Neuroendocrine alterations in a high-dose, extended-access rat self-administration model of escalating cocaine use

Cocaine disrupts action flexibility via glucocorticoid receptors

Many addictive drugs increase stress hormone levels. They also alter the propensity of organisms to prospectively select actions based on long-term consequences. We hypothesized that cocaine causes inflexible action by increasing circulating stress hormone levels, activating the glucocorticoid receptor (GR). We trained mice to generate two nose pokes for food and then required them to update action-consequence associations when one response was no longer reinforced. Cocaine delivered in adolescence or adulthood impaired the capacity of mice to update action strategies, and inhibiting CORT synthesis rescued action flexibility. Next, we reduced Nr3c1, encoding GR, in the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), a region of the brain responsible for interlacing new information into established routines. Nr3c1 silencing preserved action flexibility and dendritic spine abundance on excitatory neurons, despite cocaine. Spines are often considered substrates for learning and memory, leading to the discovery that cocaine degrades the representation of new action memories, obstructing action flexibility.

Corticotropin releasing factor and drug seeking in substance use disorders: Preclinical evidence and translational limitations

The neuropeptide, corticotropin releasing factor (CRF), has been an enigmatic target for the development of medications aimed at treating stress-related disorders. Despite a large body of evidence from preclinical studies in rodents demonstrating that CRF receptor antagonists prevent stressor-induced drug seeking, medications targeting the CRF-R1 have failed in clinical trials. Here, we provide an overview of the abundant findings from preclinical rodent studies suggesting that CRF signaling is involved in stressor-induced relapse. The scientific literature that has defined the receptors, mechanisms and neurocircuits through which CRF contributes to stressor-induced reinstatement of drug seeking following self-administration and conditioned place preference in rodents is reviewed. Evidence that CRF signaling is recruited with repeated drug use in a manner that heightens susceptibility to stressor-induced drug seeking in rodents is presented. Factors that may determine the influence of CRF signaling in substance use disorders, including developmental windows, biological sex, and genetics are examined. Finally, we discuss the translational failure of medications targeting CRF signaling as interventions for substance use disorders and other stress-related conditions. We conclude that new perspectives and research directions are needed to unravel the mysterious role of CRF in substance use disorders.

Neurochemical mechanisms and neurocircuitry underlying the contribution of stress to cocaine seeking

In individuals with substance use disorders, stress is a critical determinant of relapse susceptibility. In some cases, stressors directly trigger cocaine use. In others, stressors interact with other stimuli to promote drug seeking, thereby setting the stage for relapse. Here, we review the mechanisms and neurocircuitry that mediate stress-triggered and stress-potentiated cocaine seeking. Stressors trigger cocaine seeking by activating noradrenergic projections originating in the lateral tegmentum that innervate the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis to produce beta adrenergic receptor-dependent regulation of neurons that release corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) into the ventral tegmental area (VTA). CRF promotes the activation of VTA dopamine neurons that innervate the prelimbic prefrontal cortex resulting in D1 receptor-dependent excitation of a pathway to the nucleus accumbens core that mediates cocaine seeking. The stage-setting effects of stress require glucocorticoids, which exert rapid non-canonical effects at several sites within the mesocorticolimbic system. In the nucleus accumbens, corticosterone attenuates dopamine clearance via the organic cation transporter 3 to promote dopamine signaling. In the prelimbic cortex, corticosterone mobilizes the endocannabinoid, 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), which produces CB1 receptor-dependent reductions in inhibitory transmission, thereby increasing excitability of neurons which comprise output pathways responsible for cocaine seeking. Factors that influence the role of stress in cocaine seeking, including prior history of drug use, biological sex, chronic stress/co-morbid stress-related disorders, adolescence, social variables, and genetics are discussed. Better understanding when and how stress contributes to drug seeking should guide the development of more effective interventions, particularly for those whose drug use is stress related.

Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity in post-traumatic stress disorder and cocaine use disorder

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is often comorbid with cocaine use disorder (CUD), but little is known about hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis function in PTSD + CUD. Here we review the clinical and pre-clinical literature of PTSD and CUD with the goal of generating hypotheses about HPA axis activity in comorbid PTSD + CUD. Low glucocorticoid (CORT) levels immediately after trauma exposure are associated with PTSD. CORT administered within 12 h of trauma exposure reduces later PTSD symptoms. Weeks-years after trauma, meta-analyses find lower CORT levels in patients with PTSD relative to never-traumatized controls; the same is found in a pre-clinical model of PTSD. In rodents, reduced basal CORT levels are consistently found after chronic cocaine self-administration. Conversely, increased CORT levels are found in CUD patients during the first 2 weeks of cocaine abstinence. There is evidence for CORT hyper-suppression after dexamethasone, high glucocorticoid receptor (GR) number pre-trauma, and increased GR translocation to the nucleus in PTSD. Hyper-suppression of HPA axis activity after dexamethasone suggests that PTSD individuals may have increased anterior pituitary GR. Given evidence for decreased anterior pituitary GR in rats that self-administer cocaine, PTSD + CUD individuals may have normal GR density and low basal CORT levels during late abstinence. Future studies should aim to reconcile the differences in pre-clinical and clinical basal CORT levels during cocaine and assess HPA axis function in both rodent models of CUD that consider stress-susceptibility and in PTSD + CUD individuals. Although additional studies are necessary, individuals with PTSD + CUD may benefit from behavioral and psychopharmacological treatments to normalize HPA axis activity. LAY SUMMARY Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is often comorbid with cocaine use disorder (CUD), but little is known about the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis function in PTSD + CUD. The current review provides a synthesis of available clinical and pre-clinical data on PTSD and CUD with the goal of generating hypotheses about HPA axis activity in comorbid PTSD + CUD. While this review finds ample evidence supporting aberrant HPA axis activity in both PTSD and CUD, it suggests that more research is needed to understand the unique changes HPA axis activity in PTSD + CUD, as well as the bidirectional relationship between stress-susceptibility and motivation to seek cocaine.

Effects of Kappa opioid receptor blockade by LY2444296 HCl, a selective short-acting antagonist, during chronic extended access cocaine self-administration and re-exposure in rat

RATIONALE

Cocaine addiction is a chronic brain disease characterized by compulsive drug intake and dysregulation of brain reward systems. Few preclinical studies have modeled the natural longitudinal course of cocaine addiction. Extended access self-administration protocols are powerful tools for modeling the advanced stages of addiction; however, few studies have duration of drug access longer than 12 h/session, potentially limiting their construct validity. Identification of changes in cocaine intake patterns during the development of addictive-like states may allow better treatments for vulnerable subjects. The kappa opioid receptor (KOPr) system has been implicated in the neurobiological regulation of addictive states as well as mood and stress disorders, with selective KOPr antagonists proposed as possible pharmacotherapeutic agents. Chronic cocaine exposure increases the expression of KOPr and its endogenous agonists, the dynorphins, in several brain areas in rodents.

OBJECTIVES

To examine the behavioral pattern of intake during chronic (14 days) 18 h intravenous cocaine self-administration (0.5 mg/kg/infusion) and the effect of a novel short-acting KOPr antagonist LY2444296 HCl (3 mg/kg) administered during sessions 8 to 14 of chronic 18 h/day cocaine self-administration and prior to a single re-exposure session after 2 cocaine-free withdrawal days.

RESULTS

Both daily and hourly cocaine intake patterns changed over 14 days of 18 h self-administration. LY pretreatment affected the pattern of self-administration across the second week of extended access cocaine self-administration and prevented the increase in cocaine intake during re-exposure.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, the KOPr antagonist attenuated escalated cocaine consumption in a rat model of extended access cocaine self-administration.

