N-Acetylgalactosamine Block-co-Polycations Form Stable Polyplexes with Plasmids and Promote Liver-Targeted Delivery

GalNAc- or Mannose-PEG-Functionalized Polyplexes Enable Effective Lectin-Mediated DNA Delivery

A cationic, dendrimer-like oligo(aminoamide) carrier with four-arm topology based on succinoyl tetraethylene pentamine and histidines, cysteines, and N-terminal azido-lysines was screened for plasmid DNA delivery on various cell lines. The incorporated azides allow modification with various shielding agents of different polyethylene glycol (PEG) lengths and/or different ligands by copper-free click reaction, either before or after polyplex formation. Prefunctionalization was found to be advantageous over postfunctionalization in terms of nanoparticle formation, stability, and efficacy. A length of 24 ethylene oxide repetition units and prefunctionalization of ≥50% of azides per carrier promoted optimal polyplex shielding. PEG shielding resulted in drastically reduced DNA transfer, which could be successfully restored by active lectin targeting via novel GalNAc or mannose ligands, enabling enhanced receptor-mediated endocytosis of the carrier system. The involvement of the asialoglycoprotein receptor (ASGPR) in the uptake of GalNAc-functionalized polyplexes was confirmed in the ASGPR-positive hepatocarcinoma cell lines HepG2 and Huh7. Mannose-modified polyplexes showed superior cellular uptake and transfection efficacy compared to unmodified and shielded polyplexes in mannose-receptor-expressing dendritic cell-like DC2.4 cells.

Organ/Cell-Selective Intracellular Delivery of Biologics via N-Acetylated Galactosamine-Functionalized Polydisulfide Conjugates

Biologics, including proteins and antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs), face significant challenges when it comes to achieving intracellular delivery within specific organs or cells through systemic administrations. In this study, we present a novel approach for delivering proteins and ASOs to liver cells, both in vitro and in vivo, using conjugates that tether N-acetylated galactosamine (GalNAc)-functionalized, cell-penetrating polydisulfides (PDSs). The method involves the thiol-bearing cargo-mediated ring-opening polymerization of GalNAc-functionalized lipoamide monomers through the so-called aggregation-induced polymerization, leading to the formation of site-specific protein/ASO-PDS conjugates with narrow dispersity. The hepatocyte-selective intracellular delivery of the conjugates arises from a combination of factors, including first GalNAc binding with ASGPR receptors on liver cells, leading to cell immobilization, and the subsequent thiol-disulfide exchange occurring on the cell surface, promoting internalization. Our findings emphasize the critical role of the close proximity of the PDS backbone to the cell surface, as it governs the success of thiol-disulfide exchange and, consequently, cell penetration. These conjugates hold tremendous potential in overcoming the various biological barriers encountered during systemic and cell-specific delivery of biomacromolecular cargos, opening up new avenues for the diagnosis and treatment of a range of liver-targeting diseases.

Multivalent Targeting of the Asialoglycoprotein Receptor by Virus-Like Particles

The asialoglycoprotein receptor (ASGPR) is expressed in high density on hepatocytes. Multivalent variants of galactosyl carbohydrates bind ASGPR with high affinity, enabling hepatic delivery of ligand-bound cargo. Virus-like particle (VLP) conjugates of a relatively high-affinity ligand were efficiently endocytosed by ASGPR-expressing cells in a manner strongly dependent on the nature and density of ligand display, with the best formulation using a nanomolar-, but not a picomolar-level, binder. Optimized particles were taken up by HepG2 cells with greater efficiency than competing small molecules or the natural multigalactosylated ligand, asialoorosomucoid. Upon systemic injection in mice, these VLPs were rapidly cleared to the liver and were found in association with sinusoidal endothelial cells, Kupffer cells, hepatocytes, dendritic cells, and other immune cells. Both ASGPR-targeted and nontargeted particles were distributed similarly to endothelial and Kupffer cells, but targeted particles were distributed to a greater number and fraction of hepatocytes. Thus, selective cellular trafficking in the liver is difficult to achieve: even with the most potent ASGPR targeting available, barrier cells take up much of the injected particles and hepatocytes are accessed only approximately twice as efficiently in the best case.

