Integrated microfluidic system for rapid forensic DNA analysis: sample collection to DNA profile

A developmental validation of the Quick TargSeq 1.0 integrated system for automated DNA genotyping in forensic science for reference samples

Analysis of short tandem repeats (STRs) is a global standard method for human identification. Insertion/Deletion polymorphisms (DIPs) can be used for biogeographical ancestry inference. Current DNA typing involves a trained forensic worker operating several specialized instruments in a controlled laboratory environment, which takes 6-8 h. We developed the Quick TargSeq 1.0 integrated system (hereinafter abbreviated to Quick TargSeq) for automated generation of STR and DIP profiles from buccal swab samples and blood stains. The system fully integrates the processes of DNA extraction, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification, and electrophoresis separation using microfluidic biochip technology. Internal validation studies were performed using RTyper 21 or DIP 38 chip cartridges with single-source reference samples according to the Scientific Working Group for DNA Analysis Methods guidelines. These results indicated that the Quick TargSeq system can process reference samples and generate STR or DIP profiles in approximately 2 h, and the profiles were concordant with those determined using traditional STR or DIP analysis methods. Thus, reproducible and concordant DNA profiles were obtained from reference samples. Throughout the study, no lane-to-lane or run-to-run contamination was observed. The Quick TargSeq system produced full profiles from buccal swabs with at least eight swipes, dried blood spot cards with two 2-mm disks, or 10 ng of purified DNA. Potential PCR inhibitors (i.e., coffee, smoking tobacco, and chewing tobacco) did not appear to affect the amplification reactions of the instrument. The overall success rate and concordance rate of 153 samples were 94.12% and 93.44%, respectively, which is comparable to other commercially available rapid DNA instruments. A blind test initiated by a DNA expert group showed that the system can correctly produce DNA profiles with 97.29% genotype concordance with standard bench-processing methods, and the profiles can be uploaded into the national DNA database. These results demonstrated that the Quick TargSeq system can rapidly generate reliable DNA profiles in an automated manner and has the potential for use in the field and forensic laboratories.

PCR in Forensic Science: A Critical Review

The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) has played a fundamental role in our understanding of the world, and has applications across a broad range of disciplines. The introduction of PCR into forensic science marked the beginning of a new era of DNA profiling. This era has pushed PCR to its limits and allowed genetic data to be generated from trace DNA. Trace samples contain very small amounts of degraded DNA associated with inhibitory compounds and ions. Despite significant development in the PCR process since it was first introduced, the challenges of profiling inhibited and degraded samples remain. This review examines the evolution of the PCR from its inception in the 1980s, through to its current application in forensic science. The driving factors behind PCR evolution for DNA profiling are discussed along with a critical comparison of cycling conditions used in commercial PCR kits. Newer PCR methods that are currently used in forensic practice and beyond are examined, and possible future directions of PCR for DNA profiling are evaluated.

On the Application of Microfluidic-Based Technologies in Forensics: A Review

Microfluidic technology is a powerful tool to enable the rapid, accurate, and on-site analysis of forensically relevant evidence on a crime scene. This review paper provides a summary on the application of this technology in various forensic investigation fields spanning from forensic serology and human identification to discriminating and analyzing diverse classes of drugs and explosives. Each aspect is further explained by providing a short summary on general forensic workflow and investigations for body fluid identification as well as through the analysis of drugs and explosives. Microfluidic technology, including fabrication methodologies, materials, and working modules, are touched upon. Finally, the current shortcomings on the implementation of the microfluidic technology in the forensic field are discussed along with the future perspectives.

Taking the microfluidic approach to nucleic acid analysis in forensics: Review and perspectives

Forensic laboratories are universally acknowledged as being overburdened, underfunded, and in need of improved analytical methods to expedite investigations, decrease the costs associated with nucleic acid (NA) analysis, and perform human identification (HID) at the point of need (e.g., crime scene, booking station, etc.). In response, numerous research and development (R&D) efforts have resulted in microfluidic tools that automate portions of the forensic genetic workflow, including DNA extraction, amplification, and short tandem repeat (STR) typing. By the early 2000 s, reports from the National Institute of Justice (NIJ) anticipated that microfluidic 'swab-in-profile-out' systems would be available for use at the crime scene by 2015 and the FBI's 2010 'Rapid DNA' Initiative, approved by Congress in 2017, directed this effort by guiding the development and implementation of maturing systems. At present, few fully-automated microfluidic DNA technologies are commercially available for forensic HID and their adoption by agencies interested in identification has been limited. In practice, the integration of complex laboratory processes to produce one autonomous unit, along with the highly variable nature of forensic input samples, resulted in systems that are more expensive per sample and not comparable to gold-standard identification methods in terms of sensitivity, reproducibility, and multiplex capability. This Review and Perspective provides insight into the contributing factors to this outcome; namely, we focus on the complications associated with the tremendous undertaking that is developing a sample-in-answer-out platform for HID. For context, we also describe the intricate forensic landscape that contributes to a nuanced marketplace, not easily distilled down to cases of simple supply and demand. Moving forward and considering the trade-offs associated with developing methods to compete, sometimes directly, with conventional ones, we recommend a focus shift for microfluidics developers toward the creation of innovative solutions for emerging applications in the field to increase the bandwidth of the forensic investigative toolkit. Likewise, we urge case working personnel to reframe how they conceptualize the currently available Rapid DNA tools; rather than comparing these microfluidic methods to gold-standard procedures, take advantage of their rapid and integrated modes for those situations requiring expedited identifications in an informed manner.