Early adverse experience and substance addiction: dopamine, oxytocin, and glucocorticoid pathways

Substance addiction may follow a chronic, relapsing course and critically undermine the physical and psychological well-being of the affected individual and the social units of which the individual is a member. Despite the public health burden associated with substance addiction, treatment options remain suboptimal, with relapses often seen. The present review synthesizes growing insights from animal and human research to shed light upon developmental and neurobiological pathways that may increase susceptibility to addiction. We examine the dopamine system, the oxytocin system, and the glucocorticoid system, as they are particularly relevant to substance addiction. Our aim is to delineate how early adverse experience may induce long-lasting alterations in each of these systems at molecular, neuroendocrine, and behavioral levels and ultimately lead to heightened vulnerability to substance addiction. We further discuss how substance addiction in adulthood may increase the risk of suboptimal caregiving for the next generation, perpetuating the intergenerational cycle of early adverse experiences and addiction.

Substance use modulates stress reactivity: Behavioral and physiological outcomes

Drug addiction is a major public health concern in the United States costing taxpayers billions in health care costs, lost productivity and law enforcement. However, the availability of effective treatment options remains limited. The development of novel therapeutics will not be possible without a better understanding of the addicted brain. Studies in both clinical and preclinical models indicate that chronic drug use leads to alterations in the body and brain's response to stress. Dysregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis may shed light on the ability of stress to increase vulnerability to relapse. Further, within both the HPA axis and limbic brain regions, corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) is critically involved in the brain's response to stress. Alterations in both central and peripheral CRF activity seen following chronic drug use provide a mechanism by which substance use can alter stress reactivity, thus mediating addictive phenotypes. While many reviews have focused on how stress alters drug-mediated changes in physiology and behavior, the goal of this review is to focus on how substance use alters responses to stress.

Deep TMS on alcoholics: effects on cortisolemia and dopamine pathway modulation. A pilot study

The hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis and dopamine have a key role in transition from alcohol social use to addiction. The medial prefrontal cortex was shown to modulate dopaminergic activity and cortisol releasing factor (CRF) release in hypothalamic and extra-hypothalamic systems. The recent advancements in non-invasive neurostimulation technologies has enabled stimulation of deeper brain regions using H-coil transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) in humans. This randomized double-blind placebo-controlled pilot study aims to evaluate H-coil efficacy in stimulating the medial prefrontal cortex. Cortisolemia and prolactinemia were evaluated as effectiveness markers. Alcohol intake and craving were considered as secondary outcomes. Eighteen alcoholics were recruited and randomized into 2 homogeneous groups: 9 in the real stimulation group and 9 in the sham stimulation group. Repetitive TMS (rTMS) was administered through a magnetic stimulator over 10 sessions at 20 Hz, directed to the medial prefrontal cortex. rTMS significantly reduced blood cortisol levels and decreased prolactinemia, thus suggesting dopamine increase. Craving visual analogic scale (VAS) in treated patients decreased, as well as mean number of alcoholic drinks/day and drinks on days of maximum alcohol intake (DMAI). In the sham group there was no significant effect observed on cortisolemia, prolactinemia, mean number of alcoholic drinks/day, or drinks/DMAI. Thus, deep rTMS could be considered a potential new treatment for alcoholism.

Alcohol: a stimulant activating brain stress responsive systems with persistent neuroadaptation

Addictive diseases, including addiction to alcohol, opiates or cocaine, pose massive public health costs. Addictions are chronic relapsing brain diseases, caused by drug-induced direct effects and persistent neuroadaptations at the molecular, cellular and behavioral levels. These drug-type specific neuroadapations are mainly contributed by three factors: environment, including stress, the direct reinforcing effects of the drug on the CNS, and genetics. Results from animal models and basic clinical research (including human genetic study) have shown important interactions between the stress responsive systems and alcohol abuse. In this review we will discuss the involvement of the dysregulation of the stress responsive hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis in alcohol addiction (Section I). Addictions to specific drugs such as alcohol, psychostimulants and opiates (e.g., heroin) have some common direct or downstream effects on several brain stress-responsive systems, including vasopressin and its receptor system (Section II), POMC and mu opioid receptor system (Section III) and dynorphin and kappa opioid receptor systems (Section IV). Further understanding of these systems, through laboratory-based and translational studies, have the potential to optimize early interventions and to discover new treatment targets for the therapy of alcoholism. This article is part of the Special Issue entitled 'CNS Stimulants'.

Neurobiological mechanisms underlying relapse to cocaine use: contributions of CRF and noradrenergic systems and regulation by glucocorticoids

Considering its pervasive and uncontrollable influence in drug addicts, understanding the neurobiological processes through which stress contributes to drug use is a critical goal for addiction researchers and will likely be important for the development of effective medications aimed at relapse prevention. In this paper, we review work from our laboratory and others focused on determining the neurobiological mechanisms that underlie and contribute to stress-induced relapse of cocaine use with an emphasis on the actions of corticotropin-releasing factor in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and a key pathway from the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis to the VTA that is regulated by norepinephrine and beta adrenergic receptors. Additionally, we discuss work suggesting that the influence of stress in cocaine addiction changes and intensifies with repeated cocaine use in an intake-dependent manner and examine the potential role of glucocorticoid hormones in the underlying drug-induced neuroadaptations. It is our hope that research in this area will inform clinical practice and medication development aimed at minimizing the contribution of stress to the addiction cycle, thereby improving treatment outcomes and reducing the societal costs of addiction.

Neurobiological mechanisms that contribute to stress-related cocaine use

The ability of stressful life events to trigger drug use is particularly problematic for the management of cocaine addiction due to the unpredictable and often uncontrollable nature of stress. For this reason, understanding the neurobiological processes that contribute to stress-related drug use is important for the development of new and more effective treatment strategies aimed at minimizing the role of stress in the addiction cycle. In this review we discuss the neurocircuitry that has been implicated in stress-induced drug use with an emphasis on corticotropin releasing factor actions in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and an important pathway from the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis to the VTA that is regulated by norepinephrine via actions at beta adrenergic receptors. In addition to the neurobiological mechanisms that underlie stress-induced cocaine seeking, we review findings suggesting that the ability of stressful stimuli to trigger cocaine use emerges and intensifies in an intake-dependent manner with repeated cocaine self-administration. Further, we discuss evidence that the drug-induced neuroadaptations that are necessary for heightened susceptibility to stress-induced drug use are reliant on elevated levels of glucocorticoid hormones at the time of cocaine use. Finally, the potential ability of stress to function as a "stage setter" for drug use - increasing sensitivity to cocaine and drug-associated cues - under conditions where it does not directly trigger cocaine seeking is discussed. As our understanding of the mechanisms through which stress promotes drug use advances, the hope is that so too will the available tools for effectively managing addiction, particularly in cocaine addicts whose drug use is stress-driven. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled 'NIDA 40th Anniversary Issue'.

A dysphoric-like state during early withdrawal from extended access to methamphetamine self-administration in rats

RATIONALE

Negative emotional states during drug withdrawal may contribute to compulsive drug intake and seeking in humans. Studies suggest that extended access to methamphetamine induces compulsive drug intake in rats.

OBJECTIVE

The present study tested the hypothesis that compulsive methamphetamine intake in rats with extended access is associated with negative emotional states during drug withdrawal.

METHODS

Rats with short (1 h, ShA) and extended access (6 h, LgA) to methamphetamine self-administration (0.05 mg/kg/infusion) were tested for reward thresholds using intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS). Different groups of ShA and LgA rats were examined for depression-like and anxiety-like states in the novelty-suppressed feeding, open field, defensive burying, and forced swim tests.

