Use of school gardens in academic instruction

How to transform urban institutional green spaces into Ancillary Botanic Gardens to expand informal botanical learning opportunities in cities

Since many cities lack botanical gardens, we introduced the concept of Ancillary Botanic Gardens (ABG), which builds on the premise that organizations can expand informal botanical learning by adding a secondary function to their institutional green spaces. This study guides the application of the ABG concept in various spatial and functional contexts by offering practical and interpretive tools to organizations who are less used to working with nature but are interested in mitigating urban residents' detachment from nature. Online maps of 220 botanic gardens were reviewed to define types of plant collections and produce an exhaustive list of physical botanic garden elements. The collected information was developed into an ABG field checklist that was tested on three case studies in Lebanon and then used to develop guidelines for ABG establishment. The guidelines and checklist are meant to empower and guide organizations interested in establishing an ABG.

Ethics and Invertebrates: The Problem Is Us

In the last few decades, science has begun to make great strides at understanding how varied, fascinating, and intelligent invertebrate animals are. Because they are poorly known, the invertebrates that make up about 98% of the animals on the planet have been overlooked. Because they are seen as both simple and unattractive, children and their teachers, as well as the general public, do not think they need care. Because until recently we did not know they can be both intelligent and sensitive-bees can learn from each other, butterflies can navigate huge distances, octopuses are smart, and lobsters can feel pain-we have to give them the consideration they deserve. This collection of papers should help us to see how the lives of invertebrates are tightly linked to ours, how they live, and what they need in terms of our consideration and care.

Vegetation complexity and nesting resource availability predict bee diversity and functional traits in community gardens

Urban gardens can support diverse bee communities through resource provision in resource poor environments. Yet the effects of local habitat and landscape factors on wild bee communities in cities is still insufficiently understood, nor is how this information could be applied to urban wildlife conservation. Here we investigate how taxonomic and functional diversity of wild bees and their traits in urban community gardens are related to garden factors and surrounding landscape factors (e.g., plant diversity, amount of bare ground, amount of nesting resources, amount of landscape imperviousness). Using active and passive methods in 18 community gardens in Berlin, Germany, we documented 26 genera and 102 species of bees. We found that higher plant species richness and plant diversity as well as higher amounts of deadwood in gardens leads to higher numbers of wild bee species and bee (functional) diversity. Furthermore, higher landscape imperviousness surrounding gardens correlates with more cavity nesting bees, whereas a higher amount of bare ground correlates with more ground-nesting bees. Pollen specialization was positively associated with plant diversity, but no factors strongly predicted the proportion of endangered bees. Our results suggest that, aside from foraging resources, nesting resources should be implemented in management for more pollinator-friendly gardens. If designed and managed using such evidence-based strategies, urban gardens can create valuable foraging and nesting habitats for taxonomically and functionally diverse bee communities in cities.

School Garden Prevalence Before and After the Implementation of the Healthy Hunger-Free Kids Act

BACKGROUND

The Healthy Hunger-Free Kids Act (HHFKA) of 2010 supported implementation of school gardens for promoting fruit and vegetable consumption. We examined school garden prevalence over time by school-level factors during the period before and after the implementation of HHFKA.

METHODS

Using data from the New Jersey Child Health Study, conducted in 4 low-income New Jersey cities, prevalence of school gardens among K-12 schools (n = 148) was assessed between school year 2010-2011 and 2017-2018. Multivariable analysis estimated changes in garden prevalence over time adjusting for school-level factors.

RESULTS

Overall, the sample included 97 elementary and 51 middle/high schools. Multivariable logistic regression showed that compared to 2010-2011 (19%) a higher proportion of schools reported having a garden in 2013-2014 (32%, p = 0.025). Over the entire study period, schools with majority Hispanic student enrollment had approximately half the odds of having a garden compared to schools with majority Black students (p = 0.036).

CONCLUSION

School garden prevalence increased in the year immediately following the implementation of the HHFKA but this increase was not sustained over time. Future research should investigate the reasons for this decline and potential disparities by race/ethnicity.