A Systematic Review on Commercially Available Integrated Systems for Forensic DNA Analysis

This systematic review describes and discusses three commercially available integrated systems for forensic DNA analysis, i.e., ParaDNA, RapidHIT, and ANDE. A variety of aspects, such as performance, time-to-result, ease-of-use, portability, and costs (per analysis run) of these three (modified) rapid DNA analysis systems, are considered. Despite their advantages and developmental progress, major steps still have to be made before rapid systems can be broadly applied at crime scenes for full DNA profiling. Aspects in particular that need (further) improvement are portability, performance, the possibility to analyze a (wider) variety of (complex) forensic samples, and (cartridge) costs. Moreover, steps forward regarding ease-of-use and time-to-result will benefit the broader use of commercial rapid DNA systems. In fact, it would be a profit if rapid DNA systems could be used for full DNA profile generation as well as indicative analyses that can give direction to forensic investigators which will speed up investigations.

Compact Microfluidic Platform with LED Light-Actuated Valves for Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay Automation

Lab-on-a-chip devices incorporating valves and pumps can perform complex assays involving multiple reagents. However, the instruments used to drive these chips are complex and bulky. In this article, a new wax valve design that uses light from a light emitting diode (LED) for both opening and closing is reported. The valves and a pumping chamber are integrated in lab-on-a-foil chips that can be fabricated at low cost using rapid prototyping techniques. A chip for the implementation of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) is designed. A porous nitrocellulose material is used for the immobilization of capture antibodies in the microchannel. A compact generic instrument with an array of 64 LEDs, a linear actuator to drive the pumping chamber, and absorbance detection for a colorimetric readout of the assay is also presented. Characterization of all the components and functionalities of the platform and the designed chip demonstrate their potential for assay automation.

A Sensitive, Portable Microfluidic Device for SARS-CoV-2 Detection from Self-Collected Saliva

Since the outbreak of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic in December 2019, the spread of SARS-CoV2 infection has been escalating rapidly around the world. In order to provide more timely access to medical intervention, including diagnostic tests and medical treatment, the FDA authorized multiple test protocols for diagnostic tests from nasopharyngeal swab, saliva, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage and fecal samples. The traditional diagnostic tests for this novel coronavirus 2019 require standard processes of viral RNA isolation, reverse transcription of RNA to cDNA, then real-time quantitative PCR with the RNA templates extracted from the patient samples. Recently, many reports have demonstrated a direct detection of SARS-Co-V2 genomic material from saliva samples without any RNA isolation step. To make the rapid detection of SARS-Co-V2 infection more accessible, a point-of-care type device was developed for SARS-CoV-2 detection. Herein, we report a portable microfluidic-based integrated detection-analysis system for SARS-CoV-2 nucleic acids detection directly from saliva samples. The saliva cartridge is self-contained and capable of microfluidic evaluation of saliva, from heating, mixing with the primers to multiplex real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction, detecting SARS-CoV-2 with different primer sets and internal control. The approach has a detection sensitivity of 1000 copies/mL of SARS-CoV-2 RNA or virus, with consistency and automation, from saliva sample-in to result-out.

Mini-Disk Capillary Array Coupling with LAMP for Visual Detection of Multiple Nucleic Acids using Genetically Modified Organism Analysis as an Example

Convenient, portable, and low-cost multiplex nucleic acid testing (NAT) systems are the trends in the fields of food safety, environmental microorganisms, molecular diagnosis, etc. In this study, we developed a novel system for visual monitoring of multiple nucleic acids combining a mini-disk capillary array (diameter = 17 mm, embedded with 6-10 capillaries), visual loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP), and quick DNA extraction called mDC-LAMP. The performance and applicability of mDC-LAMP in testing multiple nucleic acids were evaluated and verified employing genetically modified contents analysis as an example. All of the results confirmed that mDC-LAMP has the advantages of high specificity without any cross contamination, high sensitivity with a limit of detection of 25 copies/reaction, high throughput with flexible channel sensors, easy fabrication, and low costs. We believe that mDC-LAMP is a competitive choice for on-spot monitoring of multiple nucleic acids in terms of the easy fabrication/operation, low costs, and suitable performance presented in the nucleic acids test.

Automated microchannel alignment using innate opto-signature for microchip electrophoresis

In laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) detection, optimal alignment is essential in maximizing the fluorescent signal and, hence, detection sensitivity. Micro-total analysis systems (μTAS) involving microchip electrophoresis (ME) are challenged with alignment of the optics to the separation channel each run due to the single-use nature. Furthermore, μTAS devices that are designed to operate autonomously and by non-experts face additional challenges in performing alignment with micrometer resolution without human intervention. As part of the development of a total DNA analysis system, we set out to develop an automated alignment (AA) method to locate a 50-by-50 μm separation channel on a freely rotating microfluidic device in the absence of a fluorescent dye, accomplished without additional hardware. We detail the innate fluorescent signature attainable from laser excitation and the optimization of the algorithm to achieve AA at 84.6% success rate from 26 microchips. This AA method was a key element in realizing complete automation of the DNA analysis process in order to advance our instrument to a technology readiness level of 7. This is the first description of an AA method for ME (and centrifugal ME) with the purpose of providing transparent technical details to bridge the gap from 'fully integrated' to 'fully automated' instruments for point-of-detection, sample in-answer-out use cases. Written in the context of a forensic application, the AA method is adaptable for a wide range of bioanalytical applications involving LIF detection.