RESULTS

With extended access, ICSS thresholds gradually increased, which was correlated with the increase of drug intake. During drug withdrawal, the increased ICSS thresholds returned to levels observed before exposure to extended access to methamphetamine. Upon re-exposure to extended access to methamphetamine, ICSS thresholds showed a more rapid escalation than during the initial exposure. LgA rats showed a longer latency to approach chow in the center of a novel field and remained immobile longer in the forced swim test than ShA rats did during early withdrawal. In contrast, ShA rats actively buried an aversive shock probe whereas LgA rats remained immobile in the defensive burying test.

CONCLUSION

The data suggest that extended access to methamphetamine produces a more depressive-like state than anxiety-like state in rats during early withdrawal.

Influence of the single or combined administration of cocaine and testosterone in autonomic and neuroendocrine responses to acute restraint stress

Abuse of cocaine and androgenic-anabolic steroids (AASs) has become a serious public health problem. Despite reports of an increase in the incidence of simultaneous abuse of these substances, potential toxic interactions between cocaine and AASs are poorly known. In the present study, we investigated the effects of either single or combined administration of testosterone and cocaine for one or 10 consecutive days on autonomic (arterial pressure, heart rate and tail cutaneous temperature) and neuroendocrine (plasma corticosterone) responses induced by acute restraint stress in rats. Combined administration of testosterone and cocaine for 10 days reduced the increase in heart rate and plasma corticosterone level, as well as the fall in tail skin temperature induced by restraint stress. Furthermore, repeated administration of cocaine inhibited the increase in arterial pressure observed during restraint, and this effect was not affected by coadministration of testosterone. Ten-day combined administration of testosterone and cocaine increased basal values of arterial pressure. Moreover, chronic administration of testosterone induced rest bradycardia and elevated basal level of plasma corticosterone. One-day single or combined administration of the drugs did not affect any parameter investigated. In conclusion, the present study demonstrated that combined administration of testosterone and cocaine changed the autonomic and neuroendocrine responses to acute restraint stress. These findings suggest that interaction between AASs and cocaine may affect the ability to cope with stressful events.

Environmental enrichment counters cocaine abstinence-induced stress and brain reactivity to cocaine cues but fails to prevent the incubation effect

Environmental enrichment (EE) during a period of forced abstinence attenuates incentive motivational effects of cocaine-paired stimuli. Here we examined whether EE during forced abstinence from cocaine self-administration would prevent time-dependent increases in cue-elicited cocaine-seeking behavior (i.e. the incubation effect). Rats were trained to self-administer cocaine, which was paired with light/tone cues, for 15 days while living in isolated conditions (IC). Controls received yoked saline infusions. Subsequently, rats were assigned to live in either continued IC or EE for either 1 or 21 days of forced abstinence prior to a test for cocaine-seeking behavior. During testing, responding resulted only in presentation of the light/tone cues. Contrary to our prediction, cocaine-seeking behavior increased over time regardless of living condition during abstinence; however, EE attenuated cocaine-seeking behavior relative to IC regardless of length of abstinence. Brains were harvested and trunk blood was collected immediately after the 60-minute test and later assayed. Results indicated that short-term EE elevated hippocampal brain-derived neurotrophic factor and reduced plasma corticosterone compared with IC. Furthermore, 21 days of EE during forced abstinence prevented increases in the cue-elicited amygdala phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinase expression that was observed in IC rats. These findings suggest that EE attenuates incentive motivational effects of cocaine cues through a mechanism other than preventing the incubation effect, perhaps involving reduction of stress and neural activity in response to cocaine-paired cues during acute withdrawal.

Dose escalation and dose preference in extended-access heroin self-administration in Lewis and Fischer rats

RATIONALE

A genetic component may be involved in different stages of the progression of drug addiction. Heroin users escalate unit doses and frequency of self-administration events over time. Rats that self-administer drugs of abuse over extended sessions escalate the amount of drug infused over days.

OBJECTIVES

Using a recently developed model of extended-access self-administration allowing for subject-controlled dose escalation of the unit dose, thus potentially escalating the unit dose and number of infusions, we compared for the first time two genetically different inbred rat strains, Fischer and Lewis.

METHODS

Extended (18 h/day) self-administration lasted for 14 days. Rats had access to two active levers associated with two different unit doses of heroin. If a rat showed preference for the higher unit dose, then the available doses were escalated in the following session. Four heroin unit doses were available (20, 50, 125, 250 μg/kg per infusion).

RESULTS

Fischer rats did not escalate the unit dose of heroin self-administered; daily amount of heroin administered remained low, with a mean daily intake of 1.27 ± 0.22 mg/kg per session. In marked contrast, Lewis rats escalated the total daily amount of heroin self-administered from 3.94 ± 0.82 mg/kg on day 1 to 8.95 ± 2.2 mg/kg on day 14; almost half of the subjects preferred a higher heroin dose than Fischer rats.

CONCLUSION

These data are consistent with the hypothesis that Lewis rats are prone to opiate taking and escalation, and are in agreement with our previous data obtained with cocaine.

Adrenal activity during repeated long-access cocaine self-administration is required for later CRF-Induced and CRF-dependent stressor-induced reinstatement in rats

Understanding the neurobiological processes that contribute to the establishment and expression of stress-induced regulation of cocaine use in addicted individuals is important for the development of new and better treatment approaches. It has been previously shown that rats self-administering cocaine under long-access conditions (6 h daily) display heightened susceptibility to the reinstatement of extinguished cocaine seeking by a stressor, electric footshock, or i.c.v. administration of the stressor-responsive neuropeptide, corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF). This study tested the hypothesis that adrenal responsiveness during earlier long-access cocaine self-administration (SA) is necessary for the establishment of later CRF-dependent stress-induced reinstatement. Reinstatement by footshock, but not a cocaine challenge (10 mg/kg, i.p.) following long-access SA, was blocked by i.c.v. administration of the CRF receptor antagonist, α-helical CRF(9-41) (10 μg). Elimination of SA-induced adrenal responses through surgical adrenalectomy and diurnal corticosterone replacement (ADX/C) before 14 days of SA under long-access conditions had minimal impact on cocaine SA, but blocked later footshock-induced reinstatement. By contrast, ADX/C after SA, but before extinction and reinstatement testing, failed to reduce footshock-induced reinstatement. Likewise, ADX/C before 14 days long-access SA prevented later reinstatement by i.c.v. CRF (0.5 or 1.0 μg). However, significant CRF-induced reinstatement was observed when rats underwent ADX/C following SA, but before extinction and reinstatement testing, although a modest but statistically nonsignificant reduction in sensitivity to CRF's reinstating effects was observed. Taken together, these findings suggest that adrenal-dependent neuroadaptations in CRF responsiveness underlie the increased susceptibility to stress-induced relapse that emerges with repeated cocaine use.

Dose preference and dose escalation in extended-access cocaine self-administration in Fischer and Lewis rats

RATIONALE

Drug addiction is a disease with a genetic component that may be involved in different stages of its progression. Cocaine users escalate unit doses and frequency of self-administration events in naturalistic settings. Rats that self-administer drugs of abuse over extended sessions increase the number of infusions over days.

OBJECTIVES

Comparison of two genetically different inbred rat strains, Fischer and Lewis, in a new self-administration paradigm whereby rats select between different unit doses of cocaine, thus potentially escalating the unit dose and the number of infusions.

METHODS

Extended (18 h/day) self-administration sessions lasted for 14 days. Rats had access to two active levers associated with two different unit doses of cocaine. If a rat showed preference for the higher unit dose, then the available doses were escalated in the following session. Four cocaine unit doses were available (0.2, 0.5, 1.25, and 2.5 mg/kg/infusion).

RESULTS

Lewis rats showed a clear preference for the two higher doses of cocaine (70% of rats), with a high percentage (35%) of the individuals escalating to the highest unit dose, and escalated the total amount of cocaine taken over days. Fischer rats, however, preferred the two lower doses (63%) and did not escalate the amount of cocaine taken over days. Fischer, but not Lewis, rats showed an activated hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in acute withdrawal (24 h).