Do Radishes and Carrots Grow in a Bunch? Students’ Knowledge about the Growth of Food Plants and Their Ideas of a School Garden Design

School gardens can be places of biodiversity and suitable learning environments for Education for Sustainable Development (ESD). In particular, vegetable patches where students can make their own experiences in food growing are very apt to connect local acting and global thinking, which is one of the main concerns of ESD. Working in a school garden could be a chance to overcome the lack of perception and knowledge about plants and their life cycles, which is described as “plant blindness”. Concerning the impact of school gardening, studies often investigate teachers’ perspectives only. Therefore, in our study, we focused on students. Participants were mainly fifth and sixth graders in middle and grammar school (mean age 12.3 years, n = 2107). With a paper-pencil test, we investigated their knowledge about the growth of 10 selected crop plants and asked them to rate school garden design elements referring to their importance and suitability for taking over responsibility for nature. In addition, we asked for character traits necessary for a successful school gardener. The results showed that about 40% of the students are convinced that carrots and radishes grow in bunches underground, and nearly 50% thought kohlrabi is growing underground as well. Girls performed better than boys. Increasing age and experience in gardening had a positive effect on the answers. In the students’ opinion, fruit trees, birdhouses, and vegetable patches are the most important elements in school gardens. The liking of nature and patience were highly scored skills for successful school gardening. The influence of experiences in gardening on the answers showed the important role that school gardening could play to gain hands-on knowledge about plant growth and thus offer quality education for every student. This would not only contribute to the reduction of plant blindness but answer the requests of ESD and the goals postulated in the Agenda 2030.

A Nationwide Snapshot of the Predictors of and Barriers to School Garden Success

OBJECTIVE

To explore the degree and predictors of and barriers to school garden integration (termed success).

DESIGN

A 30-item online survey consisting of demographic, garden characteristic, and barrier questions, as well as the School Garden Integration Scale, was conducted in 266 school garden organizations (13 national, 8 regional, and 245 state or local).

PARTICIPANTS

A total of 414 school gardeners from 38 states and Puerto Rico.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

School garden success using the GREEN Tool.

ANALYSIS

Descriptive statistics were used to determine the degree of success of school garden programs and explore barriers. Multiple regression analysis was conducted to determine independent predictors of school garden success.

RESULTS

The average score was 37 (range 1-53, of a possible 57 points), indicating moderate success. Operating budget (P < .001), operating time (P < .05), and planting in-ground (P < .01) had a positive significant influence on success score, whereas rural location (P < .01) and lacking community interest (P < .01) had a negative significant influence, controlling for race/ethnicity, region, total garden investment, and Community Need Index score (a proxy for socioeconomic status).

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Results indicate that success of school garden programs may be more difficult for the schools located in a rural area or in the absence of school or community-at-large interest. This study found that race/ethnicity of students and socioeconomic status are not related to success score, which is promising as other research indicates that successful school gardens may be especially impactful for low-income people of color. Causal research is needed to identify strategies that increase school garden success, with a focus on engaging key stakeholders (administrators, teachers, parents, the community at large, and garden coordinators).

School Gardens in the United States: Current Barriers to Integration and Sustainability

OBJECTIVES

To elucidate details about the barriers (time, funding, staffing, and space) to integrating and sustaining school gardens.

METHODS

A total of 99 school gardeners from 15 states participated in an online survey in June 2017. The 29-item survey contained qualitative and quantitative items that we analyzed using descriptive statistics and inductive content analysis.

RESULTS

In order of greatest to least barrier, gardeners ranked time, staff, funding, curriculum, and space. Time for classes to use the garden (66% of respondents) and time for staff training (62%) were the most frequently listed time-related challenges. Respondents also reported low engagement within the school community. An overall lack of funding was the most common funding-related barrier, and gardeners were unaware of how to obtain more funding.

CONCLUSIONS

We identified 3 aspects of school gardens as opportunities to address time- and staff-related issues: strengthening of garden committees, professional development, and community outreach. Better channels are needed to disseminate funding opportunities within schools and to communicate with communities at large. Ultimately, doing so will strengthen existing school gardens as a vehicle to promote dietary, physical, and social health within communities.