A Fluorescence Sensing Method with Reduced DNA Typing and Low-Cost Instrumentation for Detection of Sample Tampering Cases in Urinalysis

This work presents a method to unequivocally detect urine sample tampering in cases where integrity of the sample needs to be verified prior to urinalysis. The technique involves the detection of distinct patterns of a triplex short tandem repeats system in DNA extracted from human urine. The analysis is realized with single-dye fluorescence detection and using a regular smartphone camera. The experimental results had demonstrated the efficacy of the analytical approach to obtaining distinct profiles of amplicons in urine from different sample providers. Reproducibility tests with fresh and stored urine have revealed a maximum variation in the profiles within an interval of 5 to 9%. Cases of urine sample tampering via mixture were simulated in the study, and the experiments have identified patterns of mixed genotypes from dual mixtures of urine samples. Moreover, sample adulteration by mixing a non-human fluid with urine in a volume ratio over 25% can be detected. The low cost of the approach is accompanied by the compatibility of the technique to use with different DNA sample preparation protocols and PCR instrumentation. Furthermore, the possibility of realizing the method in an integrated microchip system open great perspectives to conducting sample integrity tests at the site of urine sample reception and/or at resource-limited settings.

Modular-Based Integrated Microsystem with Multiple Sample Preparation Modules for Automated Forensic DNA Typing from Reference to Challenging Samples

The realization of an automated short tandem repeat (STR) analysis for forensic investigations is facing a unique challenge, that is DNA evidence with wide disparities in sample types, quality, and quantity. We developed a fully integrated microsystem in a modular-based architecture to accept and process various forensic samples in a "sample-in-answer-out" manner for forensic STR analysis. Two sample preparation modules (SPMs), the direct and the extraction SPM, were designed to be easily assembled with a capillary array electrophoresis (CAE) chip using a chip cartridge to efficiently achieve an adequate performance to different samples at a low cost. The direct SPM processed buccal swabs to produce STR profiles without DNA extraction in about 2 h. The extraction SPM analyzed more challenging blood samples based on chitosan-modified quartz filter paper for DNA extraction. This newly developed quartz filter provided a 90% DNA extraction efficiency and the "in situ" PCR capability, which enabled DNA extraction and PCR performed within a single chamber with all the DNA concentrated in the filter. We demonstrated that minute amounts of blood (0.25 μL), highly diluted blood (0.5 μL blood in 1 mL buffer), and latent bloodstains (5-μL bloodstain on cloth washed with detergent) can be automatically analyzed using our microsystem, reliably producing full STR profiles with a 100% calling of all the alleles. This modular-based microsystem with the capability of analyzing a wide range of samples should be able to play an increasing role in both urgent situations and routine forensic investigations, dramatically extending the applications and utility of automated DNA typing.

Study of the peak broadening due to detection in the electrophoretic separation of DNA by CE and microchip CE and the application of image sensor for ultra-small detection cell length

Narrow peaks are important to high-resolution and high-speed separation of DNA fragments by capillary electrophoresis and microchip capillary electrophoresis. Detection cell length is one of the broadening factors, which is often ignored in experiments. However, is it always safe to neglect detection cell length under any condition? To answer this question, we investigated the influence of detection cell length by simulation and experiments. A parameter named as detection cell length ratio was proposed to directly compare the detection cell length and the spatial length of sample band. Electrophoretic peaks generated by various detection cell length ratios were analyzed. A simple rule to evaluate the peak broadening due to detection cell length was obtained. The current states of the detection cell length of detection system and their reliabilities in capillary electrophoresis and microchip capillary electrophoresis were analyzed. Microchip capillary electrophoresis detection with an ultra-small detection cell length of 0.36 μm was easily achieved by using an image sensor.

Micro-Particle Operations Using Asymmetric Traps

Micro-particle operations in many lab-on-a-chip devices require active-type techniques that are accompanied by complex fabrication and operation. The present study describes an alternative method using a passive microfluidic scheme that allows for simpler operation and, therefore, potentially less expensive devices. We present three practical micro-particle operations using our previously developed passive mechanical trap, the asymmetric trap, in a non-acoustic oscillatory flow field. First, we demonstrate size-based segregation of both binary and ternary micro-particle mixtures using size-dependent trap-particle interactions to induce different transport speeds for each particle type. The degree of segregation, yield, and purity of the binary segregations are 0.97 ± 0.02, 0.96 ± 0.06, and 0.95 ± 0.05, respectively. Next, we perform a solution exchange by displacing particles from one solution into another in a trap array. Lastly, we focus and split groups of micro-particles by exploiting the transport polarity of asymmetric traps. These operations can be implemented in any closed fluidic circuit containing asymmetric traps using non-acoustic oscillatory flow, and they open new opportunities to flexibly control micro-particles in integrated lab-on-a-chip platforms with minimal external equipment.

Integrated Microfluidic System for Rapid DNA Fingerprint Analysis: A Miniaturized Integrated DNA Analysis System (MiDAS)-Swab Sample-In to DNA Profile-Out

A fully automated rapid DNA analysis system requires integrating several operational elements performing multiple steps onto one single microfluidic platform. The functions to include on the microfluidic platform consist of substrate lysis, lysate DNA extraction, single or multiplexed PCR amplification, amplicon separation, and product readout. Here we describe a fully automated integrated system for forensic short tandem repeat (STR) analysis of reference samples, achieving buccal swab-in and DNA profile-out.

