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Arzumanyan M, Zhamakochyan G, Torosyan H, Ghrmajyan A, Arakelyan M, Nanagulyan S, Margaryan L, Aghayan S, Davis RB, Turóci Á. First record of Arionvulgaris Moquin-Tandon, 1855 (Arionidae) from Armenia. Biodivers Data J 2024; 12:e121176. [PMID: 38628454 PMCID: PMC11019258 DOI: 10.3897/bdj.12.e121176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2024] [Accepted: 03/25/2024] [Indexed: 04/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Background Arionvulgaris Moquin-Tandon, 1855 is amongst the fastest-spreading terrestrial slugs Europe-wide. In recent years, it has been recorded in Canada, Mexico and continues to expand eastwards into Eurasia. Renowned for its high invasiveness, combatting its swift spread creates significant challenges in organising effective preventative measures. New information This study presents the first record of Arionvulgaris from Armenia, which is the second record of this species' invasion of the Caucasus. In 2022, a substantial population of A.vulgaris was observed close to the City of Stepanavan, which is also the first record in Armenia of the family Arionidae. How the species was introduced to Armenia remains unknown. Identification of Arionvulgaris was conducted, based on external and genital morphology and mitochondrial CO1 (cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1) gene sequencing, revealing notable similarities with Central European clades. Our results confirm the introduction and distribution of A.vulgaris to Armenia. Invasion of such species into Armenia will require additional monitoring and would be aided by further research on Armenia's mollusc fauna in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meri Arzumanyan
- Department of Zoology, Yerevan State University, Alex Manoogian 1, 0025, Yerevan, Armenia Department of Zoology, Yerevan State University, Alex Manoogian 1, 0025 Yerevan Armenia
| | - Gohar Zhamakochyan
- Department of Zoology, Yerevan State University, Alex Manoogian 1, 0025, Yerevan, Armenia Department of Zoology, Yerevan State University, Alex Manoogian 1, 0025 Yerevan Armenia
| | - Hasmik Torosyan
- Department of Zoology, Yerevan State University, Alex Manoogian 1, 0025, Yerevan, Armenia Department of Zoology, Yerevan State University, Alex Manoogian 1, 0025 Yerevan Armenia
| | - Arevik Ghrmajyan
- Department of Zoology, Yerevan State University, Alex Manoogian 1, 0025, Yerevan, Armenia Department of Zoology, Yerevan State University, Alex Manoogian 1, 0025 Yerevan Armenia
| | - Marine Arakelyan
- Department of Zoology, Yerevan State University, Alex Manoogian 1, 0025, Yerevan, Armenia Department of Zoology, Yerevan State University, Alex Manoogian 1, 0025 Yerevan Armenia
| | - Siranush Nanagulyan
- Department of Botany and Mycology, Yerevan State University, Alex Manoogian 1, 0025, Yerevan, Armenia Department of Botany and Mycology, Yerevan State University, Alex Manoogian 1, 0025 Yerevan Armenia
| | - Lusine Margaryan
- Department of Botany and Mycology, Yerevan State University, Alex Manoogian 1, 0025, Yerevan, Armenia Department of Botany and Mycology, Yerevan State University, Alex Manoogian 1, 0025 Yerevan Armenia
| | - Sargis Aghayan
- Laboratory of Molecular Parasitology, Scientific Center of Zoology and Hydroecology, NAS RA., P. Sevak 7, 0014, Yerevan, Armenia Laboratory of Molecular Parasitology, Scientific Center of Zoology and Hydroecology, NAS RA., P. Sevak 7, 0014 Yerevan Armenia
| | - Robert B Davis
- Department of Zoology, Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, J. Liivi 2, 50409, Tartu, Estonia Department of Zoology, Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, J. Liivi 2, 50409 Tartu Estonia
| | - Ágnes Turóci
- Plant Protection Institute, Centre for Agricultural Research, HUN-REN, Herman Ottó út 15, H-1022, Budapest, Hungary Plant Protection Institute, Centre for Agricultural Research, HUN-REN, Herman Ottó út 15, H-1022 Budapest Hungary
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A Literature Review of Biological and Bio-Rational Control Strategies for Slugs: Current Research and Future Prospects. INSECTS 2021; 12:insects12060541. [PMID: 34200919 PMCID: PMC8230531 DOI: 10.3390/insects12060541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Revised: 06/01/2021] [Accepted: 06/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Simple Summary Terrestrial molluscs (slugs and snails) pose a major threat to agriculture, causing severe yield losses in a wide range of crops worldwide. The limited number of chemical molluscicides on the market, along with their negative impact on nontarget organisms and the environment, make mollusc control a real concern for growers and farmers. Therefore, the exploration of alternative, effective and eco-friendly control measures has become a dire need. This study focuses on slugs, as opposed to snails, and reviews the literature on three natural enemies of slugs, namely nematodes, carabid beetles and marsh flies, along with various natural products with slug control potential (for