The carry-over effects of school gardens on fruit and vegetable availability at home: A randomized controlled trial with low-income elementary schools

This group-randomized controlled trial examines the effects of a school garden intervention on availability of fruits and vegetables (FV) in elementary school children's homes. Within each region, low income U.S. schools in Arkansas, Iowa, New York, and Washington State were randomly assigned to intervention group (n = 24) or waitlist control group (n = 22). Children were in grades 2, 4, and 5 at baseline (n = 2768). The garden intervention consisted of both raised-bed garden kits and a series of grade-appropriate lessons. FV availability at home was measured with a modified version of the GEMS FJV Availability Questionnaire. The instrument was administered at baseline (Fall 2011) and throughout the intervention (Spring 2012, Fall 2012, Spring 2013). Analyses were completed using general linear mixed models. The garden intervention led to an overall increase in availability of low-fat vegetables at home. Among younger children (2nd grade at baseline), the garden intervention led to greater home availability of vegetables, especially, low-fat vegetables. Moreover, for the younger group, garden intervention fidelity (GIF) or robustness predicted home availability of fruit, vegetables, and low-fat vegetables. School gardens have potential to affect FV availability in the home environment.

Predictors of School Garden Integration: Factors Critical to Gardening Success in New York City

The purpose of this study was to determine the level of integration of school gardens and identify factors that predict integration. 211 New York City schools completed a survey that collected demographic information and utilized the School Garden Integration Scale. A mean garden integration score was calculated, and multiple regression analysis was conducted to determine independent predictors of integration and assess relationships between individual integration characteristics and budget. The average integration score was 34.1 (of 57 points) and ranged from 8 to 53. Operating budget had significant influence on integration score, controlling for all other factors ( p < .0001). Partner organizations, evaluation/feedback, planning the physical space, and characteristics of the physical space were positively and significantly related to budget. The results of this study indicate that any garden can become well integrated, as budget is a modifiable factor. When adequate funding is secured, a well-integrated garden may be established with proper planning and sound implementation.

School Gardens: A Qualitative Study on Implementation Practices

School gardens have beneficial effects on children's dietary behaviors but information on its implementation is scarce. The current study aimed to gain insight in implementation practices of school gardens and in perceptions of key members and children towards a school garden. We conducted twelve interviews involving 14 key members and five focus groups with 38 children from fifth to sixth grade (10-13 years old) in four primary schools in Ghent (Flanders, Belgium). We analyzed the interviews and focus groups in NVivo, using thematic analysis. School gardens were mainly initiated to involve children in nature, not to improve vegetable consumption. Participants were positive about having a school garden, experienced facilitating factors (e.g., adaptability of the garden, having a person responsible for the garden), but also various barriers (e.g., difficulties with startup, maintenance during summer holidays and integration in the school curriculum) and suggested some solutions (e.g., involving external organizations and parents, expanding the garden) and motivating factors for children (e.g., colorful plants, use of gloves). In order to improve implementation and to contribute to children's health, future school gardening projects should take the recommendations of key members and children into account.

Taxonomic and functional trait diversity of wild bees in different urban settings

Urbanization is one of the major anthropogenic processes contributing to local habitat loss and extirpation of numerous species, including wild bees, the most widespread pollinators. Little is known about the mechanisms through which urbanization impacts wild bee communities, or the types of urban green spaces that best promote their conservation in cities. The main objective of this study was to describe and compare wild bee community diversity, structure, and dynamics in two Canadian cities, Montreal and Quebec City. A second objective was to compare functional trait diversity among three habitat types (cemeteries, community gardens and urban parks) within each city. Bees were collected using pan traps and netting on the same 46 sites, multiple times, over the active season in 2012 and 2013. A total of 32,237 specimens were identified, representing 200 species and 6 families, including two new continental records, Hylaeus communis Nylander (1852) and Anthidium florentinum (Fabricius, 1775). Despite high community evenness, we found significant abundance of diverse species, including exotic ones. Spatio-temporal analysis showed higher stability in the most urbanized city (Montreal) but low nestedness of species assemblages among the three urban habitats in both cities. Our study demonstrates that cities are home to diverse communities of wild bees, but in turn affect bee community structure and dynamics. We also found that community gardens harbour high levels of functional trait diversity. Urban agriculture therefore contributes substantially to the provision of functionally diverse bee communities and possibly to urban pollination services.

Increasing Prevalence of US Elementary School Gardens, but Disparities Reduce Opportunities for Disadvantaged Students

BACKGROUND

We examined the prevalence of school garden programs at US public elementary schools. The study examined time trends, demographic and regional disparities, and associations with related programs such as farm-to-school.

METHODS

Annual surveys were gathered from nationally representative samples of elementary schools between 2006-2007 and 2013-2014. Annual samples ranged from 553 to 748 schools.