Direct laser writing of barriers with controllable permeability in porous glass

Barriers were produced in porous glass through its local bulk density modification by direct femtosecond writing accompanied by СО₂-laser surface thermal densification, to make functional microfluidic elements separated by such physical barriers with different controlled permeability. The separation of multi-component solutions into individual components with different molecule sizes (molecular separation) was performed in this first integrated microfluidic device fabricated in porous glass. Its application in the environmental gas-phase analysis was demonstrated.

Experimental study of the evanescent-wave photonic sensors response in presence of molecular beacon conformational changes

An experimental study of the influence of the conformational change suffered by molecular beacon (MB) probes-upon the biorecognition of nucleic acid target oligonucleotides over evanescent wave photonic sensors-is reported. To this end, high sensitivity photonic sensors based on silicon photonic bandgap (PBG) structures were used, where the MB probes were immobilized via their 5' termination. Those MBs incorporate a biotin moiety close to their 3' termination in order to selectively bind a streptavidin molecule to them. The different photonic sensing responses obtained toward the target oligonucleotide detection, when the streptavidin molecule was bound to the MB probes or not, demonstrate the conformational change suffered by the MB upon hybridization, which promotes the displacement of the streptavidin molecule away from the surface of the photonic sensing structure.

Multiplex STR amplification sensitivity in a silicon microchip

The demand for solutions to perform forensic DNA profiling outside of centralized laboratories is increasing. We here demonstrate highly sensitive STR amplification using a silicon micro-PCR (µPCR) chip. Exploiting industry-standard semiconductor manufacturing processes, a device was fabricated that features a small form factor thanks to an integrated heating element covering three parallel micro-reactors with a reaction volume of 0.5 µl each. Diluted reference DNA samples (1 ng–31 pg) were amplified on the µPCR chip using the forensically validated AmpFISTR Identifier Plus kit, followed by conventional capillary electrophoresis. Complete STR profiles were generated with input DNA quantities down to 62 pg. Occasional allelic dropouts were observed from 31 pg downward. On-chip STR profiles were compared with those of identical samples amplified using a conventional thermal cycler for direct comparison of amplification sensitivity in a forensic setting. The observed sensitivity was in line with kit specifications for both µPCR and conventional PCR. Finally, a rapid amplification protocol was developed. Complete STR profiles could be generated in less than 17 minutes from as little as 125 pg template DNA. Together, our results are an important step towards the development of commercial, mass-produced, relatively cheap, handheld devices for on-site testing in forensic DNA analysis.

Decision support for using mobile Rapid DNA analysis at the crime scene

Mobile Rapid DNA technology is close to being incorporated into crime scene investigations, with the potential to identify a perpetrator within hours. However, the use of these techniques entails the risk of losing the sample and potential evidence, because the device not only consumes the inserted sample, it is also is less sensitive than traditional technologies used in forensic laboratories. Scene of Crime Officers (SoCOs) therefore will face a 'time/success rate trade-off' issue when making a decision to apply this technology. In this study we designed and experimentally tested a Decision Support System (DSS) for the use of Rapid DNA technologies based on Rational Decision Theory (RDT). In a vignette study, where SoCOs had to decide on the use of a Rapid DNA analysis device, participating SoCOs were assigned to either the control group (making decisions under standard conditions), the Success Rate (SR) group (making decisions with additional information on DNA success rates of traces), or the DSS group (making decisions supported by introduction to RDT, including information on DNA success rates of traces). This study provides positive evidence that a systematic approach for decision-making on using Rapid DNA analysis assists SoCOs in the decision to use the rapid device. The results demonstrated that participants using a DSS made different and more transparent decisions on the use of Rapid DNA analysis when different case characteristics were explicitly considered. In the DSS group the decision to apply Rapid DNA analysis was influenced by the factors "time pressure" and "trace characteristics" like DNA success rates. In the SR group, the decisions depended solely on the trace characteristics and in the control group the decisions did not show any systematic differences on crime type or trace characteristic. Guiding complex decisions on the use of Rapid DNA analyses with a DSS could be an important step towards the use of these devices at the crime scene.

Visual Detection of Multiple Nucleic Acids in a Capillary Array

Multi-target, short time, and resource-affordable methodologies for the detection of multiple nucleic acids in a single, easy to operate test are urgently needed in disease diagnosis, microbial monitoring, genetically modified organism (GMO) detection, and forensic analysis. We have previously described the platform called CALM (Capillary Array-based Loop-mediated isothermal amplification for Multiplex visual detection of nucleic acids). Herein, we describe improved fabrication and performance processes for this platform. Here, we apply a small, ready-to-use cassette assembled by capillary array for multiplex visual detection of nucleic acids. The capillary array is pre-treated into a hydrophobic and hydrophilic pattern before fixing loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) primer sets in capillaries. After assembly of the loading adaptor, LAMP reaction mixture is loaded and isolated into each capillary, due to capillary force by a single pipetting step. The LAMP reactions are performed in parallel in the capillaries. The results are visually read out by illumination with a hand-held UV flashlight. Using this platform, we demonstrate monitoring of 8 frequently appearing elements and genes in GMO samples with high specificity and sensitivity. In summary, the platform described herein is intended to facilitate the detection of multiple nucleic acids. We believe it will be widely applicable in fields where high-throughput nucleic acid analysis is required.