Targeted downregulation of MYC mediated by a highly efficient lactobionic acid-based glycoplex to enhance chemosensitivity in human hepatocellular carcinoma cells

The chemosensitization of tumor cells by gene therapy represents a promising strategy for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) treatment. In this regard, HCC-specific and highly efficient gene delivery nanocarriers are urgently needed. For this purpose, novel lactobionic acid-based gene delivery nanosystems were developed to downregulate c-MYC expression and sensitize tumor cells to low concentration of sorafenib (SF). A library of tailor-made cationic glycopolymers, based on poly(2-aminoethyl methacrylate hydrochloride) (PAMA) and poly(2-lactobionamidoethyl methacrylate) (PLAMA) were synthesized by a straightforward activators regenerated by electron transfer atom transfer radical polymerization. The nanocarriers prepared with PAMA₁₁₄-co-PLAMA₂₀ glycopolymer were the most efficient for gene delivery. These glycoplexes specifically bound to the asialoglycoprotein receptor and were internalized through the clathrin-coated pit endocytic pathway. c-MYC expression was significantly downregulated by MYC short-hairpin RNA (MYC shRNA), resulting in efficient inhibition of tumor cells proliferation and a high levels apoptosis in 2D and 3D HCC-tumor models. Moreover, c-MYC silencing increased the sensitivity of HCC cells to SF (IC₅₀ for MYC shRNA+ SF 1.9 μM compared to 6.9 μM for control shRNA + SF). Overall, the data obtained demonstrated the great potential of PAMA₁₁₄-co-PLAMA₂₀/MYC shRNA nanosystems combined with low doses of SF for the treatment of HCC.

Glycopolymers Mediate Suicide Gene Therapy in ASGPR-Expressing Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cells in Tandem with Docetaxel

Cationic glycopolymers stand out as gene delivery nanosystems due to their inherent biocompatibility and high binding affinity to the asialoglycoprotein receptor (ASGPR), a target receptor overexpressed in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells. However, their synthesis procedure remains laborious and complex, with problems of solubilization and the need for protection/deprotection steps. Here, a mini-library of well-defined poly(2-aminoethyl methacrylate hydrochloride-co-poly(2-lactobionamidoethyl methacrylate) (PAMA-co-PLAMA) glycopolymers was synthesized by activators regenerated by electron transfer (ARGET) ATRP to develop an efficient gene delivery nanosystem. The glycoplexes generated had suitable physicochemical properties and showed high ASGPR specificity and high transfection efficiency. Moreover, the HSV-TK/GCV suicide gene therapy strategy, mediated by PAMA₁₄₄-co-PLAMA₁₉-based nanocarriers, resulted in high antitumor activity in 2D and 3D culture models of HCC, which was significantly enhanced by the combination with small amounts of docetaxel. Overall, our results demonstrated the potential of primary-amine polymethacrylate-containing-glycopolymers as HCC-targeted suicide gene delivery nanosystems and highlight the importance of combined strategies for HCC treatment.

A Comprehensive Review on Liver Targeting: Emphasis on Nanotechnology- based Molecular Targets and Receptors Mediated Approaches

BACKGROUND

The pathogenesis of hepatic diseases involves several cells, which complicates the delivery of pharmaceutical agents. Many severe liver diseases affecting the worldwide population cannot be effectively treated. Major hindrances or challenges are natural physiological barriers and non-specific targeting of drugs administered, leading to inefficient treatment. Hence, there is an earnest need to look for novel therapeutic strategies to overcome these hindrances. A kind of literature has reported that drug safety and efficacy are incredibly raised when a drug is incorporated inside or attached to a polymeric material of either hydrophilic or lipophilic nature. This has driven the dynamic investigation for developing novel biodegradable materials, drug delivery carriers, target-specific drug delivery systems, and many other novel approaches.