RESULTS

The prevalence of gardens increased steadily from 11.9% in 2006-2007 to 31.2% in 2013-2014 (p < .001). In multivariate logistic regressions the prevalence of garden programs varied significantly by school characteristics. Gardens were more prevalent in the west than in other regions. Gardens were less prevalent at schools serving higher proportions of lower-income students, and were more prevalent at urban schools than in suburbs, towns, or rural areas. Gardens were more common at schools with farm-to-school programs. Gardens also were associated with offering formal classroom-based nutrition education.

CONCLUSIONS

Garden programs in elementary schools have increased over time, but there is room for wider implementation, particularly at schools serving lower-income students. Given the role of childhood in establishing food preferences and dietary consumption habits, such programs are important and can reinforce the messages imparted through nutrition education.

School Gardens: Cultivating Food Security in Nova Scotia Public Schools?

PURPOSE

A small but growing body of peer-reviewed research suggests that school gardens can play a role in building community food security (CFS); however, to date little research exploring the role of school gardens in supporting CFS is available. This paper begins to address this gap in the literature.

METHODS

A qualitative, exploratory, single-case study design was used. The focus of this case study was the school food garden at an elementary school in the River Valley, Nova Scotia, school community.

RESULTS

Results provide useful information about potential CFS effects of school gardens in addition to the environmental effects on school gardens important to their effectiveness as CFS tools. Findings suggest children gained food-related knowledge, skills, and values that support long-term CFS. A local social and political landscape at the community, provincial, and school board level were key to strengthening this garden's contributions to CFS.

CONCLUSIONS

We support Dietitians of Canada's nomination of school gardens as an indicator of CFS with theoretical and practical evidence, underscore the importance of a supportive environment, and need for further research in this area. Health professionals and community organizations provide critical support, helping to weave gardens into a greater movement towards building CFS.

A plant to plate pilot: a cold-climate high school garden increased vegetable selection but also waste

AIM

Can high school gardens in cold climates influence vegetable intake in the absence of nutrition education?

METHODS

This study followed a before/after design where student tray-waste data were collected using the quarter-waste method. The study took place March-April 2012 in a high school in upstate New York. The subjects were 370 enrolled high school students that purchased lunch from the school cafeteria. Prior to the introduction of garden greens in the salad, salads were served as usual. On April 24, harvested greens were included in the salad, and changes in selection and plate waste were measured.

RESULTS

When the salad bar contained garden produce, the percentage of students selecting salad rose from 2% to 10% (p < 0.001), and on average, students ate two-thirds of the serving they took. Although waste increased relative to the control (from 5.56% to 33.33% per serving; p = 0.007), more students were consuming at least some salad.

CONCLUSION

This preliminary investigation suggests that school gardens increased selection and intake of school-raised produce. Although a third was not eaten, it is promising to see that still more produce was consumed compared to the past.

Remote school gardens: exploring a cost-effective and novel way to engage Australian Indigenous students in nutrition and health

OBJECTIVE

This pilot study aimed to determine the feasibility of a novel, low-cost program to get remote schools started in gardening and nutrition activities, for a lower cost than existing models, and without on-the-ground horticultural support.

METHODS

A multi-site, mixed methods case study was undertaken, in which four remote schools were shipped gardening materials and a nutrition and cooking resource, and provided with horticultural support by phone and email. A support register and teacher surveys were used for four months of evaluation.

RESULTS

The study demonstrated that the program is feasible, and may be associated with an increase from baseline in student's time spent cooking, gardening and on related classroom activities.

CONCLUSIONS

The program was delivered economically without the need for on-the-ground staff, in a manner that was acceptable to teachers.

IMPLICATIONS

This model may have application in remote schools throughout Australia, where there is a need to alter health impacting behaviours in high-risk populations. Lengthier program evaluation times and further resource development may be worth investigating in the future.

Sustenance and sustainability: maximizing the impact of school gardens on health outcomes

Objective

School garden programmes have become popular action-oriented learning environments in many countries, often driven by converging priorities of environmental sustainability and healthful diets. Many of these programmes have assessed the impact on dietary intake, specifically fruit and vegetable intake, and related dietary behaviours, such as knowledge, preference, motivation, intention and self-efficacy to eat and prepare fruit and vegetables. The objective of the present study was twofold: (i) to review published garden-based programmes conducted in schools targeting dietary intake and/or determinants of dietary behaviour in children; and (ii) to identify similar strategies and components employed by these garden-based programmes.