A simple and highly sensitive spectroscopic fluorescence-detection system for multi-channel plastic-microchip electrophoresis based on side-entry laser-beam zigzag irradiation

A five-color fluorescence-detection system for eight-channel plastic-microchip electrophoresis was developed. In the eight channels (with effective electrophoretic lengths of 10 cm), single-stranded DNA fragments were separated (with single-base resolution up to 300 bases within 10 min), and seventeen-loci STR genotyping for forensic human identification was successfully demonstrated. In the system, a side-entry laser beam is passed through the eight channels (eight A channels), with alternately arrayed seven sacrificial channels (seven B channels), by a technique called "side-entry laser-beam zigzag irradiation." Laser-induced fluorescence from the eight A channels and Raman-scattered light from the seven B channels are then simultaneously, uniformly, and spectroscopically detected, in the direction perpendicular to the channel array plane, through a transmission grating and a CCD camera. The system is therefore simple and highly sensitive. Because the microchip is fabricated by plastic-injection molding, it is inexpensive and disposable and thus suitable for actual use in various fields.

Rapid multiplex DNA amplification on an inexpensive microdevice for human identification via short tandem repeat analysis

Forensic DNA analysis requires several steps, including DNA extraction, PCR amplification, and separation of PCR fragments. Intuitively, there are numerous situations where it would be beneficial to speed up the overall DNA analysis process; in this work, we focus on the most time-consuming component in the analysis pipeline, namely the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Primers were specially designed to target 10 human genomic loci, all yielding amplicons shorter than 350 bases, for ease of downstream integration with on-board microchip electrophoresis. Primer concentrations were adjusted specifically for microdevice amplification, resulting in well-balanced short tandem repeat (STR) profiles. Furthermore, studies were performed to push the limits of the DNA polymerase to achieve rapid, multiplexed PCR on various substrates, including transparent and black polyethylene terephthalate (Pe), and with two distinct adhesives, toner and heat sensitive adhesive (HSA). Rapid STR-based multiplexed PCR amplification is demonstrated in 15 min on a Pe microdevice using a custom-built system for fluid flow control and thermocycling for the full 10-plex, and in 10 min for a smaller multiplex consisting of six core CODIS loci plus Amelogenin with amplicons shorter than 200bp. Lastly, preliminary studies indicate the capability of this PCR microdevice platform to be integrated with both upstream DNA extraction, and downstream microchip electrophoresis. This, coupled to the use of reagents that are compatible with lyophilization (lyo-compatible) for PCR, represents the potential for a fully integrated rotationally-driven microdevice for complete forensic DNA analysis.

Electrode Materials in Microfluidic Systems for the Processing and Separation of DNA: A Mini Review

Since the advent of genetic analysis, electrode materials have played an irreplaceable role due to the easily-exploitable negatively-charged backbone of the DNA structure. Initially, the employment of electrophoretic movement lay only in the separation of DNA fragments of differing length; however, the widening utility of electrokinetic phenomena at the microscale in areas such as fluid transportation and multistep integration led researchers to capitalize further when translating processes to microfluidic or “lab-on-chip” devices. Over the following three decades, the field witnessed a plethora of ways in which the necessary voltages could be transmitted to the sample and reagents with many successes; however, additional demands were then placed on those hoping to bring their microdevices to the market place. A greater emphasis on the cost of all constituent parts along with the increased importance that fluidics be contained hermetically at all times meant groups would become more imaginative when incorporating electrode materials. This review will aim to exactly describe the evolution of how those materials have been employed in DNA-based microfluidic devices. It will focus on how developers began to explore other emerging uses and also discuss how their tactics reflected the progressive demands of their chosen industry.

Rapid microfluidic analysis of a Y-STR multiplex for screening of forensic samples

In this paper, we demonstrate a rapid analysis procedure for use with a small set of rapidly mutating Y chromosomal short tandem repeat (Y-STR) loci that combines both rapid polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and microfluidic separation elements. The procedure involves a high-speed polymerase and a rapid cycling protocol to permit PCR amplification in 16 min. The resultant amplified sample is next analysed using a short 1.8-cm microfluidic electrophoresis system that permits a four-locus Y-STR genotype to be produced in 80 s. The entire procedure takes less than 25 min from sample collection to result. This paper describes the rapid amplification protocol as well as studies of the reproducibility and sensitivity of the procedure and its optimisation. The amplification process utilises a small high-speed thermocycler, microfluidic device and compact laptop, making it portable and potentially useful for rapid, inexpensive on-site genotyping. The four loci used for the multiplex were selected due to their rapid mutation rates and should proved useful in preliminary screening of samples and suspects. Overall, this technique provides a method for rapid sample screening of suspect and crime scene samples in forensic casework. Graphical abstract ᅟ.