example, essential oils), and this study contributes to providing a comprehensive understanding of how slugs can be better controlled by using nonchemical measures. In doing so, this study also draws attention to the limitations of current research and discusses some important future research avenues in order to develop effective nonchemical slug control measures. Abstract Terrestrial gastropod molluscs (slugs and snails) (Mollusca: Gastropoda) cause significant crop damage around the world. There is no formal approach for differentiating between slugs and snails; however, an organism is usually considered a slug when there is no external shell, or when the shell is small in comparison to the body, and a snail when there is a large external shell. Although snails are an important pest of many crops, this review focuses on slug pests and their nonchemical control measures. A recent study by the UK Agriculture and Horticulture Development Board concluded that the failure to control slugs could cost the UK agriculture industry over GBP 100 million annually, with similar figures reported around the world. Whilst slugs are mostly controlled using chemical molluscicide products, some actives have come under scrutiny due to their detrimental environmental effects and impact on nontarget organisms. This has resulted in the ban of actives such as methiocarb in the UK and EU, and, more recently, the ban of metaldehyde in the UK. Therefore, there is an urgent need to find alternative and effective nontoxic solutions in the interest of global food security. In this paper, we have integrated extant literature on the three main biological control agents of slugs, namely nematodes, carabid beetles and sciomyzid flies, and various promising bio-rational slug control strategies. The review also highlights current research gaps and indicates some relevant potential future directions towards developing environmentally benign slug control solutions.
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Uiterwaal SF, DeLong JP. Using patterns in prey DNA digestion rates to quantify predator diets. Mol Ecol Resour 2020; 20:1723-1732. [PMID: 32688451 DOI: 10.1111/1755-0998.13231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2020] [Revised: 07/01/2020] [Accepted: 07/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Dietary metabarcoding-the process of taxonomic identification of food species from DNA in consumer guts or faeces-has been rapidly adopted by ecologists to gain insights into biocontrol, invasive species and the structure of food webs. However, an outstanding issue with metabarcoding is the semi-quantitative nature of the data it provides: because metabarcoding is likely to produce false negatives for some prey more often than for other prey, we cannot infer relative frequencies of prey in the diet. To correct for this, we can adjust detected prey frequencies using DNA detectability half-lives unique to each predator-prey combination. Because the feeding experiments required to deduce these half-lives are time- and resource-intensive, our ability to weight the frequency of observations using their detectability has thus far been limited to systems with just a few prey. Here, we present a meta-analysis of 24 spider prey DNA half-lives and show that these half-lives are predictable given predator and prey mass, predator family, digestion temperature and DNA amplicon length. We further provide a new technique for weighting observations with half-lives, which allows not just for the ranking of prey in the diet, but reveals the proportion of the diet each prey comprises. Lastly, we apply this method to published dietary metabarcoding data to calculate half-lives and proportion of the predator's diet for 35 prey families, demonstrating that this technique can generate improved understanding of diets in real, diverse systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stella F Uiterwaal
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, USA
| | - John P DeLong
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, USA
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Macías-Hernández N, Athey K, Tonzo V, Wangensteen OS, Arnedo M, Harwood JD. Molecular gut content analysis of different spider body parts. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0196589. [PMID: 29847544 PMCID: PMC5976152 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0196589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2017] [Accepted: 04/16/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Molecular gut-content analysis has revolutionized the study of food webs and feeding interactions, allowing the detection of prey DNA within the gut of many organisms. However, successful prey detection is a challenging procedure in which many factors affect every step, starting from the DNA extraction process. Spiders are liquid feeders with branched gut diverticula extending into their legs and throughout the prosoma, thus digestion takes places in different parts of the body and simple gut dissection is not possible. In this study, we