Climatic Influence on Temporal Trends of Polychlorinated Biphenyls and Organochlorine Pesticides in Landlocked Char from Lakes in the Canadian High Arctic

Temporal trends of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in Adèlie penguin (Pygoscelis adeliae) eggs from the Ross Sea (Antarctica), including their relationship with climate parameters

Temporal trends of contaminants represent an important tool to evaluate the effectiveness of chemical restriction measures. In this work, 50 eggs of Adèlie penguin (Pygoscelis adeliae) collected along the Ross Sea coasts from 1997 to 2021 were analysed for polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), hexachlorobenzene (HCB), p,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (p,p'-DDE), perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). Some PCB congeners showed a significantly decreasing trend, whereas HCB and p,p'-DDE indicated decreasing but not significant trends, potentially related to the unintentional production of HCB and ongoing use of DDT, even if a contribution from climate-driven remobilisation mechanisms may also play a role. PBDE-47 also indicated a decreasing but not significant trend, which might be explained by the more recent global restriction. PFAS trends agreed with what has been previously observed in the Arctic, i.e. significantly decreasing perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) according to its global ban and increasing long-chain perfluorinated carboxylic acids (PFCAs). Correlations with selected climate parameters showed an association between PBDE-47 and sampling year precipitations. To our knowledge, this work represents the longest time trend study of pollutants in penguins from the Ross Sea and the first one reporting PFAS. It highlights the importance of global regulations for the contaminant developments in polar ecosystems.

An overview on the legacy and risks of Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) and Organochlorinated Pesticides (OCPs) in the polar regions

Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) and Organochlorinated Pesticides (OCPs) are 'trapped' in a variety of environmental media and can therefore undergo further processing by geochemical cycles. By reviewing a wide range of research studies, we present and discuss the main progresses that affect legacy contaminants, such as migration and transformation processes, biological effects assessment across all Arctic media. PCBs and OCPs demonstrated an overall decreasing concentration trend over time in the Arctic. Ecological risk assessment was undertaken by comparison with two standards, suggesting that there was no ecological risk in either soil or sediment. The concentrations of HCB, ΣHCHs, ΣDDTs, chlordane, mirex, and ΣPCBs increased with trophic levels (TLs), showing a significant linear correlation (P < 0.001). The calculated trophic magnification factors (TMFs) values ranged from 0.0004 to 26.63, among which DDTs had the highest value. Future research need to focus on the long-term fate of PCBs and OCPs.

Ultraviolet absorbents and industrial antioxidants in seabirds, mammals, and fish from the Canadian Arctic

Ultraviolet (UV) absorbents and industrial antioxidants are two groups of plastic-derived contaminants of emerging environmental concern. However, their distribution and fate are poorly understood in Arctic wildlife. In the present study, 16 UV absorbents (10 benzotriazole UV stabilizers (BZT-UVs) and 6 organic UV filters (UVFs)) and 7 industrial antioxidants (6 aromatic secondary amines (Ar-SAs) and 2,6-di-tert-butylphenol (26DTBP)) were analyzed in the livers of thick-billed murre (Uria lomvia; n = 28), northern fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis; n = 4), black guillemot (Cepphus grylle; n = 11), polar bear (Ursus maritimus; n = 18), beluga whale (Delphinapterus leucas; n = 10), landlocked (n = 25) and sea-run (n = 10) Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus) from the Canadian Arctic collected between 2017 and 2021. Compared to industrial antioxidants (median range: ΣAr-SAs: not calculated due to detection frequency < 30 % (NA)-4.06 ng/g, wet weight (ww); 26DTBP: NA-1.91 ng/g ww), UV absorbents (median range: ΣBZT-UVs: NA-8.71 ng/g ww; ΣUVFs: NA-48.3 ng/g ww) generally showed greater concentrations in the liver of these species. Seabirds accumulated higher levels of these contaminants (median range: ΣBZT-UVs: 3.38-8.71 ng/g ww; ΣUVFs: NA-48.3 ng/g ww; ΣAr-SAs: 0.07-4.06 ng/g ww; 26DTBP: NA-1.14 ng/g ww)) than the other groups (median range: ΣBZT-UVs: NA-1.31 ng/g ww; ΣUVFs: NA-4.22 ng/g ww; ΣAr-SAs: NA; 26DTBP: NA-1.91 ng/g ww), suggesting that seabirds may be useful indicator species for future long-term monitoring. The livers of Arctic char in the Canadian Arctic generally contain lower levels of these contaminants than those of freshwater fish in temperate regions. Spatial variations were found in the liver of black guillemots, Hudson Bay polar bears, and landlocked char for some target contaminants, indicating differences in the levels of these contaminants in their surrounding environment or diet. Consumption of liver tissues from these species may expose humans to varying levels of UV absorbents and industrial antioxidants. This study establishes a baseline for future research of the spatial and temporal trends of these contaminants in Arctic species. It provides the basis for elucidating the fate of these contaminants and assessing their adverse effects at environmental-relevant concentrations in the Arctic. Factors influencing the accumulation patterns of these contaminants in Arctic biota and their potential health risks require further investigation.