A novel, integrated forensic microdevice on a rotation-driven platform: Buccal swab to STR product in less than 2 h

This work describes the development of a novel microdevice for forensic DNA processing of reference swabs. This microdevice incorporates an enzyme-based assay for DNA preparation, which allows for faster processing times and reduced sample handling. Infrared-mediated PCR (IR-PCR) is used for STR amplification using a custom reaction mixture, allowing for amplification of STR loci in 45 min while circumventing the limitations of traditional block thermocyclers. Uniquely positioned valves coupled with a simple rotational platform are used to exert fluidic control, eliminating the need for bulky external equipment. All microdevices were fabricated using laser ablation and thermal bonding of PMMA layers. Using this microdevice, the enzyme-mediated DNA liberation module produced DNA yields similar to or higher than those produced using the traditional (tube-based) protocol. Initial microdevice IR-PCR experiments to test the amplification module and reaction (using Phusion Flash/SpeedSTAR) generated near-full profiles that suffered from interlocus peak imbalance and poor adenylation (significant -A). However, subsequent attempts using KAPA 2G and Pfu Ultra polymerases generated full STR profiles with improved interlocus balance and the expected adenylated product. A fully integrated run designed to test microfluidic control successfully generated CE-ready STR amplicons in less than 2 h (<1 h of hands-on time). Using this approach, high-quality STR profiles were developed that were consistent with those produced using conventional DNA purification and STR amplification methods. This method is a smaller, more elegant solution than current microdevice methods and offers a cheaper, hands-free, closed-system alternative to traditional forensic methods.

Multiplex SNP genotyping in whole blood using an integrated microfluidic lab-on-a-chip

Pharmacogenetics has often been touted as a cornerstone for precision medicine as detailed knowledge of a specific genetic makeup may allow for accurate predictions of a patient's individual drug response. Still, the widespread use of genetic tests is limited as they remain expensive and cumbersome, requiring sophisticated tools and highly trained personnel. In order for pharmacogenetics to reach its full potential, more cost-effective and easily accessible genotyping methods are desired. To meet these challenges, we present a silicon-based integrated microsystem for the detection of multiple single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) directly from human blood. The device combines a blood lysis chamber, a cross-flow filter, a T-junction mixer, and a microreactor for quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). Using this device, successful on-chip genotyping of two clinically relevant SNPs in human CYP2C9 gene was demonstrated with TaqMan assays, starting from blood. The two SNPs were detected simultaneously by introducing a sequence of plugs, each containing a different set of primers and probes. The method can be easily extended to detect several SNPs. The microsystem described here offers a rapid, reproducible, and accurate sample-to-answer technology enabling multiplex SNP profiling in point-of-care settings, bringing pharmacogenetics-based precision medicine a step closer to reality.

Microfluidic Devices for Forensic DNA Analysis: A Review

Microfluidic devices may offer various advantages for forensic DNA analysis, such as reduced risk of contamination, shorter analysis time and direct application at the crime scene. Microfluidic chip technology has already proven to be functional and effective within medical applications, such as for point-of-care use. In the forensic field, one may expect microfluidic technology to become particularly relevant for the analysis of biological traces containing human DNA. This would require a number of consecutive steps, including sample work up, DNA amplification and detection, as well as secure storage of the sample. This article provides an extensive overview of microfluidic devices for cell lysis, DNA extraction and purification, DNA amplification and detection and analysis techniques for DNA. Topics to be discussed are polymerase chain reaction (PCR) on-chip, digital PCR (dPCR), isothermal amplification on-chip, chip materials, integrated devices and commercially available techniques. A critical overview of the opportunities and challenges of the use of chips is discussed, and developments made in forensic DNA analysis over the past 10–20 years with microfluidic systems are described. Areas in which further research is needed are indicated in a future outlook.

Opportunities and challenges for the application of microfluidic technologies in point-of-care veterinary diagnostics

There is a growing need for low-cost, rapid and reliable diagnostic results in veterinary medicine. Point-of-care (POC) tests have tremendous advantages over existing laboratory-based tests, due to their intrinsic low-cost and rapidity. A considerable number of POC tests are presently available, mostly in dipstick or lateral flow formats, allowing cost-effective and decentralised diagnosis of a wide range of infectious diseases and public health related threats. Although, extremely useful, these tests come with some limitations. Recent advances in the field of microfluidics have brought about new and exciting opportunities for human health diagnostics, and there is now great potential for these new technologies to be applied in the field of veterinary diagnostics. This review appraises currently available POC tests in veterinary medicine, taking into consideration their usefulness and limitations, whilst exploring possible applications for new and emerging technologies, in order to widen and improve the range of POC tests available.

Development of a rapid 21-plex autosomal STR typing system for forensic applications

DNA-STR genotyping technology has been widely used in forensic investigations. Even with such success, there is a great need to reduce the analysis time. In this study, we established a new rapid 21-plex STR typing system, including 13 CODIS loci, Penta D, Penta E, D12S391, D2S1338, D6S1043, D19S433, D2S441 and Amelogenin loci. This system could shorten the amplification time to a minimum of 90 min and does not require DNA extraction from the samples. Validation of the typing system complied with the Scientific Working Group on DNA Analysis Methods (SWGDAM) and the Chinese National Standard (GA/T815-2009) guidelines. The results demonstrated that this 21-plex STR typing system was a valuable tool for rapid criminal investigation.