Design

The review included thirteen studies that have examined the impact of garden-based programmes conducted in school, either during school hours or in after-school settings, on dietary behaviours in children (kindergarten through 8th grade students).

Results

Three of the reviewed studies did not have a comparison or control group and simply evaluated within-group changes after a garden intervention. None of the reviewed studies were randomized, but were assigned based on school’s interest and timing of new school gardens being built. Out of the eleven programmes that examined dietary intake, six found that the programme resulted in increased vegetable intake, whereas four showed no effect. Seven of the eight studies that measured preference found that the programmes resulted in increased preference for vegetables. Gardening programmes also resulted in improved attitudes towards, willingness to taste, identification of and self-efficacy to prepare/cook fruit and vegetables. Similar strategies/components employed by the majority of the programmes included: ‘hands on’ curriculum, incorporation of a cooking component, providing the instructors, parental and stakeholder support, food provision and using the garden as the focal point for media promotion.

Conclusions

Some of the garden programmes resulted in increased vegetable intake, which has positive implications for both environment sustainability and health-related outcomes. Further, the majority resulted in some improvement in behaviour determinants more generally. However, more research is warranted to understand how to achieve long-term improvements in dietary behaviours and how to sustain the garden-based programmes in schools.

Study protocol: effects of school gardens on children's physical activity

BACKGROUND

Childhood obesity is an epidemic. Strategies are needed to promote children's healthy habits related to diet and physical activity. School gardens have the potential to bolster children's physical activity and reduce time spent in sedentary activity; however little research has examined the effect of gardens on children's physical activity. This randomized controlled trial (RCT) examines the effect of school gardens on children's overall physical activity and sedentary behavior; and on children's physical activity during the school day. In addition, physical activity levels and postures are compared using direct observation, outdoors, in the garden and indoors, in the classroom.

METHODS/DESIGN

Twelve New York State schools are randomly assigned to receive the school garden intervention or to serve in the wait-list control group that receives gardens and lessons at the end of the study. The intervention consists of a raised bed garden; access to a curriculum focused on nutrition, horticulture, and plant science and including activities and snack suggestions; resources for the school including information about food safety in the garden and related topics; a garden implementation guide provided guidance regarding planning, planting and maintaining the garden throughout the year; gardening during the summer; engaging volunteers; building community capacity, and sustaining the program. Data are collected at baseline and 3 post-intervention follow-up waves at 6, 12, and 18 months. Physical activity (PA) "usually" and "yesterday" is measured using surveys at each wave. In addition, at-school PA is measured using accelerometry for 3 days at each wave. Direct observation (PARAGON) is used to compare PA during an indoor classroom lesson versus outdoor, garden-based lesson.

DISCUSSION

Results of this study will provide insight regarding the potential for school gardens to increase children's physical activity and decrease sedentary behaviors.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Clinicaltrial.gov # NCT02148315.

School Gardens in the Distrito Federal, Brazil

OBJECTIVE: The aim of the present study was to identify experiences with gardens in public schools in the Distrito Federal, Brazil, and to analyze factors involved in their use to promote healthy eating habits. METHODS: This is an analytical cross-sectional study with data collection in two phases: (1) telephone contact with all public schools in the Distrito Federal; (2) interviews conducted with a sample of schools with a garden (n=105). RESULTS: Of the 582 schools in the Distrito Federal, 453 (77.8%) participated in phase 1 and 37.7% of these had a garden. Rural schools had a higher prevalence of gardens (p=0.003). Among the schools which had no garden, 75.2% (n=212) had interest in creating one. The main reason for the deactivation of gardens was a lack of manpower to maintain them. The main reason for creating a garden was to supplement school food (56.2%). The garden was used as an educational space to promote healthy eating habits by 60.8% of the schools. CONCLUSION: An expressive percentage of schools with gardens (37.7%) was identified in the Distrito Federal. A number of factors were associated with the presence of a garden, including the location and size of the school, as well as the level of education. A significant percentage of schools reported using the garden as a space to promote healthy eating habits. This result must be refined by assessing the use and impact of gardens as a tool to promote healthy eating habits in the school community.

Edible gardens in early childhood education settings in Aotearoa, New Zealand

ISSUE ADDRESSED

This paper aims to explore the presence and role of edible gardens in Aotearoa/New Zealand Early Childhood Education Services (ECES).