A Decade of Global Atmospheric Monitoring Delivers Mixed Report Card on the Stockholm Convention

Time trends in atmospheric concentrations serve to evaluate how effective the Stockholm Convention is in reducing or eliminating environmental releases of persistent organic pollutants (POPs). Twelve years (2005-2016) of continuous monitoring with a global network of 20 sampling sites reveals that concentrations of the pesticide endosulfan began to drop coincident with its listing as POP in 2011. Concentrations of other POPs started to decrease prior to listing and during the sampling period declined very slowly or not at all. Concentrations of some unintentionally produced POPs (hexachlorobenzene, hexachlorobutadiene) increased to become the most abundant and most widely dispersed POPs in the global atmosphere. Their formation processes and release locations need to be identified to facilitate the Convention's goal of curbing releases from unintentional production.

Dechloranes and chlorinated paraffins in sediments and biota of two subarctic lakes

Our understanding of the environmental behavior, bioaccumulation and concentrations of chlorinated paraffins (CPs) and Dechloranes (Dec) in the Arctic environment is still limited, particularly in freshwater ecosystems. In this descriptive study, short chain (SCCPs) and medium chain (MCCPs) CPs, Dechlorane Plus (DP) and analogues, and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were measured in sediments, benthic organisms, three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus), Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus) and brown trout (Salmo trutta) in two Sub-Arctic lakes in Northern Norway. Takvannet (TA) is a remote lake, with no known local sources for organic contaminants, while Storvannet (ST) is situated in a populated area. SCCPs and MCCPs were detected in all sediment samples from ST with concentration of 42.26-115.29 ng/g dw and 66.18-136.69 ng/g dw for SCCPs and MCCPs, respectively. Only SCCPs were detected in TA sediments (0.4-5.28 ng/g dw). In biota samples, sticklebacks and benthic organisms showed the highest concentrations of CPs, while concentrations were low or below detection limits in both char and trout. The congener group patterns observed in both lakes showed SCCP profiles dominated by higher chlorinated congener groups while the MCCPs showed consistency in their profiles, with C14 being the most prevalent carbon chain length. Anti- and syn-DP isomers were detected in all sediment, benthic and stickleback samples with higher concentrations in ST than in TA. However, they were only present in a few char and trout samples from ST. Dec 601 and 604 were below detection limits in all samples in both lakes. Dec 603 was detected only in ST sediments, sticklebacks and 2 trout samples, while Dec 602 was the only DP analogue found in all samples from both lakes. While there were clear differences in sediment concentrations of DP and Dec 602 between ST and TA, differences between lakes decreased with increasing δ15N. This pattern was similar to the PCB behavior, suggesting the lake characteristics in ST are playing an important role in the lack of biomagnification of pollutants in this lake. Our results suggest that ST receives pollutants from local sources in addition to atmospheric transport.

Ocean current redistributed the currently using Organoamine Pesticides in Arctic summer water

In a comprehensive study on the presence and distribution of Currently Using Organoamine Pesticides (CUOAPs) in the Arctic Ocean, this study collected and analyzed 36 surface seawater samples during the summer of 2021. The study detected 36 CUOAPs, 17 of these compounds at levels exceeding the Method Detection Limits (MDLs). Concentrations of CUOAPs ranged from 0.11 to 2.94 ng/L, exhibiting an average of 1.83 ± 0.83 ng/L. Spatial distribution analysis revealed lower CUOAP concentrations in the central Arctic Ocean, with Cycloate constituting the most abundant component (23.66 %). The investigation identified terrestrial inputs and long-range atmospheric transport as potential sources of CUOAPs in the Arctic Ocean region. The origins of individual CUOAPs appeared to be associated with application procedures and their propensity for co-occurrence at low latitudes. The study also examined the role of ocean currents in the transport and redistribution of CUOAPs in surface seawater across different regions. While ocean currents played a significant role, the influence of sea ice cover on CUOAP distribution was minimal. An ecological risk assessment analysis underscored the need for regional attention to the presence of CUOAPs in the Arctic Ocean.