OBJECTIVE

Present review is devoted to summarizing receptor-based liver cell targeting using different modified novel synthetic drug delivery carriers. It also highlights recent progress in drug targeting to diseased liver mediated by various receptors, including asialoglycoprotein, mannose and galactose receptor, Fc receptor, low-density lipoprotein, glycyrrhetinic, and bile acid receptor. The essential consideration is given to treating liver cancer targeting using nanoparticulate systems, proteins, viral and non-viral vectors, homing peptides and gene delivery.

CONCLUSION

Receptors based targeting approach is one such approach that was explored by researchers to develop novel formulations which can ensure site-specific drug delivery. Several receptors are on the surfaces of liver cells, which are highly overexpressed in various disease conditions. They all are helpful for the treatment of liver cancer.

Tailor-made Glycopolymers via Reversible Deactivation Radical Polymerization: Design, Properties and Applications

Investigating the underlying mechanism of biological interactions using glycopolymer is becoming increasingly important owing to their unique recognition properties. The multivalent interactions between lectin and glycopolymer are significantly influenced by...

Multivalent glycans for biological and biomedical applications

Recognition of glycans by proteins plays a crucial role in a variety of physiological processes in cells and living organisms. In addition, interactions of glycans with proteins are involved in the development of diverse diseases, such as pathogen infection, inflammation and tumor metastasis. It is well-known that multivalent glycans bind to proteins much more strongly than do their monomeric counterparts. Owing to this property, numerous multivalent glycans have been utilized to elucidate glycan-mediated biological processes and to discover glycan-based biomedical agents. In this review, we discuss recent advances (2014-2020) made in the development and biological and biomedical applications of synthetic multivalent glycans, including neoglycopeptides, neoglycoproteins, glycodendrimers, glycopolymers, glyconanoparticles and glycoliposomes. We hope this review assists researchers in the design and development of novel multivalent glycans with predictable activities.

Advances in the Structural Design of Polyelectrolyte Complex Micelles

Polyelectrolyte complex micelles (PCMs) are a unique class of self-assembled nanoparticles that form with a core of associated polycations and polyanions, microphase-separated from neutral, hydrophilic coronas in aqueous solution. The hydrated nature and structural and chemical versatility make PCMs an attractive system for delivery and for fundamental polymer physics research. By leveraging block copolymer design with controlled self-assembly, fundamental structure-property relationships can be established to tune the size, morphology, and stability of PCMs precisely in pursuit of tailored nanocarriers, ultimately offering storage, protection, transport, and delivery of active ingredients. This perspective highlights recent advances in predictive PCM design, focusing on (i) structure-property relationships to target specific nanoscale dimensions and shapes and (ii) characterization of PCM dynamics primarily using time-resolved scattering techniques. We present several vignettes from these two emerging areas of PCM research and discuss key opportunities for PCM design to advance precision medicine.

Polymeric Delivery of Therapeutic Nucleic Acids

The advent of genome editing has transformed the therapeutic landscape for several debilitating diseases, and the clinical outlook for gene therapeutics has never been more promising. The therapeutic potential of nucleic acids has been limited by a reliance on engineered viral vectors for delivery. Chemically defined polymers can remediate technological, regulatory, and clinical challenges associated with viral modes of gene delivery. Because of their scalability, versatility, and exquisite tunability, polymers are ideal biomaterial platforms for delivering nucleic acid payloads efficiently while minimizing immune response and cellular toxicity. While polymeric gene delivery has progressed significantly in the past four decades, clinical translation of polymeric vehicles faces several formidable challenges. The aim of our Account is to illustrate diverse concepts in designing polymeric vectors towards meeting therapeutic goals of in vivo and ex vivo gene therapy. Here, we highlight several classes of polymers employed in gene delivery and summarize the recent work on understanding the contributions of chemical and architectural design parameters. We touch upon characterization methods used to visualize and understand events transpiring at the interfaces between polymer, nucleic acids, and the physiological environment. We conclude that interdisciplinary approaches and methodologies motivated by fundamental questions are key to designing high-performing polymeric vehicles for gene therapy.

