04/06/2004] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Lepeophtheirus salmonis is an ectoparasitic copepod that causes serious disease outbreaks in both wild and farmed salmonids. As the relationship between L. salmonis and its hosts is not well understood, the current investigation was undertaken to investigate whether any immunomodulatory compounds could be identified from secretions of L. salmonis. By incubating live L. salmonis adults with the neurotransmitter dopamine in seawater, we were able to obtain secretions from the parasite. These were analyzed by RP-HPLC column, as well as LC-MS. L. salmonis secretions contained a compound with the same retention time and mass of PGE(2). The identity of this compound as PGE(2) was confirmed by MS-in source dissociation. The concentrations of PGE(2) in L. salmonis secretions ranged from 0.2 to 12.3 ng/individual and varied with incubation temperature and time kept off the host. Prostaglandin E(2) is a potent vasodilator and thought to aid in parasite evasion from host immune responses. This is the first reported evidence of prostaglandin production in parasitic copepod secretions and its implications for the host-parasite relationship are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M D Fast
- Department of Biology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
32
|
Krocová Z, Macela A, Hernychová L, Kroca M, Pechová J, Kopecký J. Tick salivary gland extract accelerates proliferation of Francisella tularensis in the host. J Parasitol 2003; 89:14-20. [PMID: 12659297 DOI: 10.1645/0022-3395(2003)089[0014:tsgeap]2.0.co;2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Accelerated proliferation of the tick-borne bacterial pathogen Francisella tularensis was demonstrated in mice when the bacterium was injected together with salivary gland extract from Ixodes ricinus ticks. A significant increase in the numbers of bacteria was recorded in the dermal site of infection,the draining lymph nodes, and the spleen. Analysis of the expression of cytokine messenger ribonucleic acids showed polarization toward a Th2 profile. Salivary gland extract-mediated suppression of interleukin-12 and interferon-gamma, the cytokines required for the expression of the protective immunity against tularemic infection, apparently contributed to the decreased resistance against this tick-transmitted pathogen.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Z Krocová
- Institute for Radiobiology and Immunology, Purkyne Military Medical Academy, 500 01 Hradec Králové, Czech Republic.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
33
|
Hannier S, Liversidge J, Sternberg JM, Bowman AS. Ixodes ricinus tick salivary gland extract inhibits IL-10 secretion and CD69 expression by mitogen-stimulated murine splenocytes and induces hyporesponsiveness in B lymphocytes. Parasite Immunol 2003; 25:27-37. [PMID: 12753435 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-3024.2003.00605.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Tick saliva contains immunosuppressive factors allowing this blood-feeding ectoparasite to remain on hosts and enhancing pathogen transmission. In this study, we examined the modulation of mitogen-induced activation of naive murine splenocytes by the saliva and salivary gland extract (SGE) of I. ricinus ticks. We found that saliva-specific factors reduced IL-10 production by both concanavalin A (ConA) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulated splenocytes. The LPS-induced IL-10 production is 10 times more sensitive to SGE than the ConA-induced IL-10 production. Flow cytometric analysis determined that SGE particularly inhibited B (B220+) cell IL-10 production in mitogen-stimulated splenocyte preparations. Moreover, SGE reduced the early activation marker CD69 expression on ConA-activated T cells and also on B cells in presence of ConA or LPS. Annexin V and Via-probe staining demonstrated that SGE did not increase cell death in activated splenocytes and slightly decreased apoptosis in B lymphocytes. By employing assays with isolated B cells, we further showed that SGE had a direct effect on B cells and inhibited LPS-induced B cell proliferation. Taken together, our results indicate that salivary immunomodulators induce hyporesponsiveness to mitogen in both T and B cells, and that a direct B-cell inhibitory activity is present in tick saliva.
Collapse
MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antigens, CD/analysis
- Antigens, CD/metabolism
- Antigens, Differentiation, T-Lymphocyte/analysis
- Antigens, Differentiation, T-Lymphocyte/metabolism
- B-Lymphocytes/immunology
- Cell Extracts/pharmacology
- Cells, Cultured
- Concanavalin A/pharmacology
- Dose-Response Relationship, Drug
- Female
- Humans
- Interleukin-10/analysis
- Interleukin-10/biosynthesis
- Interleukin-10/metabolism
- Ixodes/chemistry
- Lectins, C-Type
- Lipopolysaccharides/pharmacology
- Lymphocyte Activation/drug effects
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred BALB C
- Mice, Inbred C3H
- Salivary Glands/chemistry
- Spleen/cytology
- Spleen/drug effects
- Spleen/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes/metabolism
- Time Factors
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sigrid Hannier
- School of Biological Science (Zoology), University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB24 2TZ, Scotland, UK
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
34
|
Pechová J, Štěpánová G, Kovář L, Kopecký J. Tick salivary gland extract-activated transmission of Borrelia afzelii spirochaetes. Folia Parasitol (Praha) 2002. [DOI: 10.14411/fp.2002.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
|