The end of the (forensic science) world as we know it? The example of trace evidence

The dominant conception of forensic science as a patchwork of disciplines primarily assisting the criminal justice system (i.e. forensics) is in crisis or at least shows a series of anomalies and serious limitations. In recent years, symptoms of the crisis have been discussed in a number of reports by various commentators, without a doubt epitomized by the 2009 report by the US National Academies of Sciences (NAS 2009 Strengthening forensic science in the United States: a path forward). Although needed, but viewed as the solution to these drawbacks, the almost generalized adoption of stricter business models in forensic science casework compounded with ever-increasing normative and compliance processes not only place additional pressures on a discipline that already appears in difficulty, but also induce more fragmentation of the different forensic science tasks, a tenet many times denounced by the same NAS report and other similar reviews. One may ask whether these issues are not simply the result of an unfit paradigm. If this is the case, the current problems faced by forensic science may indicate future significant changes for the discipline. To facilitate broader discussion this presentation focuses on trace evidence, an area that is seminal to forensic science both for epistemological and historical reasons. There is, however, little doubt that this area is currently under siege worldwide. Current and future challenges faced by trace evidence are discussed along with some possible answers. The current situation ultimately presents some significant opportunities to re-invent not only trace evidence but also forensic science. Ultimately, a distinctive, more robust and more reliable science may emerge through rethinking the forensics paradigm built on specialisms, revisiting fundamental forensic science principles and adapting them to the twenty-first century.

The future of forensic DNA analysis

The author's thoughts and opinions on where the field of forensic DNA testing is headed for the next decade are provided in the context of where the field has come over the past 30 years. Similar to the Olympic motto of 'faster, higher, stronger', forensic DNA protocols can be expected to become more rapid and sensitive and provide stronger investigative potential. New short tandem repeat (STR) loci have expanded the core set of genetic markers used for human identification in Europe and the USA. Rapid DNA testing is on the verge of enabling new applications. Next-generation sequencing has the potential to provide greater depth of coverage for information on STR alleles. Familial DNA searching has expanded capabilities of DNA databases in parts of the world where it is allowed. Challenges and opportunities that will impact the future of forensic DNA are explored including the need for education and training to improve interpretation of complex DNA profiles.

A fully integrated and automated microsystem for rapid pharmacogenetic typing of multiple warfarin-related single-nucleotide polymorphisms

A fully integrated and automated microsystem consisting of low-cost, disposable plastic chips for DNA extraction and PCR amplification combined with a reusable glass capillary array electrophoresis chip in a modular-based format was successfully developed for warfarin pharmacogenetic testing. DNA extraction was performed by adopting a filter paper-based method, followed by "in situ" PCR that was carried out directly in the same reaction chamber of the chip without elution. PCR products were then co-injected with sizing standards into separation channels for detection using a novel injection electrode. The entire process was automatically conducted on a custom-made compact control and detection instrument. The limit of detection of the microsystem for the singleplex amplification of amelogenin was determined to be 0.625 ng of standard K562 DNA and 0.3 μL of human whole blood. A two-color multiplex allele-specific PCR assay for detecting the warfarin-related single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) 6853 (-1639G>A) and 6484 (1173C>T) in the VKORC1 gene and the *3 SNP (1075A>C) in the CYP2C9 gene was developed and used for validation studies. The fully automated genetic analysis was completed in two hours with a minimum requirement of 0.5 μL of input blood. Samples from patients with different genotypes were all accurately analyzed. In addition, both dried bloodstains and oral swabs were successfully processed by the microsystem with a simple modification to the DNA extraction and amplification chip. The successful development and operation of this microsystem establish the feasibility of rapid warfarin pharmacogenetic testing in routine clinical practice.

Ultrafast STR Separations on Short-Channel Microfluidic Systems for Forensic Screening and Genotyping

There are situations in which it is important to quickly and positively identify an individual. Examples include suspects detained in the neighborhood of a bombing or terrorist incident, individuals detained attempting to enter or leave the country, and victims of mass disasters. Systems utilized for these purposes must be fast, portable, and easy to maintain. DNA typing methods provide the best biometric information yielding identity, kinship, and geographical origin, but they are not portable and rapid. This study details the development of a portable short-channel microfluidic device based on a modified Agilent 2100 bioanalyzer for applications in forensic genomics. The system utilizes a denaturing polymer matrix with dual-channel laser-induced fluorescence and is capable of producing a genotype in 80 sec. The device was tested for precision and resolution using an allelic ladder created from 6 short tandem repeat (STR) loci and a sex marker (amelogenin). The results demonstrated a precision of 0.09-0.21 bp over the entire size range and resolution values from 2.5 to 4.1 bp. Overall, the results demonstrate the chip provides a portable, rapid, and precise method for screening amplified short tandem repeats and human identification screening.

A miniature quantitative PCR device for directly monitoring a sample processing on a microfluidic rapid DNA system

We report a microfluidic device and measurement method to perform real-time PCR (or qPCR) in a miniaturized configuration for on-chip implementation using reaction volumes of less than 20 μL. The qPCR bioreactor is designed as a module to be embedded in an automated sample-in/profile-out system for rapid DNA biometrics or human identification. The PCR mixture is excited with a 505 nm diode-pumped solid-state laser (DPSSL) and the fluorescence build-up is measured using optical fibers directly embedded to the sidewalls of the microfluidic qPCR bioreactor. We discuss manufacturing and operating parameters necessary to adjust the internal surface conditions and temperature profiles of the bioreactor and to optimize the yield and quality of the PCR reaction for the amplification of 62 bp hTERT intron fragments using the commercial Quantifiler® kit (Life Technologies, Carlsbad, CA) commonly accepted for genotyping analysis. We designed a microfluidic device suitable for continuously processing a specimen by efficiently mixing the reagents from the kit to a set volume of DNA template on chip. Our approach relies on a calibration curve for the specific device using control DNA. We successfully applied this method to determine the concentration of genomic DNA extracted from a buccal swab on separate microfluidic devices which are operated upstream the qPCR device and perform buccal swab lysis and buccal DNA extraction. A precise correlation between the amount determined on chip and that obtained using a commercial cycler is demonstrated.