Facile synthesis of GalNAc monomers and block polycations for hepatocyte gene delivery

Here, we present a facile synthetic route for a monomer displaying N-acetyl-d-galactosamine and subsequent copolymerization in a block format with cationic subunits readily accessing liver-targeted polymeric pDNA delivery vehicles with low toxicity.

Liver-targeted polymeric prodrugs of 8-aminoquinolines for malaria radical cure

Primaquine and tafenoquine are the two 8-aminoquinoline (8-AQ) antimalarial drugs approved for malarial radical cure - the elimination of liver stage hypnozoites after infection with Plasmodium vivax. A single oral dose of tafenoquine leads to high efficacy against intra-hepatocyte hypnozoites after efficient first pass liver uptake and metabolism. Unfortunately, both drugs cause hemolytic anemia in G6PD-deficient humans. This toxicity prevents their mass administration without G6PD testing given the approximately 400 million G6PD deficient people across malarial endemic regions of the world. We hypothesized that liver-targeted delivery of 8-AQ prodrugs could maximize liver exposure and minimize erythrocyte exposure to increase their therapeutic window. Primaquine and tafenoquine were first synthesized as prodrug vinyl monomers with self-immolative hydrolytic linkers or cathepsin-cleavable valine-citrulline peptide linkers. RAFT polymerization was exploited to copolymerize these prodrug monomers with hepatocyte-targeting GalNAc monomers. Pharmacokinetic studies of released drugs after intravenous administration showed that the liver-to-plasma AUC ratios could be significantly improved, compared to parent drug administered orally. Single doses of the liver-targeted, enzyme-cleavable tafenoquine polymer were found to be as efficacious as an equivalent dose of the oral parent drug in the P. berghei causal prophylaxis model. They also elicited significantly milder hemotoxicity in the humanized NOD/SCID mouse model engrafted with red blood cells from G6PD deficient donors. The clinical application is envisioned as a single subcutaneous administration, and the lead tafenoquine polymer also showed excellent bioavailability and liver-to-blood ratios exceeding the IV administered polymer. The liver-targeted tafenoquine polymers warrant further development as a single-dose therapeutic via the subcutaneous route with the potential for broader patient administration without a requirement for G6PD diagnosis.

Polycation Architecture and Assembly Direct Successful Gene Delivery: Micelleplexes Outperform Polyplexes via Optimal DNA Packaging

Cellular delivery of biomacromolecules is vital to medical research and therapeutic development. Cationic polymers are promising and affordable candidate vehicles for these precious payloads. However, the impact of polycation architecture and solution assembly on the biological mechanisms and efficacy of these vehicles has not been clearly defined. In this study, four polymers containing the same cationic poly(2-(dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate) (D) block but placed in different architectures have been synthesized, characterized, and compared for cargo binding and biological performance. The D homopolymer and its diblock copolymer poly(ethylene glycol)-block-poly(2-(dimethylamino) ethyl methacrylate) (OD) readily encapsulate pDNA to form polyplexes. Two amphiphilic block polymer variants, poly(2-(dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate)-block-poly(n-butyl methacrylate) (DB) and poly(ethylene glycol)-block-poly(2-(dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate)-block-poly(n-butyl methacrylate) (ODB), self-assemble into micelles, which template pDNA winding around the cationic corona to form micelleplexes. Micelleplexes were found to have superior delivery efficiency compared to polyplexes and detailed physicochemical and biological characterizations were performed to pinpoint the mechanisms by testing hypotheses related to cellular internalization, intracellular trafficking, and pDNA unpackaging. For the first time, we find that the higher concentration of amines housed in micelleplexes stimulates both cellular internalization and potential endosomal escape, and the physical motif of pDNA winding into micelleplexes, reminiscent of DNA compaction by histones in chromatin, preserves the pDNA secondary structure in its native B form. This likely allows greater payload accessibility for protein expression with micelleplexes compared to polyplexes, which tightly condense pDNA and significantly distort its helicity. This work provides important guidance for the design of successful biomolecular delivery systems via optimizing the physicochemical properties.