CONCLUSION

This work shows the power of a model of extended-access self-administration that allows for the subject-controlled dose-escalation of the unit dose of cocaine, and underlines the genetic differences that modulate cocaine intake.

Self-reports of interoceptive responses during stress and drug cue-related experiences in cocaine- and alcohol-dependent individuals

Cocaine dependence is associated with neuroadaptations in stress and reward pathways that could alter stress and drug-related experiences and associated interoceptive sensations and result in enhanced craving states. Subjective interoceptive emotional and physiological responses experienced in stressful and drug cue situations were examined in abstinent cocaine-dependent individuals. Fifty-six treatment engaged cocaine-dependent patients with comorbid alcohol abuse or dependence were interviewed to identify personal stressful, drug cue, and neutral situations using a scene construction questionnaire (SCQ) that includes an emotional and physiological response checklist. Using this checklist, subjects identified emotional and bodily sensations that they recently experienced in the stress- and drug-related scenarios. Kappa coefficients indicated fair to moderate but significant degree of concordance in heart (p < .01), perspiration (p < .05), stomach (p < .05), and blood flow (p < .01) sensations for both stress and drug cue scenarios, while the McNemar change test indicated differential endorsement of interoceptive responses in stress and drug cue situations for breathing (p < .05), stomach (p < .05), tension (p < .05), and chest (p < .05) sensations, and for sad (p < .01), anger (p < .01), and excitement (p < .01) responses. Increased heartbeat and tension, tears, and anger urges were most commonly endorsed in the stress scenarios (between 50% and 79%), whereas butterflies in stomach, increased heartbeat and tension, jittery, restless, and warm excitement (53%-73%) were the most frequently endorsed sensations in the drug cue-related experiences. These self-reported sensations comprise both general arousal and specific interoceptive responses pertaining to stress or drug cue-related experiences in cocaine dependence, with potential value in guiding treatments targeting craving reduction.

Activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis by addictive drugs: different pathways, common outcome

Addictive drugs (opiates, ethanol, cannabinoids (CBs), nicotine, cocaine, amphetamines) induce activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, with the subsequent release of adrenocorticotropic hormone and glucocorticoids. The sequence of events leading to HPA activation appears to start within the brain, suggesting that activation is not secondary to peripheral homeostatic alterations. The precise neurochemical mechanisms and brain pathways involved are markedly dependent on the particular drug, although it is assumed that information eventually converges into the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus (PVN). Whereas some drugs may act on the hypothalamus or directly within PVN neurons (i.e. ethanol), others exert their primary action outside the PVN (i.e. CBs, nicotine, cocaine). Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) has a critical role in most cases, but the changes in c-fos and CRH gene expression in the PVN also reveal differences among drugs. More studies are needed to understand how addictive drugs act on this important neuroendocrine system and their functional consequences.

Individual differences in prefrontal cortex function and the transition from drug use to drug dependence

Several neuropsychological hypotheses have been formulated to explain the transition to addiction, including hedonic allostasis, incentive salience, and the development of habits. A key feature of addiction that remains to be explored is the important individual variability observed in the propensity to self-administer drugs, the sensitivity to drug-associated cues, the severity of the withdrawal state, and the ability to quit. In this review, we suggest that the concept of self-regulation, combined with the concept of modularity of cognitive function, may aid in the understanding of the neural basis of individual differences in the vulnerability to drugs and the transition to addiction. The thesis of this review is that drug addiction involves a failure of the different subcomponents of the executive systems controlling key cognitive modules that process reward, pain, stress, emotion, habits, and decision-making. A subhypothesis is that the different patterns of drug addiction and individual differences in the transition to addiction may emerge from differential vulnerability in one or more of the subcomponents.

Repeated amphetamine administration in rats revealed consistency across days and a complete dissociation between locomotor and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis effects of the drug

RATIONALE

Most drugs of abuse stimulate both locomotor activity and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, but the relationship between the two responses within the same subjects and their reliabilities has been scarcely studied. Our objectives were to study: (1) the consistency and stability across time of locomotor and HPA activation induced by repeated d-amphetamine (AMPH); (2) the relationship between locomotor and hormonal responses to AMPH; and (3) the relationship between novelty-induced activity and both types of responses to the drug.

METHODS

Male adult rats were exposed to a novel environment to study the locomotor response. Later, they were injected with AMPH (2 mg/kg, sc) for 5 days. In Experiment 1, Plasma adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) and corticosterone levels in response to AMPH were studied on days 1, 3, and 5, and locomotor response on days 2 and 4. In Experiment 2, ACTH and corticosterone responses were studied on days 2 and 4, and locomotor response on days 1, 3, and 5.

RESULTS

Across days, both locomotor and HPA responses to the drug were consistent, but independent measures, unrelated to the reactivity to novelty. As measured by the area under the curve, the HPA response to AMPH desensitized with the repeated injection, whereas the initial locomotor response to the drug increased.

CONCLUSIONS

Dissociation exists between HPA and locomotor activation induced by AMPH, which seemed to be both reliable individual traits. Locomotor reactivity to novelty was related neither to HPA nor to locomotor responses to AMPH.

Unrestricted access to methamphetamine or cocaine in the past is associated with increased current use

Laboratory animals allowed to self-administer stimulants for extended periods of time escalate drug intake compared to animals that self-administer under temporally limited conditions. To our knowledge, this phenomenon has not been systematically investigated in humans. We interviewed 106 (77 male, 29 female) methamphetamine (Meth) and 96 (81 male, 15 female) cocaine (Coc) users to determine if they had experienced discrete period(s) of unrestricted access to unlimited quantities of Meth or Coc in the past. Fifty-eight Meth users and 53 Coc users reported having a discrete period of unrestricted access in the past, but not in the present. Meth-using participants with a prior history of unrestricted access reported significantly more current Meth use, compared to Meth users with no prior history of unrestricted access. Specifically, these participants reported more days used in the past 30 d, more days of use per week, greater use per day and greater total use per week (p<0.05 for each). Coc-using participants with a prior history of unrestricted access also reported significantly more current Coc use, compared to Coc users with no prior history of unrestricted access. This was true across all measures of current use for these participants, including more days used in the past 30 d, more days of use per week, greater use per day, and higher total use per week (p<0.02 for each). Taken together, these results suggest that a history of unrestricted access to stimulants is associated with long-lasting increases in stimulant use.

Age-dependent morphine intake and cue-induced reinstatement, but not escalation in intake, by adolescent and adult male rats

Despite increasing rates of opioid abuse by human adolescents, few laboratory experiments address adolescent vulnerability to opiates. We examined intravenous morphine self-administration after adolescent- vs. adult-onset, followed by extinction and cue-induced reinstatement. Adolescent male Sprague-Dawley rats [postnatal day (P) 35 at start] and adults (P91) acquired lever pressing maintained by 0.375 mg/kg/infusion morphine on a fixed ratio one schedule of reinforcement. Subjects were subsequently divided into short or long daily access conditions (ShAcc, 1-h vs. LgAcc, 8-h; 18 sessions). After extinction, cue-induced reinstatement was recorded over 1 h. During the first six 1-h acquisition sessions and continuing throughout ShAcc conditions, adolescent-onset rats self-administered less morphine than adults, an effect commonly interpreted as higher drug sensitivity. In contrast under LgAcc conditions, escalation of morphine intake was similar across ages. Extinction of drug-seeking was similar across ages, although rats from LgAcc conditions pressed more than ShAcc conditions. Notably, cue-induced reinstatement was less robust in rats that began morphine self-administration during adolescence vs. adulthood. Although increased sensitivity of younger rats to morphine reinforcement under ShAcc conditions might help explain opioid abuse by human adolescents, lower rates of reinstatement in younger rats might suggest that adolescent development includes some protective factors that dampen the long-term impact of early drug intake.