investigated differences in prey detectability in DNA extracts from different parts of the spider´s body: legs, prosoma and opisthosoma, using prey-specific PCR and metabarcoding approaches. We performed feeding trials with the woodlouse hunter spider Dysdera verneaui Simon, 1883 (Dysderidae) to estimate the time at which prey DNA is detectable within the predator after feeding. Although we found that all parts of the spider body are suitable for gut-content analysis when using prey-specific PCR approach, results based on metabarcoding suggested the opisthosoma is optimal for detection of predation in spiders because it contained the highest concentration of prey DNA for longer post feeding periods. Other spiders may show different results compared to D. verneaui, but given similarities in the physiology and digestion in different families, it is reasonable to assume this to be common across species and this approach having broad utility across spiders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nuria Macías-Hernández
- Department of Entomology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
- Department of Evolutionary Biology, Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Biodiversity Research Institute (IRBio), Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Kacie Athey
- Department of Entomology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
| | - Vanina Tonzo
- Department of Evolutionary Biology, Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Biodiversity Research Institute (IRBio), Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Owen S. Wangensteen
- Norwegian College of Fishery Science, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Miquel Arnedo
- Department of Evolutionary Biology, Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Biodiversity Research Institute (IRBio), Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - James D. Harwood
- College of Plant Health and Medicine, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, Shandong, China
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Zając KS, Gaweł M, Filipiak A, Kramarz P. Arion vulgaris Moquin-Tandon, 1855 – the aetiology of an invasive species. FOLIA MALACOLOGICA 2017. [DOI: 10.12657/folmal.025.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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Kamenova S, Bartley T, Bohan D, Boutain J, Colautti R, Domaizon I, Fontaine C, Lemainque A, Le Viol I, Mollot G, Perga ME, Ravigné V, Massol F. Invasions Toolkit. ADV ECOL RES 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.aecr.2016.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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Hatteland BA, Solhøy T, Schander C, Skage M, Proschwitz TV, Noble LR. Introgression and Differentiation of the Invasive SlugArion vulgarisfrom NativeA. ater. MALACOLOGIA 2015. [DOI: 10.4002/040.058.0210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Rowson B, Anderson R, Turner JA, Symondson WOC. The slugs of Britain and Ireland: undetected and undescribed species increase a well-studied, economically important fauna by more than 20%. PLoS One 2014; 9:e91907. [PMID: 24740519 PMCID: PMC3989179 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0091907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2013] [Accepted: 02/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The slugs of Britain and Ireland form a well-studied fauna of economic importance. They include many widespread European species that are introduced elsewhere (at least half of the 36 currently recorded British species are established in North America, for example). To test the contention that the British and Irish fauna consists of 36 species, and to verify the identity of each, a species delimitation study was conducted based on a geographically wide survey. Comparisons between mitochondrial DNA (COI, 16S), nuclear DNA (ITS-1) and morphology were investigated with reference to interspecific hybridisation. Species delimitation of the fauna produced a primary species hypothesis of 47 putative species. This was refined to a secondary species hypothesis of 44 species by integration with morphological and other data. Thirty six of these correspond to the known fauna (two species in Arion subgenus Carinarion were scarcely distinct and Arion (Mesarion) subfuscus consisted of two near-cryptic species). However, by the same criteria a further eight previously undetected species (22% of the fauna) are established in Britain and/or Ireland. Although overlooked, none are strictly morphologically cryptic, and some appear previously undescribed. Most of the additional species are probably accidentally introduced, and several are already widespread in Britain and Ireland (and thus perhaps elsewhere). At least three may be plant pests. Some evidence was found for interspecific hybridisation among the large Arion species (although not involving A. flagellus) and more unexpectedly in species pairs in Deroceras (Agriolimacidae) and Limacus (Limacidae). In the latter groups, introgression appears to have occurred in one direction only, with recently-invading lineages becoming common at the expense of long-established or native ones. The results show how even a well-studied, macroscopic fauna can be vulnerable to cryptic and undetected invasions and changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ben Rowson