METHODS

Participant ECES providers were identified from the Ministry of Education database of Early Childhood Education Services (March 2009). These include Education and Care and Casual Education and Care, Kindergarten, Home-based Education and Care services, Playcentres, Te Kōhanga Reo. A structured, self-administered questionnaire was sent to the Principal or Head Teacher of the service.

RESULTS

Of the 211 ECES that responded (55% response rate), 71% had edible gardens, incorporating vegetables, berry fruit, tree fruit, edible flowers and nut trees. Garden activities were linked with teaching across all strands of the New Zealand early childhood curriculum. In addition, 34% provided guidance on using garden produce and 30% linked the garden with messages on fruit and vegetable consumption. Most gardens were established recently (past 2 years) and relied on financial and non-financial support from parents, teachers and community organisations. Barriers included a lack of funding, space, time and staff support.

CONCLUSIONS/IMPLICATIONS

Study findings suggest that gardens are already being used as a versatile teaching tool in many ECES settings. Most gardens are new, with a need to support the sustainability and workforce development among teachers and parents in order to be able to maintain these resources for future generations. SO WHAT?: Given the inherent links between gardening and healthy food and exercise, there seem to be extensive opportunities for health promotion aligned with the edible garden movement.

Methodology for the evaluation of the Stephanie Alexander Kitchen Garden program

ISSUES ADDRESSED

Community and school cooking and gardening programs have recently increased internationally. However, despite promising indications, there is limited evidence of their effectiveness. This paper presents the evaluation framework and methods negotiated and developed to meet the information needs of all stakeholders for the Stephanie Alexander Kitchen Garden (SAKG) program, a combined cooking and gardening program implemented in selectively funded primary schools across Australia.

METHODS

The evaluation used multiple aligned theoretical frameworks and models, including a public health ecological approach, principles of effective health promotion and models of experiential learning. The evaluation is a non-randomised comparison of six schools receiving the program (intervention) and six comparison schools (all government-funded primary schools) in urban and rural areas of Victoria, Australia. A mixed-methods approach was used, relying on qualitative measures to understand changes in school cultures and the experiential impacts on children, families, teachers, parents and volunteers, and quantitative measures at baseline and 1 year follow up to provide supporting information regarding patterns of change.

RESULTS

The evaluation study design addressed the limitations of many existing evaluation studies of cooking or garden programs. The multistrand approach to the mixed methodology maintained the rigour of the respective methods and provided an opportunity to explore complexity in the findings. Limited sensitivity of some of the quantitative measures was identified, as well as the potential for bias in the coding of the open-ended questions.

CONCLUSION

The SAKG evaluation methodology will address the need for appropriate evaluation approaches for school-based kitchen garden programs. It demonstrates the feasibility of a meaningful, comprehensive evaluation of school-based programs and also demonstrates the central role qualitative methods can have in a mixed-method evaluation. So what? This paper contributes to debate about appropriate evaluation approaches to meet the information needs of all stakeholders and will support the sharing of measures and potential comparisons between program outcomes for comparable population groups and settings.

School Nutrition Programs

Schools in the United States serve more than 12 million breakfasts and 32 million lunches every school day, as well as multiple snacks and supper meals in some cases. These meals are funded by federal legislation and regulated by nutrition standards that follow the Dietary Guidelines for Americans. School nutrition professionals face many challenges when improving campus food environments and are using multiple, innovative strategies to serve healthier meals to students.

Factors contributing to a school's decision to apply for the California Instructional School Garden Program

OBJECTIVE

To compare the applicant schools (AS) to non-applicant schools (NAS) residing in the same school districts for the California Instructional School Garden Program and identify barriers to the application process.

METHODS

A case-control, cross-sectional study design was used to compare resources and school environments. Pearson chi-square and logistic regression were conducted.

RESULTS

Public schools throughout California participated (n = 1,662). The response rates for AS and NAS were 43.2% and 48.2%, respectively. Applicant schools had greater access to garden coordinators and parent/community volunteers dedicated to school gardens, and they had other sources of funds/grants to support school gardens compared to NAS (P < .001).

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Access to certain garden resources played a significant role in predicting whether schools would decide to participate in the California Instructional School Garden Program.

Best practices models for implementing, sustaining, and using instructional school gardens in California

To ascertain best practices for schools implementing or sustaining instructional school gardens by interviewing key members in 10 schools with exemplary instructional school gardens programs in California. Practices of schools with exemplary instructional school gardens programs were analyzed by constant comparative analysis using qualitative data analysis software. Seven of the 10 schools had people from at least 3 of the following 4 groups: administrators, teachers, parent and community volunteers and garden coordinators. Nine of 10 schools had a part- or full-time garden coordinator. Results demonstrated that a committee committed to instructional school gardens is the most important step towards success.