Decrease of D2 receptor binding but increase in D2-stimulated G-protein activation, dopamine transporter binding and behavioural sensitization in brains of mice treated with a chronic escalating dose 'binge' cocaine administration paradigm

Understanding the neurobiology of the transition from initial drug use to excessive drug use has been a challenge in drug addiction. We examined the effect of chronic 'binge' escalating dose cocaine administration, which mimics human compulsive drug use, on behavioural responses and the dopaminergic system of mice and compared it with a chronic steady dose (3 x 15 mg/kg/day) 'binge' cocaine administration paradigm. Male C57BL/6J mice were injected with saline or cocaine in an escalating dose paradigm for 14 days. Locomotor and stereotypy activity were measured and quantitative autoradiographic mapping of D(1) and D(2) receptors, dopamine transporters and D(2)-stimulated [(35)S]GTPgammaS binding was performed in the brains of mice treated with this escalating and steady dose paradigm. An initial sensitization to the locomotor effects of cocaine followed by a dose-dependent increase in the duration of the locomotor effect of cocaine was observed in the escalating but not the steady dose paradigm. Sensitization to the stereotypy effect of cocaine and an increase in cocaine-induced stereotypy score was observed from 3 x 20 to 3 x 25 mg/kg/day cocaine. There was a significant decrease in D(2) receptor density, but an increase in D(2)-stimulated G-protein activity and dopamine transporter density in the striatum of cocaine-treated mice, which was not observed in our steady dose paradigm. Our results document that chronic 'binge' escalating dose cocaine treatment triggers profound behavioural and neurochemical changes in the dopaminergic system, which might underlie the transition from drug use to compulsive drug use associated with addiction, which is a process of escalation.

A non-invasive method for detecting the metabolic stress response in rodents: characterization and disruption of the circadian corticosterone rhythm

Plasma corticosterone (CORT) measures are a common procedure to detect stress responses in rodents. However, the procedure is invasive and can influence CORT levels, making it less than ideal for monitoring CORT circadian rhythms. In the current paper, we examined the applicability of a non-invasive fecal CORT metabolite measure to assess the circadian rhythm. We compared fecal CORT metabolite levels to circulating CORT levels, and analyzed change in the fecal circadian rhythm following an acute stressor (i.e. blood sampling by tail veil catheter). Fecal and blood samples were collected from male adolescent rats and analyzed for CORT metabolites and circulating CORT respectively. Fecal samples were collected hourly for 24 h before and after blood draw. On average, peak fecal CORT metabolite values occurred 7-9 h after the plasma CORT peak and time-matched fecal CORT values were well correlated with plasma CORT. As a result of the rapid blood draw, fecal production and CORT levels were altered the next day. These results indicate fecal CORT metabolite measures can be used to assess conditions that disrupt the circadian CORT rhythm, and provide a method to measure long-term changes in CORT production. This can benefit research that requires long-term glucocorticoid assessment (e.g. stress mechanisms underlying health).

Surgical adrenalectomy with diurnal corticosterone replacement slows escalation and prevents the augmentation of cocaine-induced reinstatement in rats self-administering cocaine under long-access conditions

The loss of control over cocaine use and persistently heightened susceptibility to drug relapse that define human cocaine addiction are consequences of drug-induced neuroplasticity and can be studied in rats self-administering cocaine under conditions of daily long access (LgA) as escalating patterns of drug intake and heightened susceptibility to reinstatement. This study investigated the potential contribution of elevated glucocorticoids at the time of LgA cocaine self-administration (SA) to these behavioral indices of addiction-related neuroplasticity. Rats provided 14 days of 6-h access (LgA) to cocaine showed a progressive escalation of SA and were more susceptible to cocaine-induced reinstatement (10 mg/kg, i.p.) compared to rats self-administering under short-access (ShA; 2 h) conditions. A surgical adrenalectomy and corticosterone replacement (ADX/C) regimen that eliminated SA-induced increases in corticosterone (CORT) while maintaining the diurnal pattern of secretion failed to alter SA or reinstatement in ShA rats but slowed escalation and attenuated later reinstatement in LgA rats when applied before but not after chronic LgA SA testing. Although the contribution of other adrenal hormones cannot be ruled out, these data suggest that elevated glucocorticoids at the time of cocaine exposure may be required for the effects of LgA SA on cocaine intake and later reinstatement. The inability of daily CORT administration before daily ShA SA, at a dose that reproduced the response during LgA SA, to mimic the effects of LgA SA suggests that elevated glucocorticoids during SA may play a permissive role in cocaine-induced neuroplasticity that contributes to addiction.

CRF(1) receptor antagonists attenuate escalated cocaine self-administration in rats

RATIONALE

Previous work suggests a role for stress-related corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) systems in cocaine dependence. However, the involvement of activation of CRF(1) receptors in rats self-administering cocaine with extended access is unknown.

OBJECTIVE

The current study examined whether CRF(1) receptor antagonist administration alters cocaine self-administration in animals given extended access.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Wistar rats (n = 32) acquired cocaine self-administration (0.66 mg/kg per infusion) in 1 h sessions for up to 11 days. Rats then were assigned to receive either daily short (1 h, ShA) or long (6 h, LgA) access to cocaine self-administration (n = 7-9 per group). Following escalation of intake, animals received one of two selective CRF(1) antagonists: antalarmin (6.3-25 mg/kg, i.p.) or N,N-bis(2-methoxyethyl)-3-(4-methoxy-2-methylphenyl)-2,5-dimethyl-pyrazolo[1,5a]pyrimidin-7-amine (MPZP; 3.6-27.5 mg/kg, s.c.).

RESULTS

By day 11 of the escalation period, LgA rats increased their cocaine intake, reaching an intake level of 15.1 mg/kg, compared to 11.1 mg/kg in ShA rats, during the first hour of sessions. Antalarmin reduced cocaine self-administration at the highest dose selectively in the LgA group but not the ShA group. MPZP reduced cocaine intake both in LgA and ShA rats. However, MPZP did so at a lower dose in LgA rats than in ShA rats. Within the LgA group, MPZP decreased cocaine intake in the first 10 min (loading phase) as well as in the latter session intake (maintenance phase).

CONCLUSION

The data suggest that hypersensitivity of the CRF system occurs with extended access to cocaine self-administration and that this altered CRF system may contribute to the increased motivation to self-administer cocaine that develops during psychostimulant dependence.

Altered levels of sex and stress steroid hormones assessed daily over a 28-day cycle in early abstinent cocaine-dependent females

RATIONALE

There is growing evidence of alterations in brain stress and reward circuits associated with cocaine dependence. Sex differences are also documented and sex steroid hormones have been linked to cocaine reinforcement.

OBJECTIVES

The current study therefore assessed daily fluctuations in stress and sex hormones in cocaine-dependent females compared with healthy females.

METHOD

Daily salivary samples of cortisol, progesterone, and estradiol were collected at waking across 28 days from 12 cocaine-dependent females receiving inpatient treatment and 10 healthy females. Participants also completed mood-rating scales each week corresponding to four phases of the menstrual cycle and cocaine craving was monitored in cocaine patients at each phase.

RESULTS

Cocaine-dependent females in their first month of abstinence demonstrated significantly higher levels of both cortisol and progesterone across the menstrual cycle and significantly lower estradiol/progesterone (E2/P) ratios compared to healthy controls. They also showed significantly increased negative mood compared with controls, but no variation in cocaine craving across the menstrual cycle.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings indicate altered stress and sex hormones suggestive of an overactive stress system during the first month of cocaine abstinence after chronic cocaine abuse. These increased levels of cortisol and progesterone could impact both abstinence-related symptoms such as negative mood and susceptibility to drug-seeking behavior in cocaine-dependent females.