Acidic pH-Activated Gas-Generating Nanoparticles with Pullulan Decorating for Hepatoma-Targeted Ultrasound Imaging

Contrast-enhanced ultrasound (US) is a widely used imaging modality for hepatocellular carcinoma diagnosis. Mostly, US imaging is confined to the intravascular process because of the limitation of the microbubble contrast agent currently utilized. Targeted contrast agents that incline to accumulate in tumor tissue or tumor cells and enhance the US signal may advance the sensitivity of ultrasonography and exploit the dimension of US imaging of tumor at the molecular level. In this study, we developed CaCO₃/pul-PCB (CPP) hybrid nanoparticles with hepatoma-targeting pullulan decorating on the surface through a mineralization route using the pullulan- graft-poly(carboxybetaine methacrylate) (pul-PCB) copolymer as a modifier. This particle was stable in blood physiological pH and generated echogenic CO₂ bubbles under tumoral acidic conditions, which enabled the US signal enhancement. Upon intravenous injection, CPP hybrid nanoparticles accumulated efficiently in tumor tissue and exhibited sixfold contrast enhancement in 35 min at the tumor site in the hepatoma-bearing mice model. By contrast, there was barely any signal change in normal liver tissue. Therefore, the presented CPP hybrid nanoparticle is a promising contrast agent for effective US imaging of hepatoma.

Triplex Hybridization of siRNA with Bifacial Glycopolymer Nucleic Acid Enables Hepatocyte-Targeted Silencing

Herein, we describe a versatile non-covalent strategy for packaging nucleic acid cargo with targeting modalities, based on triplex hybridization of oligo-uridylate RNA with bifacial polymer nucleic acid (bPoNA). Polyacrylate bPoNA was prepared and side chain-functionalized with N-acetylgalactosamine (GalNAc), which is known to enable delivery to hepatocytes and liver via binding to the asialoglycoprotein receptor (ASGPR). Polymer binding resulted in successful delivery of both native and synthetically modified siRNAs to HepG2 cells in culture, yielding in low nanomolar IC50 silencing of the endogenous ApoB target, in line with observations of expected Dicer processing of the polymer-siRNA targeting complex. Indeed, in vitro Dicer treatment of the polymer complex indicated that triplex hybridization does not impede RNA processing and release from the polymer. The complex itself elicited a quiescent immunostimulation profile relative to free RNA in a cytokine screen, setting the stage for a preliminary in vivo study in a high-calorie-diet mouse model. Gratifyingly, we observed significant ApoB silencing in a preliminary animal study, validating bPoNA as an in vivo carrier platform for systemic siRNA delivery. Thus, this new siRNA carrier platform exhibits generally useful function and is accessible through scalable synthesis. In addition to its utility as a carrier, the triplex-hybridizing synthetic platform could be useful for optimization screens of siRNA sequences using the identical polymer carriers, thus alleviating the need for covalent ligand modification of each RNA substrate.