An evaluation of the California Instructional School Garden Program

Objective

California Assembly Bill 1535 awarded $US 15 million to California public schools to promote, develop and sustain instructional school gardens through the California Instructional School Garden Program (CISGP). The present study was designed to assess the effectiveness of the CISGP at assisting schools in implementing, maintaining and sustaining an academic school garden programme, determine how schools utilized the funding they received and assess the impact of the California state budget crisis on the CISGP.

Design

A mid-term evaluation was used to assess the degree to which schools achieved their instructional garden-related goals.

Setting

California.

Subjects

Only schools that applied for the CIGSP grant as part of a school district and also provided a contact email and had a unique contact person were included in the study (n 3103, 80·6 %).

Results

In general, many schools reported not achieving their predicted goals with regard to the CISGP grant. Only 39·4 % of schools reported accomplishing all of their garden-related goals. Over one-third (37·8 %) of schools reported that their school gardens were negatively affected by the California budget deficit.

Conclusions

The difference between predicted and actual utilization of the CISGP grants may be due to a combination of the effects of budget shortfall and insufficiency of the grant award amount.

The Effects of School Garden Experiences on Middle School-Aged Students’ Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behaviors Associated With Vegetable Consumption

This study describes the effects of garden-based education on children’s vegetable consumption. As part of a pre—post panel study, 236 students complete the Garden Vegetable Frequency Questionnaire and 161 complete a taste test. Results indicate that school gardening may affect children’s vegetable consumption, including improved recognition of, attitudes toward, preferences for, and willingness to taste vegetables. Gardening also increases the variety of vegetables eaten. Future research should explore whether effects persist over time and if and how changes in children’s behavior affect the behavior of their caregivers. Implications of study findings for policy and practice are discussed. Suggestions for applying results to future health promotions are provided.

Variations in prevalence and conduct of school food gardens in tropical and subtropical regions of north-eastern Australia

OBJECTIVES

To determine the prevalence and usage of food gardens in primary schools in three distinct climatic regions of north-eastern Australia.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional surveys combining quantitative and qualitative data collection. Two separate telephone questionnaires were developed and implemented, according to the presence or absence of a food garden within the school. Main outcome measures were answers to scaled response and open-ended questions related to factors supporting and inhibiting the establishment and sustainability of school food gardens.

SETTING

All state primary schools in three disparate regions of the north-eastern Australian state of Queensland were asked to participate in the study.

RESULTS

A total of 71% (n 128) of schools agreed to participate. Of these, thirty-seven primary schools had functioning food gardens. The variations in prevalence between regions combined with respondent views indicated climate as a major factor affecting the success of food gardens. Gardens were often used as a tool by schools to teach science, environment or social skills. Gardening activities were generally linked to curriculum studies on plants, fruit and vegetable intake, and healthy eating. The main issues for schools and teachers in establishing food gardens were the time required and the lack of personnel to coordinate garden activities. Of the schools with food gardens, 92% believed their garden had been a success.

CONCLUSIONS

The study revealed strong grass-roots support for school-based food gardens. Although climate and location were important factors associated with the presence of a functioning food garden, respondents nominated teacher involvement and sustained motivation as essential factors for successful school food gardens.

Impact of a school-based food garden on attitudes and identification skills regarding vegetables and fruit: a 12-month intervention trial

OBJECTIVE

To determine changes in ability to identify specific vegetables and fruits, and attitudes towards vegetables and fruit, associated with the introduction of a school-based food garden.

DESIGN

A 12-month intervention trial using a historical control (control n 132, intervention n 120), class-based, self-administered questionnaires requiring one-word answers and 3-point Likert scale responses.

SETTING

A state primary school (grades 4 to 7) in a low socio-economic area of Brisbane, Australia.

INTERVENTION

The introduction of a school-based food garden, including the funding of a teacher coordinator for 11 h/week to facilitate integration of garden activities into the curriculum.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Ability to identify a series of vegetables and fruits, attitudes towards vegetables and fruit.

ANALYSIS

Frequency distributions for each item were generated and chi2 analyses were used to determine statistical significance. Exploratory factor analysis was employed to detect major trends in data.