Inhibitory control and emotional stress regulation: neuroimaging evidence for frontal-limbic dysfunction in psycho-stimulant addiction

This review focuses on neuroimaging studies that examined stress processing and regulation and cognitive inhibitory control in patients with psycho-stimulant addiction. We provide an overview of these studies, summarizing converging evidence and discrepancies as they occur in the literature. We also adopt an analytic perspective and dissect these psychological processes into their sub-components, to identify the neural pathways specific to each component process and those that are more specifically involved in psycho-stimulant addiction. To this aim we refer frequently to studies conducted in healthy individuals. Despite the separate treatment of stress/affect regulation, stress-related craving or compulsive drug seeking, and inhibitory control, neural underpinnings of these processes overlap significantly. In particular, the ventromedial prefrontal regions including the anterior cingulate cortex, amygdala and the striatum are implicated in psychostimulant dependence. Our overarching thesis is that prefrontal activity ensures intact emotional stress regulation and inhibitory control. Altered prefrontal activity along with heightened striatal responses to addicted drug and drug-related salient stimuli perpetuates habitual drug seeking. Further studies that examine the functional relationships of these neural systems will likely provide the key to understanding the mechanisms underlying compulsive drug use behaviors in psycho-stimulant dependence.

Stress, dysregulation of drug reward pathways, and the transition to drug dependence

This review provides a neuroadaptive perspective regarding the role of the hormonal and brain stress systems in drug addiction with a focus on the changes that occur during the transition from limited access to drugs to long-term compulsive use of drugs. A dramatic escalation in drug intake with extended access to drug self-administration is characterized by a dysregulation of brain reward pathways. Hormonal studies using an experimenter-administered cocaine binge model and an escalation self-administration model have revealed large increases in ACTH and corticosterone in rats during an acute binge with attenuation during the chronic binge stage and a reactivation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis during acute withdrawal. The activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis with cocaine appears to depend on feed-forward activation of the mesolimbic dopamine system. At the same time, escalation in drug intake with either extended access or dependence-induction produces an activation of the brain stress system's corticotropin-releasing factor outside of the hypothalamus in the extended amygdala, which is particularly evident during acute withdrawal. A model of the role of different levels of hormonal/brain stress activation in addiction is presented that has heuristic value for understanding individual vulnerability to drug dependence and novel treatments for the disorder.

Daily cocaine self-administration under long-access conditions augments restraint-induced increases in plasma corticosterone and impairs glucocorticoid receptor-mediated negative feedback in rats

Cocaine addiction appears to be associated with a drug-induced dysregulation of stressor responsiveness that may contribute to further cocaine use. The present study examined alterations in stressor-induced activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis in rats provided daily access to cocaine for self-administration (SA) under long-access conditions (1.0 mg/kg/infusion; 6 hx14 days). Cocaine self-administering rats displayed reduced basal plasma corticosterone (CORT) levels but showed an augmented restraint-induced percent increase response from baseline compared to saline self-administering controls when measured 24 days after SA testing. This augmented CORT response may have been attributable to impaired glucocorticoid receptor (GR)-mediated feedback regulation of HPA function, since cocaine self-administering rats were also less susceptible to dexamethasone (0.01 mg/kg, i.p.) suppression of plasma CORT levels. GR protein expression measured using Western blot analysis was significantly reduced in the dorsomedial hypothalamus (including the paraventricular nucleus [PVN]) but not in the pituitary gland, ventromedial hypothalamus, dorsal hippocampus, ventral subiculum, medial prefrontal cortex or amygdala in cocaine self-administering rats. Surprisingly, basal corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) mRNA or post-restraint increases in CRH mRNA measured at a single (90 min) time-point in the PVN using in situ hybridization did not differ between groups. The findings suggest that cocaine use produces persistent changes in individual responsiveness to stressors that may contribute to the addiction process.

Long-term cocaine self-administration under fixed-ratio and second-order schedules in monkeys

RATIONALE

Studies in rodents have demonstrated that increased access to cocaine can result in increases in drug intake per unit time.

OBJECTIVES

The present studies characterized long-term changes in cocaine self-administration associated with quantitatively and qualitatively different conditions of cocaine availability in monkeys.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Separate groups of rhesus monkeys (n = 6/group) self-administered cocaine (0.2 mg/kg per injection) under a fixed ratio (FR) 30 schedule for 3 h twice daily for two consecutive days each week for 1 year, or responded under a second-order FR 10 (fixed interval 3-min:S) schedule of 0.2 mg/kg per injection cocaine during daily sessions. After 18 weeks, probe sessions were conducted once per week, in which responding was maintained under a fixed interval (FI) 30-min schedule in the presence of distinct stimuli.

RESULTS

Weekly cocaine intakes under the FR schedule were stable in three subjects, but increased progressively in three monkeys over 1 year. In contrast, response rates under the second-order schedule were low and stable over time. Responding under the FI 30-min schedule was higher for monkeys in the FR group and pattern of responding was not indicative of FI performance, perhaps due to experimental history.

CONCLUSIONS

These data suggest that increases in cocaine intake can be observed under ratio schedules in monkeys. The use of an FI 30-min "probe" to assess changes in "drug seeking" appeared to be influenced by experimental history. These data may aid in the development of behavioral models of cocaine abuse, which focus on the compulsive nature of drug taking.

Continuous exposure to the competitive N-methyl-D: -aspartate receptor antagonist, LY235959, facilitates escalation of cocaine consumption in Sprague-Dawley rats

RATIONALE

Chronic high dose consumption of cocaine is associated with significant negative effects to individual users and society. Nevertheless, the precise mechanisms that mediate increases in cocaine consumption in a drug-using individual are not fully understood.

OBJECTIVES

This study used a long access version of the drug self-administration procedure to determine whether escalation of cocaine consumption is mediated by increased activity through N-methyl-D: -aspartate (NMDA) receptors.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Male Sprague-Dawley rats (n = 63) were first trained to self-administer cocaine (0.33 mg/infusion, i.v.) under a fixed-ratio 1 schedule of reinforcement. After training, some rats were implanted with subcutaneous osmotic minipumps filled with vehicle or the competitive NMDA receptor antagonist, LY235959, and subsequently allowed to self-administer cocaine in short (2 h) or long (6 h) access self-administration sessions.

RESULTS

Vehicle-treated rats escalated cocaine self-administration across 14 long-access self-administration sessions. Rats treated with LY235959 via osmotic minipump, but not twice daily injections, escalated cocaine self-administration at a greater rate and to a greater degree than vehicle-treated rats. In post-escalation cocaine dose-infusion tests, rats treated continuously with LY235959 self-administered more cocaine (0.08-1.32 mg/infusion) than vehicle-treated rats, regardless of access condition, shifting the dose-infusion curves upward. During extinction sessions, which were conducted after the escalation phase of the study, rats that had long (6 h) access to cocaine stopped responding sooner than rats that had short (2 h) access to cocaine, independent of LY235959 treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

These data are consistent with hypo-glutamatergic consequences of repeated cocaine exposure.

Elevation of glucocorticoids is necessary but not sufficient for the escalation of cocaine self-administration by chronic electric footshock stress in rats

The examination of cocaine self-administration (SA) by rats under conditions that promote escalating patterns of intake should lead to a better understanding of factors that contribute to cocaine addiction. This study investigated the ability of repeated daily exposure to a stressor, electric footshock (EFS), to escalate cocaine SA. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were trained to self-administer cocaine (0.5 mg/kg/inf, i.v.) by pressing a lever under a FR4 schedule during 2-h sessions comprised of four 30-min SA components. Repeated daily EFS consisting of shock sequences (3 x 0.6 mA, 100-ms duration, 1-s frequency) delivered under a variable time 45-s schedule for 5 min before each of the four SA components across 14 days of SA testing produced a significant escalation of cocaine SA. EFS failed to escalate food-reinforced lever pressing and did not alter cocaine SA when administered either inside or outside of the SA context 4 h after daily SA testing. Surgical adrenalectomy along with diurnal corticosterone (CORT) replacement prevented EFS-induced escalation without altering SA in the absence of EFS, indicating that increases in circulating glucocorticoids were necessary for the escalating effects of EFS. Elevation of CORT through repeated daily CORT injections (3.0 mg/kg, i.p.) failed to reproduce the effects of repeated daily EFS on SA, but restored the escalating effects of EFS in adrenalectomized rats with CORT replacement, suggesting that an elevation of glucocorticoids was necessary but alone was not sufficient for the escalation of cocaine SA by EFS.