Persistent organic pollutants in air from Asia, Africa, Latin America, and the Pacific

In support of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) global monitoring plan under the Stockholm Convention concentrations of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) were determined during two years in air from 42 countries in Asia, Africa, Latin America, and the Pacific by using polyurethane foams installed in passive samplers. The compounds included were polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), polybrominated diphenylethers (PBDEs), one polybrominated biphenyl and hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) diastereomers. Total-DDT and PCBs were the highest in concentrations in about 50% of the samples, which shows their high persistency. Total DDT in air from the Solomon Islands ranged from 200 to 600 ng/polyurethane foam disk (PUF). However, at most locations, a decreasing trend is observed for PCBs, DDT and most other OCPs. Patterns varied per country with e.g. elevated dieldrin in air from Barbados and chlordane in air from the Philippines. A number of OCPs, such as heptachlor and its epoxides, some other chlordanes, mirex and toxaphene have decreased down to almost undetectable levels. PBB153 was hardly found and penta and octa--mix related PBDEs were also relatively low at most locations. HBCD and the decabromodiphenylether were more prominent at many locations and may even still increase. To draw more holistic conclusions more colder climate countries should be included in this program.

Assessing the contribution of global wildfire biomass burning to BaP contamination in the Arctic

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) have become cause for growing concern in the Arctic ecosystems, partly due to their stable levels despite global emission reduction. Wildfire is considered one of the primary sources that influence PAH levels and trends in the Arctic, but quantitative investigations of this influence are still lacking. This study estimates the global emissions of benzo[a]pyrene (BaP), a congener of PAHs with high carcinogenicity, from forest and grassland fires from 2001 to 2020 and simulates the contributions of wildfire-induced BaP emissions from different source regions to BaP contamination in the Arctic. We find that global wildfires contributed 29.3% to annual averaging BaP concentrations in the Arctic from 2001 to 2020. Additionally, we show that wildfires contributed significantly to BaP concentrations in the Arctic after 2011, enhancing it from 10.1% in 2011 to 83.9% in 2020. Our results reveal that wildfires accounted for 94.2% and 50.8% of BaP levels in the Asian Arctic during boreal summer and autumn, respectively, and 74.2% and 14.5% in the North American Arctic for the same seasons. The source-tagging approach identified that local wildfire biomass emissions were the largest source of BaP in the Arctic, accounting for 65.7% of its concentration, followed by those of Northern Asia (17.8%) and Northern North America (13.7%). Our findings anticipate wildfires to play a larger role in Arctic PAH contaminations alongside continually decreasing anthropogenic emissions and climate warming in the future.

Trends in hepatic cadmium concentrations in marine bird species from the Canadian Arctic

Cadmium (Cd) is a trace element of toxicological concern that has been monitored in marine birds inhabiting the Canadian Arctic since 1975. Despite nearly 50 years of monitoring, research to date has largely evaluated single species, locations, or time points, and there is as of yet no holistic overview that jointly considers all available Cd data. We addressed this information gap by combining and analyzing most of the existing data on hepatic Cd concentrations in marine birds from the Canadian Arctic. Using data collected between 1975 and 2018 from eight seabird species from 12 Arctic breeding colonies, we examined temporal, spatial, and interspecific variation in hepatic Cd levels, and we evaluated possible drivers of marine bird Cd loads. Hepatic Cd concentrations ranged from 1.6 to 124 μg/g dry weight across species, and were highest in thick-billed murres (Uria lomvia) and king eiders (Somateria spectabilis), and lowest in black guillemots (Cepphus grylle), black-legged kittiwakes (Rissa tridactyla), and long-tailed ducks (Clangula hyemalis). All sites with multiple years of data showed interannual fluctuations in Cd, which were correlated with the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) index and with the previous year's June sea ice coverage, where marine birds exhibited higher Cd concentrations in positive NAO years and following years with lower sea ice coverage. Climate change is likely to shift the NAO to being more negative and to reduce sea ice coverage, and our results thus identify various ways by which climate change could alter Cd concentrations in marine birds in the Canadian Arctic. Understanding variations in marine bird contaminant burdens, and how these may be alters by other stressors such as climate change, is important for long-term marine bird conservation efforts.