Oligo(serine ester) Charge-Altering Releasable Transporters: Organocatalytic Ring-Opening Polymerization and their Use for in Vitro and in Vivo mRNA Delivery

RNA technology is transforming life science research and medicine, but many applications are limited by the accessibility, cost, efficacy, and tolerability of delivery systems. Here we report the first members of a new class of dynamic RNA delivery vectors, oligo(serine ester)-based charge-altering releasable transporters (Ser-CARTs). Composed of lipid-containing oligocarbonates and cationic oligo(serine esters), Ser-CARTs are readily prepared (one flask) by a mild ring-opening polymerization using thiourea anions and, upon simple mixing with mRNA, readily form complexes that degrade to neutral serine-based products, efficiently releasing their mRNA cargo. mRNA/Ser-CART transfection efficiencies of >95% are achieved in vitro. Intramuscular or intravenous (iv) injections of mRNA/Ser-CARTs into living mice result in in vivo expression of a luciferase reporter protein, with spleen localization observed after iv injection.

Nonviral Gene Delivery with Cationic Glycopolymers

The field of gene therapy, which aims to treat patients by modulating gene expression, has come to fruition and has landed several landmark FDA approvals. Most gene therapies currently rely on viral vectors to deliver nucleic acid cargo into cells, but there is significant interest in moving toward chemical-based methods, such as polymer-based vectors, due to their low cost, immunocompatibility, and tunability. The full potential of polymer-based delivery systems has yet to be realized, however, because most polymeric transfection reagents are either too inefficient or too toxic for use in the clinic. In this Account, we describe developments in carbohydrate-based cationic polymers, termed glycopolymers, for enhanced nonviral gene delivery. As ubiquitous components of biological systems, carbohydrates are a rich class of compounds that can be harnessed to improve the biocompatibility of non-native polymers, such as linear polyamines used for promoting transfection. Reineke et al. developed a new class of carbohydrate-based polymers called poly(glycoamidoamine)s (PGAAs) by step-growth polymerization of linear monosaccharides with linear ethyleneamines. These glycopolymers were shown to be both efficient and biocompatible transfection reagents. Systematic modifications of the structural components of the PGAA system revealed structure-activity relationships important to its function, including its ability to degrade in situ. Expanding upon the development of step-growth glycopolymers, monosaccharides, such as glucose, were functionalized as vinyl-based monomers for the formation of diblock copolymers via radical addition-fragmentation chain-transfer (RAFT) polymerization. Upon complexation with plasmid DNA, the glucose-containing block creates a hydrophilic shell that promotes colloidal stability as effectively as PEG functionalization. An N-acetyl-d-galactosamine variant of this diblock polymer yields colloidally stable particles that show increased receptor-mediated uptake by liver hepatocytes in vitro and promotes liver targeting in mice. Finally, the disaccharide trehalose was incorporated into polycationic structures using both step-growth and RAFT techniques. It was shown that these trehalose-based copolymers imparted increased colloidal stability and yielded plasmid and siRNA polyplexes that resist aggregation upon lyophilization and reconstitution in water. The aforementioned series of glycopolymers use carbohydrates to promote effective and safe delivery of nucleic acid cargo into a variety of human cells types by promoting vehicle degradation, tissue-targeting, colloidal stabilization, and stability toward lyophilization to extend shelf life. Work is currently underway to translate the use of glycopolymers for safe and efficient delivery of nucleic acid cargo for gene therapy and gene editing applications.

Glycopolymers/PEI complexes as serum-tolerant vectors for enhanced gene delivery to hepatocytes

Serum stability is a crucial factor for ideal polymeric gene vectors. In this work, a series of serum-tolerant and low-toxicity glycopolymers/poly(ethyleneimine) (PEI) complexes were designed for gene delivery. Atomic transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) was used to synthesize the comb-shaped random copolymers dextran-g-poly(2-dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate-co-2-lactobionamidoethyl methacrylate) (DDrL). Then DDrLs/PEI were investigated for their use as plasmid DNA (pDNA) vectors, which can completely condense the pDNA into nanoparticles. The DDrLs/PEI/pDNA complexes in serum-containing media showed better stability than PEI/pDNA complexes. in vitro gene transfection studies showed that DDrLs/PEI exhibited a remarkable transfection efficiency enhancement in the presence of serum compared to that in serum-free conditions. Moreover, the transfection level of DDrLs/PEI were two orders of magnitude higher than that of PEI alone in the presence of 30% serum. DDrLs/PEI complexes with galactose enhanced pDNA delivery to hepatocytes, with higher protein expression in ASGPr-presenting HepG2 than in HeLa cells, which lack the receptor. All of the DDrLs/PEI/pDNA complexes had lower cytotoxicity than PEI/pDNA.