Restraint-induced corticosterone secretion and hypothalamic CRH mRNA expression are augmented during acute withdrawal from chronic cocaine administration

Stress responses during cocaine withdrawal likely contribute to drug relapse and may be intensified as a consequence of prior cocaine use. The present study examined changes in stressor-induced activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis during acute withdrawal from chronic cocaine administration. Adult male Sprague-Dawley rats received daily administration of cocaine (30 mg/kg, i.p.) or saline for 14 days. Twenty-four hours after the last injection, rats in each group were sacrificed under stress-free conditions or following 30 min of immobilization. Plasma corticosterone (CORT) was measured in trunk-blood using radioimmunoassay, corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) mRNA levels in the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of the hypothalamus were measured using in situ hybridization and glucocorticoid receptor (GR) protein expression in the pituitary gland and dissected brain regions was measured using Western blot analysis. Basal CRH mRNA in the PVN was unaltered as a result of prior cocaine administration. However, a significant increase in CRH mRNA was observed 90 min following the termination of restraint in cocaine withdrawn, but not saline-treated, rats. Basal CORT was also unaffected by prior cocaine administration, but the CORT response measured immediately after restraint was significantly augmented in cocaine-withdrawn rats. Differences in GR protein expression in number of regions implicated in negative feedback regulation of HPA function, including the hypothalamus, were not observed. These findings indicate that the HPA response to stressors is intensified during early withdrawal from cocaine administration and may be independent of changes in GR-mediated negative feedback.

Influence of abstinence and conditions of cocaine access on the reinforcing strength of cocaine in nonhuman primates

The development of addiction is marked by a transition from recreational to uncontrolled drug use. Investigators modeling this phenomenon in rodents observed increases in cocaine self-administration when conditions of drug access were altered as well as after abstinence. The present studies were designed to extend this research to nonhuman primates by examining whether the reinforcing strength of cocaine could be altered by changing conditions of cocaine availability or by introducing abstinence periods. Rhesus monkeys self-administered cocaine (0.03-0.3 mg/kg per injection) under a progressive-ratio (PR) schedule of reinforcement in evening sessions, with the number of injections earned serving as a measure of reinforcing strength. Alterations in the reinforcing strength of cocaine were assessed after additional access to cocaine under a fixed-ratio (FR) schedule was provided in morning sessions and following various periods of abstinence (3, 7 and 14 days) from regimens of self-administration that resulted in a range of cocaine intakes. Under baseline PR conditions, the maximum number of cocaine injections increased dose-dependently, peaking when 0.3 mg/kg per injection cocaine was available. No increases in the reinforcing strength of cocaine were observed under any condition. In contrast, a statistically significant decrease in the reinforcing strength of cocaine was observed following 14 days of abstinence under one condition. These results fail to support the views that increasing access to cocaine or abstinence enhances the reinforcing strength of cocaine.

Cocaine-mediated supersensitivity of 5-HT2A receptors in hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus is a withdrawal-induced phenomenon

We previously reported that treatment and withdrawal from cocaine increases: (1) 5-HT2A receptor-mediated neuroendocrine responses, and (2) Galphaq and Galpha11 G-protein levels in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus (PVN) at 48 h post-treatment. This study investigates changes in the initial 24 h of withdrawal to discern whether 5-HT2A receptor supersensitivity is due to cocaine treatment or is induced during the withdrawal period. We report here increases in 5-HT2A receptor-mediated neuroendocrine responses only 12 or 24 h post-treatment, but not during the initial 4 h withdrawal period. Levels of membrane- or cytosol-associated Galphaq or Galpha11 proteins in PVN are not altered during the first 24 h of withdrawal. However, the density of 125I-(-)-1-(2,5 dimethoxy-4-iodophenyl)-2-amino-propane HCl (DOI)-labeled high-affinity 5-HT2A receptors in PVN increased 35% in rats withdrawn from cocaine for 24 h. These findings demonstrate that cocaine-induced increases in 5-HT2A receptor function in PVN represents a withdrawal-induced phenomena that: (1) is likely attributed to increased G-protein coupled/high-affinity conformational state of the 5-HT2A receptor, and (2) occurs in the absence of changes in the levels of associated G proteins during the first 24 h.

Acute and repeated cocaine induces alterations in FosB/DeltaFosB expression in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus

Apart from activation of the brain reward system, cocaine administration influences the activity of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis by affecting CRH neurons in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVN). In order to find a molecular mechanism of cocaine-evoked effects in the PVN, in the present study, we investigated the impact of cocaine on the expression of FosB/DeltaFosB transcription factors in the PVN. Using an immunohistochemical method, we found that acute cocaine treatment (25 mg/kg) induced a relatively long-lasting (at least 72 h) expression of FosB/DeltaFosB in the PVN, whereas repeated cocaine administration (25 mg/kg, once daily for 5 consecutive days) caused accumulation of FosB/DeltaFosB in the PVN. The latter observation was further confirmed by the Western blot technique which revealed that repeated exposure to cocaine specifically increased the expression of a stable isoform of DeltaFosB (35 kDa). Using a double-labeling immunofluorescent method, it was established that FosB/DeltaFosB proteins induced by repeated cocaine treatment were present in a small population of CRF-immunoreactive neurons of the PVN. Furthermore, it was found that pretreatment with the specific antagonist of dopamine D1-like receptors SCH 23390 (1 mg/kg) attenuated the expression and accumulation of FosB/DeltaFosB in the PVN, evoked by repeated cocaine administration. Although functional consequences of the above effects for the process of addiction remain to be established, the obtained results indicate that cocaine administration can produce relatively long-lasting changes in the expression of FosB/DeltaFosB transcription factors in PVN neurons (in some populations of CRF-immunoreactive neurons, among others) and that dopamine D1-like receptors are involved in the above effects. Finally, it is proposed that the long-lasting expression as well as the accumulation of DeltaFosB in the PVN may constitute a molecular basis underlying adaptive changes occurring in the HPA axis after relatively high doses of cocaine.

Sex differences in the escalation of oral phencyclidine (PCP) self-administration under FR and PR schedules in rhesus monkeys

RATIONALE

Studies with male rats indicate that long access (LgA) vs short access (ShA) to i.v. cocaine and heroin self-administration leads to an escalation of drug intake and a subsequent upward shift of the dose-response function.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this experiment was to extend these results to male and female rhesus monkeys and oral phencyclidine (PCP) self-administration under fixed-ratio (FR) and progressive-ratio (PR) schedules.

METHODS

Adult rhesus monkeys (seven females and nine males) orally self-administered PCP (0.25 mg/ml) and water under concurrent FR 16 FR 16 schedules during daily ShA 3-h sessions. Since females weighed less than males, each liquid delivery (0.6 ml) represented a higher unit dose mg/kg for females than males, but drug concentration mg/ml remained constant. Concurrent PR PR schedules were then used to obtain a concentration-response function (0.125, 0.25, 0.5, and 1.0 mg/ml). Next, PCP and water were available during LgA 6-h sessions under concurrent FR 16 FR 16 schedules for 21 days. The monkeys were then retested under the concurrent FR 16 FR 16 and PR PR conditions during ShA sessions.