- National Museum of Wales, Cardiff, Wales, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| | - Roy Anderson
- Conchological Society of Great Britain & Ireland, Belfast, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom
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Hatteland BA, Haukeland S, Roth S, Brurberg MB, Vaughan IP, Symondson WOC. Spatiotemporal analysis of predation by carabid beetles (Carabidae) on nematode infected and uninfected slugs in the field. PLoS One 2013; 8:e82142. [PMID: 24349202 PMCID: PMC3861370 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0082142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2012] [Accepted: 10/29/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The dynamics of predation on parasites within prey has received relatively little attention despite the profound effects this is likely to have on both prey and parasite numbers and hence on biological control programmes where parasites are employed. The nematode Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita is a commercially available biological agent against slugs. Predation on these slugs may, at the same time, result in intraguild predation on slug-parasitic nematodes. This study describes, for the first time, predation by carabid beetles on slugs and their nematode parasites on both spatial and temporal scales, using PCR-based methods. The highest nematode infection levels were found in the slugs Deroceras reticulatum and Arion silvaticus. Numbers of infected slugs decreased over time and no infected slugs were found four months after nematode application. The density of the most abundant slug, the invasive Arion vulgaris, was positively related to the activity-density of the carabid beetle, Carabus nemoralis. Predation on slugs was density and size related, with highest predation levels also on A. vulgaris. Predation on A. vulgaris decreased significantly in summer when these slugs were larger than one gram. Predation by C. nemoralis on slugs was opportunistic, without any preferences for specific species. Intraguild predation on the nematodes was low, suggesting that carabid beetles such as C. nemoralis probably do not have a significant impact on the success of biological control using P. hermaphrodita.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bjørn Arild Hatteland
- Department of Biology, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
- Horticulture and Urban Greening, Bioforsk - Norwegian Institute for Agricultural and Environmental Research, Ullensvang, Norway
- * E-mail:
| | - Solveig Haukeland
- Plant Health and Plant Protection Division, Bioforsk - Norwegian Institute for Agricultural and Environmental Research, Ås, Norway
| | - Steffen Roth
- Department of Biology, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
- University Museum of Bergen, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - May Bente Brurberg
- Plant Health and Plant Protection Division, Bioforsk - Norwegian Institute for Agricultural and Environmental Research, Ås, Norway
| | - Ian P. Vaughan
- Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
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Šerić Jelaska L, Jurasović J, Brown DS, Vaughan IP, Symondson WOC. Molecular field analysis of trophic relationships in soil-dwelling invertebrates to identify mercury, lead and cadmium transmission through forest ecosystems. Mol Ecol 2013; 23:3755-66. [DOI: 10.1111/mec.12566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2013] [Revised: 09/15/2013] [Accepted: 10/04/2013] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lucija Šerić Jelaska
- Faculty of Science; Division of Biology; University of Zagreb; Rooseveltov trg 6 10000 Zagreb Croatia
- Cardiff School of Biosciences; Cardiff University; The Sir Martin Evans Building, Museum Avenue Cardiff CF10 3AX UK
| | - Jasna Jurasović
- Institute for Medical Research and Occupational Health; Ksaverska cesta 2 10000 Zagreb Croatia
| | - David S. Brown
- Cardiff School of Biosciences; Cardiff University; The Sir Martin Evans Building, Museum Avenue Cardiff CF10 3AX UK
| | - Ian P. Vaughan
- Cardiff School of Biosciences; Cardiff University; The Sir Martin Evans Building, Museum Avenue Cardiff CF10 3AX UK
| | - William O. C. Symondson
- Cardiff School of Biosciences; Cardiff University; The Sir Martin Evans Building, Museum Avenue Cardiff CF10 3AX UK
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Greenstone MH, Payton ME, Weber DC, Simmons AM. The detectability half-life in arthropod predator-prey research: what it is, why we need it, how to measure it, and how to use it. Mol Ecol 2013; 23:3799-813. [DOI: 10.1111/mec.12552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2013] [Revised: 09/30/2013] [Accepted: 10/02/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew H. Greenstone