Different-Length Hydrazone Activated Polymers for Plasmid DNA Condensation and Cellular Transfection

The recent advances in genetic engineering demand the development of conceptually new methods to prepare and identify efficient vectors for the intracellular delivery of different nucleotide payloads ranging from short single-stranded oligonucleotides to larger plasmid double-stranded circular DNAs. Although many challenges still have to be overcome, polymers hold great potential for intracellular nucleotide delivery and gene therapy. We here develop and apply the postpolymerization modification of polyhydrazide scaffolds, with different degree of polymerization, for the preparation of amphiphilic polymeric vehicles for the intracellular delivery of a circular plasmid DNA. The hydrazone formation reactions with a mixture of cationic and hydrophobic aldehydes proceed in physiologically compatible aqueous conditions, and the resulting amphiphilic polyhydrazones are directly combined with the biological cargo without any purification step. This methodology allowed the preparation of stable polyplexes with a suitable size and zeta potential to achieve an efficient encapsulation and intracellular delivery of the DNA cargo. Simple formulations that performed with efficiencies and cell viabilities comparable to the current gold standard were identified. Furthermore, the internalization mechanism was studied via internalization experiments in the presence of endocytic inhibitors and fluorescence microscopy. The results reported here confirmed that the polyhydrazone functionalization is a suitable strategy for the screening and identification of customized polymeric vehicles for the delivery of different nucleotide cargos.

Development of Fully Degradable Phosphonium-Functionalized Amphiphilic Diblock Copolymers for Nucleic Acids Delivery

To expand the range of functional polymer materials to include fully hydrolytically degradable systems that bear bioinspired phosphorus-containing linkages both along the backbone and as cationic side chain moieties for packaging and delivery of nucleic acids, phosphonium-functionalized polyphosphoester- block-poly(l-lactide) copolymers of various compositions were synthesized, fully characterized, and their self-assembly into nanoparticles were studied. First, an alkyne-functionalized polyphosphoester- block-poly(l-lactide) copolymer was synthesized via a one pot sequential ring opening polymerization of an alkyne-functionalized phospholane monomer, followed by the addition of l-lactide to grow the second block. Second, the alkynyl side groups of the polyphosphoester block were functionalized via photoinitiated thiol-yne radical addition of a phosphonium-functionalized free thiol. The polymers of varying phosphonium substitution degrees were self-assembled in aqueous buffers to afford formation of well-defined core-shell assemblies with an average size ranging between 30 and 50 nm, as determined by dynamic light scattering. Intracellular delivery of the nanoparticles and their effects on cell viability and capability at enhancing transfection efficiency of nucleic acids (e.g., siRNA) were investigated. Cell viability assays demonstrated limited toxicity of the assembly to RAW 264.7 mouse macrophages, except at high polymer concentrations, where the polymer of high degree of phosphonium functionalization induced relatively higher cytotoxicity. Transfection efficiency was strongly affected by the phosphonium-to-phosphate (P+/P-) ratios of the polymers and siRNA, respectively. The AllStars Hs Cell Death siRNA complexed to the various copolymers at a P+/P- ratio of 10:1 induced comparable cell death to Lipofectamine. These fully degradable nanoparticles might provide biocompatible nanocarriers for therapeutic nucleic acid delivery.

Transfection efficiencies of α-tocopherylated cationic gemini lipids with hydroxyethyl bearing headgroups under high serum conditions

Liposomal gene transfection under high serum conditions.