RESULTS

Under the initial ShA concurrent FR 16 FR 16 schedules, females and males did not differ on PCP deliveries or intake (mg/kg); however, during LgA, males and females had more PCP deliveries compared with ShA. During LgA, males exceeded females in PCP deliveries, but females were higher than males in mg/kg PCP intake. Also, PCP (but not water) deliveries and mg/kg PCP intake significantly increased from the first 3 days to the last 3 days of the 21-day LgA period in both males and females. The subsequent ShA FR 16 FR 16 performance did not differ by sex, but it was significantly elevated above the first ShA period in both sexes. The concentration-response function for PCP break point under the PR PR schedules and PCP intake (mg/kg) were significantly shifted upward during the second (vs first) ShA period, and females' mg/kg intake significantly exceeded males'.

CONCLUSIONS

Male and female rhesus monkeys both showed escalation of PCP self-administration during LgA to PCP and during ShA that occurred after (vs before) LgA. Both showed vertical upward shifts in the concentration x intake (mg/kg) function under the PR schedule, and females exceeded males on this measure. These findings with PCP and monkeys are consistent with vertical upward shifts of cocaine dose-response functions in previous escalation studies in male rats and reports of sex differences (F>M) during several other phases of drug abuse.

Microarray studies of psychostimulant-induced changes in gene expression

Alterations in the expression of multiple genes in many brain regions are likely to contribute to psychostimulant-induced behaviours. Microarray technology provides a powerful tool for the simultaneous interrogation of gene expression levels of a large number of genes. Several recent experimental studies, reviewed here, demonstrate the power, limitations and progress of microarray technology in the field of psychostimulant addiction. These studies vary in the paradigms of cocaine or amphetamine administration, drug doses, route and also mode of administration, duration of treatment, animal species, brain regions studied and time of tissue collection after final drug administration. The studies also utilize different microarray platforms and statistical techniques for analysis of differentially expressed genes. These variables influence substantially the results of these studies. It is clear that current microarray techniques cannot detect small changes reliably in gene expression of genes with low expression levels, including functionally significant changes in components of major neurotransmission systems such as glutamate, dopamine, opioid and GABA receptors, especially those that may occur after chronic drug administration or drug withdrawal. However, the microarray studies reviewed here showed cocaine- or amphetamine-induced alterations in the expression of numerous genes involved in the modulation of neuronal growth, cytoskeletal structures, synaptogenesis, signal transduction, apoptosis and cell metabolism. Application of laser capture microdissection and single-cell cDNA amplification may greatly enhance microarray studies of gene expression profiling. The combination of rapidly evolving microarray technology with established methods of neuroscience, molecular biology and genetics, as well as appropriate behavioural models of drug reinforcement, may provide a productive approach for delineating the neurobiological underpinnings of drug responses that lead to addiction.

Short-term cocaine treatment causes neuroadaptive changes in Galphaq and Galpha11 proteins in rats undergoing withdrawal

One of the characteristics of drug dependence is that a drug has to be administered repeatedly before withdrawal effects can be observed. We have previously shown that withdrawal after 14 days of cocaine treatment produces a supersensitivity of hypothalamic 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin) 2A (5-HT(2A)) receptors, which is accompanied by increases in the levels of Galpha(q) and Galpha(11) proteins. Unfortunately, the exact duration of cocaine treatment necessary to induce alterations in G protein levels during cocaine withdrawal is unknown. The present study investigated the minimum cocaine treatment period required to produce changes in protein levels of membrane- and cytosol-associated Galpha(q) and Galpha(11) proteins in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus, amygdala, and frontal cortex. Rats were injected with cocaine (15 mg/kg i.p., b.i.d.) for 0, 1, 3, 5, and 7 days and tested after 2 days of withdrawal. The levels of Galpha(q) and Galpha(11) proteins were increased in the paraventricular nucleus and the amygdala but not in the frontal cortex. Although 1 and 3 days of cocaine treatment were sufficient to maximally elevate the protein levels of Galpha(11) and Galpha(q) proteins in the amygdala, 5 days of treatment were required to maximally increase the levels of Galpha(11) and Galpha(q) proteins in the paraventricular nucleus. The data suggest that the amygdala shows a faster neuroadaptation to the effects of cocaine than the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus. These findings provide insight into the relative importance of individual components of 5-HT(2A) receptor signal transduction system in regulating the overall sensitivity of this signaling in cocaine-treated rats.

Effects of extended access to high versus low cocaine doses on self-administration, cocaine-induced reinstatement and brain mRNA levels in rats

RATIONALE

The investigation of rodent cocaine self-administration (SA) under conditions that promote escalating patterns of intake may provide insight into the loss of control over drug use that is central to human addiction.

OBJECTIVE

This study examines the effects of daily long-access (LgA) SA of high or low cocaine doses on drug intake, extinction, reinstatement, and brain mRNA levels.

METHODS

Three groups of male Sprague-Dawley rats were trained to self-administer cocaine during multiple-dose sessions. Short-access (ShA) rats were tested daily for multi-dose SA then remained in the chambers for 7 h with no cocaine available. LgA rats had access to low (0.5 mg/kg per infusion; LgA-LD) or high (2.0 mg/kg per infusion; LgA-HD) cocaine doses for 7 h after multi-dose SA. After 14 days, responding was extinguished, cocaine-induced reinstatement was determined, and preproenkephalin (ppENK), preprodynorphin (ppDYN), corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) and dopamine D(2) receptor (D(2)R) mRNA levels were measured in various brain regions using a quantitative solution hybridization RNase protection assay.

RESULTS

Whereas SA was not altered in ShA rats and only increased during the "loading phase" in LgA-LD rats, a general escalation of intake was found in LgA-HD rats. LgA, particularly LgA-HD, rats were more susceptible to reinstatement than ShA rats. Caudate-putamen ppENK and nucleus accumbens D(2)R mRNA levels were elevated in LgA-HD rats. Overall, D(2)R mRNA levels were positively correlated with reinstatement.

CONCLUSIONS

The escalation of cocaine SA under LgA conditions is dose-dependent and is associated with heightened susceptibility to drug-induced relapse. The characterization of neurobiological alterations that accompany escalated SA should facilitate the identification of mechanisms underlying the onset of human addiction.

A region-specific increase in Galphaq and Galpha11 proteins in brains of rats during cocaine withdrawal

Serotonin 2A (5-HT2A) receptor-mediated increases in plasma hormone levels become supersensitive after 42 h of withdrawal from cocaine treatment. The present study investigated which components of the 5-HT2A receptor signaling system are associated with this supersensitivity. Rats were injected daily for 14 days with either saline or cocaine (15 mg/kg i.p.) twice a day or were injected using a "binge" protocol (three injections per day, 1 h apart). Rats were sacrificed 2 or 7 days after the last cocaine injection, and the levels of membrane and cytosol-associated 5-HT2A receptors, Galphaq, Galpha11, regulators of G protein signaling (RGS)4, and RGS7 proteins were assayed in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus, amygdala, and frontal cortex using Western blot analysis. Two days of withdrawal from cocaine, administered twice a day or using a binge protocol, produced an increase in membrane-associated Galphaq and Galpha11 proteins in the paraventricular nucleus and the amygdala (but not in the frontal cortex). This effect was reversible after 7 days of withdrawal. The protein levels of the 5-HT2A receptor, Galphaz protein, and RGS4 or RGS7 proteins were not altered by cocaine withdrawal in any of the above-mentioned brain regions. These findings suggest that the supersensitivity of the 5-HT2A receptors, during withdrawal from chronic cocaine, is associated with an increase in membrane-associated Galphaq and Galpha11 proteins and not with changes in the expression of 5-HT2A receptors.