RESULTS

The intervention led to enhanced ability to identify individual vegetables and fruits, greater attention to origins of produce (garden-grown and fresh), changes to perceived consumption of vegetables and fruits, and enhanced confidence in preparing fruit and vegetable snacks, but decreased interest in trying new fruits.

CONCLUSIONS

The introduction of this school-based food garden was associated with skill and attitudinal changes conducive to enhancing vegetable and fruit consumption. The ways in which such changes might impact on dietary behaviours and intake require further analysis.

Assessing the impact of the primary school-based nutrition intervention Petits cuistots--parents en réseaux

OBJECTIVES

This study sought to provide an intermediate impact assessment of the nutrition intervention Petits cuistots--parents en réseaux (Little Cooks--Parental Networks) on: 1) knowledge, attitude, capacity and experience with regard to nutrition, diet and cookery, and 2) parental and/or family participation in school.

PARTICIPANTS

A total of 388 students from grades 5 (participants) and 6 (non-participants).

SETTING

The evaluation of the nutrition intervention took place in each of the seven participating elementary schools, all of which are located in Montreal's most disadvantaged neighbourhoods.

INTERVENTION

The program component "Little Cooks" is a nutrition workshop run by community dieticians. Each of the eight annual workshops features a food item and nutrition theme with a recipe for a collective food preparation and tasting experience. Classroom teachers participate to provide classroom management and program support. The "Parental Networks" component of the program invites parents to assist with the nutrition workshop, and offers additional parent and family activities which link to nutrition workshop themes (e.g., dinners or visits to local food producers).

OUTCOME

The program had some impact on knowledge of the nutrient content of food, food produce and cooking; attitude and experience with tasting of new or less common foods; and perceived cooking capacity. Families with students participating in the program participated more in school activities than did families of students not in the program.

CONCLUSIONS

Our assessment indicates a potential program impact upon several intermediate impact measures, and in so doing highlights a promising nutrition capacity-promoting intervention.

Garden-based nutrition education affects fruit and vegetable consumption in sixth-grade adolescents

Schoolyard gardens are emerging as a nutrition education tool in academic settings. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of garden-based nutrition education on adolescents' fruit and vegetable consumption using a nonequivalent control group design. Sixth-grade students (n=99) at three different elementary schools made up a control and two treatment groups. Students in the treatment groups participated in a 12-week nutrition education program, and one treatment group also participated in garden-based activities. Students in all three groups completed three 24-hour food-recall workbooks before and after the intervention. A repeated-measures analysis of variance showed that adolescents who participated in the garden-based nutrition intervention increased their servings of fruits and vegetables more than students in the two other groups. Significant increases were also found in vitamin A, vitamin C, and fiber intake. Although further research is needed, the results of this study seem to indicate the efficacy of using garden-based nutrition education to increase adolescents' consumption of fruits and vegetables.

The effects of school gardens on students and schools: conceptualization and considerations for maximizing healthy development

There are thousands of school gardens in the United States, and there is anecdotal evidence that school garden programs can enhance students' learning in academic, social, and health-related domains. There has been little rigorous research, however, on the effects of school gardens or on the factors that promote the sustainability of these programs. This review draws on ecological theory to conceptualize school gardens as systemic interventions with the potential for promoting the health and well-being of individual students in multiple interdependent domains and for strengthening the school environment as a setting for positive youth development. This review (a) summarizes the small literature regarding the impact of school garden curricula on student or school functioning, (b) provides a conceptual framework to guide future inquiry, (c) discusses implications of this conceptualization for practice, and (d) suggests further research needed to better inform practice.

California teachers perceive school gardens as an effective nutritional tool to promote healthful eating habits

This study assessed elementary school teachers' perceived attitudes and barriers associated with school gardens, as well as the purpose and use of gardens in schools, specifically in relation to the link between gardens and nutrition. The questionnaire was mailed to California fourth-grade teachers at schools with gardens (N = 1,665). The response rate was 36% (n = 592). Teachers perceived the garden to be somewhat to very effective at enhancing academic performance, physical activity, language arts, and healthful eating habits. Nutrition was taught with the use of the garden by 47% of responding teachers. This research provides evidence for needed standards-based curricula materials and teacher training in relation to gardening and nutrition. The results from this study will contribute to development of needed resources and methods by which to encourage the use of gardens and nutrition education in schools.