Galactosylated polyaspartamide copolymers for siRNA targeted delivery to hepatocellular carcinoma cells

The limited efficacy of available treatments for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) requires the development of novel therapeutic approaches. We synthesized a novel cationic polymer based on α,β-poly-(N-2-hydroxyethyl)-d,L-aspartamide (PHEA) for drug delivery to HCC cells. The copolymer was synthesized by subsequent derivatization of PHEA with diethylene triamine (DETA) and with a polyethylene glycol (PEG) derivative bearing galactose (GAL) molecules, obtaining the cationic derivative PHEA-DETA-PEG-GAL. PHEA-DETA-PEG-GAL has suitable chemical-physical characteristics for a potential systemic use and can effectively deliver a siRNA (siE2F1) targeted against the transcription factor E2F1, a gene product involved in HCC. The presence of GAL residues in the polyplexes allows the targeting of HCC cells that express the asialo-glycoprotein receptor (ASGP-R). In these cells, but not in ASGP-R non-expressing cells, PHEA-DETA-PEG-GAL/siE2F1 polyplexes induce the reduction of the mRNA and protein levels of E2F1 and of E2F1-regulated genes, all involved in the promotion of the G1/S phase transition. This results in a decrease of cell proliferation with a G1/G0 phase cells accumulation. Notably, removal of GAL residue almost completely abrogates the targeting capacity of the developed polyplexes. In conclusion, the generated polyplexes demonstrate the potential to effectively contributing to the development of novel anti-HCC therapeutic approaches via a siRNA-targeted delivery.

Specific and Differential Binding of N-Acetylgalactosamine Glycopolymers to the Human Macrophage Galactose Lectin and Asialoglycoprotein Receptor

A range of glycopolymers composed of N-acetylgalactosamine were prepared via sequential Cu(I)-mediated polymerization and alkyne-azide click (CuAAC). The resulting polymers were shown, via multichannel surface plasmon resonance, to interact specifically with human macrophage galactose lectin (MGL; CD301) with high affinity (K_D = 1.11 μM), but they did not bind to the mannose/fucose-selective human lectin dendritic-cell-specific intercellular adhesion molecule-3-grabbing nonintegrin (DC-SIGN; CD209). The effect of sugar ligand valency on the binding (so-called "glycoside cluster effect") of poly(N-acetylgalactosamine) to MGL was investigated by varying first the polymer chain length (DP: 100, 64, 40, 23, 12) and then the architecture (4- and 8-arm star glycopolymers). The chain length did not have a significant effect on the binding to MGL (K_D = 0.17-0.52 μM); however, when compared to a hepatic C-type lectin of a similar monosaccharide specificity, the asialoglycoprotein receptor (ASGPR), the binding affinity was more noticeably affected (K_D = 0.37- 6.65 μM). These data suggest that known differences in the specific configuration/orientation of the carbohydrate recognition domains of MGL and ASGPR are responsible for the differences in binding observed between the different polymers of varied chain length and architecture. In the future, this model has the potential to be employed for the development of tissue-selective delivery systems.

Cationic glycopolymers through controlled polymerisation of a glucosamine-based monomer mimicking the behaviour of chitosan

A newly synthesised glucosamine-based monomer was able to undergo controlled polymerisation and retain amine functionality. The resulting polymer had mucoadhesive properties similar to chitosan.

Self-assembled core–shell-corona multifunctional non-viral vector with AIE property for efficient hepatocyte-targeting gene delivery

Core–shell-corona multifunctional nanoparticles were prepared and used for cell imaging and cell-targeting delivery of genes toward hepatocytes.

Isolation of multiantennary N-glycans from glycoproteins for hepatocyte specific targeting via the asialoglycoprotein receptor

The asialoglycoprotein receptor (ASGPR) expressed on parenchymal liver cells specifically binds multivalent carbohydrates from desialylated glycoproteins.