- U.S.D.A. - Agricultural Research Service; Invasive Insect Biocontrol and Behavior Laboratory; 10300 Baltimore Avenue Beltsville MD 20705 USA
| | - Mark E. Payton
- Department of Statistics; Oklahoma State University; 301 MSCS Building Stillwater OK 74078 USA
| | - Donald C. Weber
- U.S.D.A. - Agricultural Research Service; Invasive Insect Biocontrol and Behavior Laboratory; 10300 Baltimore Avenue Beltsville MD 20705 USA
| | - Alvin M. Simmons
- U.S.D.A. - Agricultural Research Service; U.S. Vegetable Laboratory; 2700 Savannah Highway Charleston SC 29414 USA
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Pianezzola E, Roth S, Hatteland BA. Predation by carabid beetles on the invasive slug Arion vulgaris in an agricultural semi-field experiment. BULLETIN OF ENTOMOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2013; 103:225-232. [PMID: 23148984 DOI: 10.1017/s0007485312000569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Arion vulgaris Moquin-Tandon 1855 is one of the most important invasive species in Europe, affecting both biodiversity and agriculture. The species is spreading in many parts of Europe, inflicting severe damage to horticultural plants and cultivated crops partly due to a lack of satisfactory and effective management solutions. Molluscicides have traditionally been used to manage slug densities, although the effects are variable and some have severe side-effects on other biota. Thus, there is a need to explore potential alternatives such as biological control. The nematode Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita is the only biological agent that has been applied commercially so far. However, other biological control agents such as carabid beetles have also been found to be promising. In addition, some carabid species have been shown to feed on A. vulgaris in the field as well as in the laboratory. Two species in particular have been found to be important predators of A. vulgaris, and these species are also common in agricultural environments: Pterostichus melanarius and Carabus nemoralis. This study is the first to use semi-field experiments in a strawberry field, manipulating densities, to investigate how P. melanarius and C. nemoralis affect densities of A. vulgaris eggs and juveniles, respectively. Gut contents of C. nemoralis were analysed using multiplex PCR methods to detect DNA of juvenile slugs. Results show that both P. melanarius and C. nemoralis significantly affect densities of slug eggs and juvenile slugs under semi-field conditions and that C. nemoralis seems to prefer slugs smaller than one gram. Carabus nemoralis seems to be especially promising in reducing densities of A. vulgaris, and future studies should investigate the potential of using this species as a biological control agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Pianezzola
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, Padova, Italy.
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Waldner T, Traugott M. DNA-based analysis of regurgitates: a noninvasive approach to examine the diet of invertebrate consumers. Mol Ecol Resour 2012; 12:669-75. [PMID: 22443278 DOI: 10.1111/j.1755-0998.2012.03135.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
DNA-based gut content analysis has become an important tool for unravelling feeding interactions in invertebrate communities under natural conditions. It usually implies killing of the consumer and extracting the DNA from its food, using either the whole animal or its dissected gut. This post-mortem approach, however, is not suitable for investigating the diet of rare or protected species and also prohibits tracking individual dietary preferences as each consumer can provide trophic information only once. Moreover, removing large numbers of consumers from a habitat for analysis might critically change population densities and affect species interactions. Here, we present DNA-based analysis of invertebrate regurgitates, a novel approach to overcome these limitations. Conducting feeding experiments where adult Poecilus cupreus (Coleoptera: Carabidae) were fed with larvae of Amphimallon solstitiale (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae), we show that detection success in regurgitates compared to samples prepared from whole beetles was similar or significantly enhanced for small/medium and large prey DNA fragments, respectively. Prey DNA detection success remained high in regurgitates stored in ethanol for 21 months at room temperature prior to DNA extraction. We conclude that in those invertebrates where regurgitates can be obtained, examination of food DNA in regurgitates offers many advantages over conventional post-mortem gut content analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Waldner
- Mountain Agriculture Research Unit, Institute of Ecology, University of Innsbruck, Technikerstrasse 25, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
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