Capillary electrophoresis applied to DNA: determining and harnessing sequence and structure to advance bioanalyses (2009-2014)

This review of capillary electrophoresis methods for DNA analyses covers critical advances from 2009 to 2014, referencing 184 citations. Separation mechanisms based on free-zone capillary electrophoresis, Ogston sieving, and reptation are described. Two prevalent gel matrices for gel-facilitated sieving, which are linear polyacrylamide and polydimethylacrylamide, are compared in terms of performance, cost, viscosity, and passivation of electroosmotic flow. The role of capillary electrophoresis in the discovery, design, and characterization of DNA aptamers for molecular recognition is discussed. Expanding and emerging techniques in the field are also highlighted.

The rotary zone thermal cycler: a low-power system enabling automated rapid PCR

Advances in molecular biology, microfluidics, and laboratory automation continue to expand the accessibility and applicability of these methods beyond the confines of conventional, centralized laboratory facilities and into point of use roles in clinical, military, forensic, and field-deployed applications. As a result, there is a growing need to adapt the unit operations of molecular biology (e.g., aliquoting, centrifuging, mixing, and thermal cycling) to compact, portable, low-power, and automation-ready formats. Here we present one such adaptation, the rotary zone thermal cycler (RZTC), a novel wheel-based device capable of cycling up to four different fixed-temperature blocks into contact with a stationary 4-microliter capillary-bound sample to realize 1-3 second transitions with steady state heater power of less than 10 W. We demonstrate the utility of the RZTC for DNA amplification as part of a highly integrated rotary zone PCR (rzPCR) system that uses low-volume valves and syringe-based fluid handling to automate sample loading and unloading, thermal cycling, and between-run cleaning functionalities in a compact, modular form factor. In addition to characterizing the performance of the RZTC and the efficacy of different online cleaning protocols, we present preliminary results for rapid single-plex PCR, multiplex short tandem repeat (STR) amplification, and second strand cDNA synthesis.

Developmental validation of a fully integrated sample-to-profile rapid human identification system for processing single-source reference buccal samples

Short tandem repeat (STR) DNA typing is a global standard for human identification. Current practice involves highly trained forensic analysts, operating in a laboratory setting, using multiple instruments to process samples and analyze the data. Here, we report the developmental validation of a fully integrated and automated DNA profiling system, the RapidHIT® System, capable of producing up to five high quality STR profiles with full controls in approximately 90min using PowerPlex®16 HS RapidHIT chemistry. The system integrates all sample handling steps: starting from lysis of cells on buccal swabs or other buccal sample types through DNA extraction, normalization, amplification,capillary array electrophoresis, detection, and integrated software analysis. The results describe the developmental validation of the RapidHIT™ System for buccal samples processed with the DNA IQ™ extraction chemistry using a guandinium chaotropic agent and paramagnetic beads followed by amplification using a modified version of PowerPlex 16 HS chemistry (PowerPlex 16 HS RapidHIT chemistry), and capillary electrophoresis with manual review of genotyping data following interpretation guidelines. All processing from the buccal swab to generation and processing of the profile occurs on the RapidHIT platform.

RESULT

are concordant with traditional methods, with 88% first pass success rates for both the CODIS and PowerPlex 16 loci. Average peak height ratios were 0.89 for buccal swabs. The system produces full profiles from swabs with at least 176 ng of saliva DNA. Rapid DNA identification systems will significantly enhance capabilities for forensic labs, intelligence, defense, law enforcement, refugee and immigration applications, and kinship analysis.

An overview of the use of microchips in electrophoretic separation techniques: fabrication, separation modes, sample preparation opportunities, and on-chip detection

This chapter is intended as a basic introduction to microchip-based capillary electrophoresis to set the scene for newcomers and give pointers to reference material. An outline of some commonly used setups and key concepts is given, many of which are explored in greater depth in later chapters.

An integrated sample-in-answer-out microfluidic chip for rapid human identification by STR analysis

A fully integrated microfluidic chip for human identification by short tandem repeat (STR) analysis that includes a unique enzymatic liquid preparation of the DNA, microliter non-contact PCR, and a polymer that allows a high-resolution separation within a compact microchip footprint has been developed. A heat-activated enzyme that digests biological materials is employed to generate the target yield of DNA from a buccal swab or FTA paper. The microfluidic architecture meters an aliquot of the liberated DNA and mixes it with the PCR reagents prior to non-contact IR-mediated PCR amplification. The products of PCR amplification are mixed with a sizing standard (ladder) and the 18-plex STR amplicons are separated in an effective length (Leff) of just 7 cm. The development, optimization and integration of each of these processes within the microfluidic chip are described. The device is able to generate genetic profiles in approximately 2 hours that match the profiles from the conventional processes performed using separate conventional instruments. Analysis is performed on a single plastic microchip with a size similar to that of a 96-well plate and only a few mm thick with no pretreatment of any of the functional domains. This is significant advancement in terms of ease of fabrication over glass microdevices or polymeric systems assembled from multiple components. Consequently, this fully integrated sample-in-answer-out microchip is an important step toward generation of a rapid micro-total analysis system for point-of-collection human identification based on genetic analysis.