Exposure, but not timing of exposure, to a sulfonylurea herbicide alters larval development and behaviour in an amphibian species

Environmental contamination is one of the major causes of biodiversity loss. Wetlands are particularly susceptible to contamination and species inhabiting these habitats are subjected to pollutants during sensitive phases of their development. In this study, tadpoles of a widespread amphibian, the spined toad (Bufo spinosus), were exposed to environmental concentrations of nicosulfuron (0 μg/L; 0.15 ± 0.05 μg/L and 0.83 ± 0.04 μg/L), a sulfonylurea herbicide, during different phases of development. Tadpoles were exposed during embryonic (12.98 ± 0.90 days) or larval development (93.74± 0.85 days), or throughout both phases, and we quantified development duration, morphological traits and behavioural features as responses to exposure. Developing tadpoles exposed to nicosulfuron were larger, but with smaller body, and had shorter but wider tail muscles. They were also more active and swam faster than control tadpoles and showed diverging patterns of behavioural complexity. We showed that higher concentrations had greater effects on individuals than lower concentrations, but the timing of nicosulfuron exposure did not influence the metrics studied: Exposure to nicosulfuron triggered similar effects irrespective of the developmental stages at which exposure occurred. These results further indicate that transient exposure (e.g., during embryonic development) can induce long-lasting effects throughout larval development to metamorphosis. Our study confirms that contaminants at environmental concentrations can have strong consequences on non-target organisms. Our results emphasize the need for regulation agencies and policy makers to consider sublethal concentrations of sulfonulyrea herbicides, such as nicosulfuron, as a minimum threshold in their recommendations.

Metabolomic profiling to assess the effects of chlordanes and its bioaccumulation characteristics in chicken embryo

Although chlordane-related compounds (CHLs) have been regulated, a variety of CHLs are still identified and detected in wild birds and eggs. Embryo is one of fragile periods and is very susceptible to toxic effects of pollutants. In this study, the fate of CHLs during embryo development and degradation of CHLs in neonatal chick were investigated. During embryo development, CHLs were mainly distributed to the liver and muscle, in which trans-nonachlor and an octachlorochlordane (MC5) were hardly metabolized and showed the high persistence, implying a greater risk to birds' offspring. CHLs with the lower K_ow were found to be higher uptake efficiency in embryo, implying contaminants with the lower lipophilicity may contribute to their transport to embryo. Furthermore, the effects of CHLs on the metabolome of neonatal chicks was evaluated. The ether lipid metabolism and glycerophospholipid metabolism were found to be significantly affected, which may disturb the angiogenesis and endothelial cell migration in embryogenesis. Taken together, the lipophilicity of contaminants might be a main factor influencing their transport to embryo, and metabolomics results improve understanding of the effects of CHLs on embryo.

Influences of climate change on long-term time series of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in Arctic and Antarctic biota

Time series of contaminants in the Arctic are an important instrument to detect emerging issues and to monitor the effectiveness of chemicals regulation, based on the assumption of a direct reflection of changes in primary emissions. Climate change has the potential to influence these time trends, through direct physical and chemical processes and/or changes in ecosystems. This study was part of an assessment of the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP), analysing potential links between changes in climate-related physical and biological variables and time trends of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in Arctic biota, with some additional information from the Antarctic. Several correlative relationships were identified between POP temporal trends in freshwater and marine biota and physical climate parameters such as oscillation indices, sea-ice coverage, temperature and precipitation, although the mechanisms behind these observations remain poorly understood. Biological data indicate changes in the diet and trophic level of some species, especially seabirds and polar bears, with consequences for their POP exposure. Studies from the Antarctic highlight increased POP availability after iceberg calving. Including physical and/or biological parameters in the POP time trend analysis has led to small deviations in some declining trends, but did generally not change the overall direction of the trend. In addition, regional and temporary perturbations occurred. Effects on POP time trends appear to have been more pronounced in recent years and to show time lags, suggesting that climate-related effects on the long time series might be gaining importance.

The influence of global climate change on accumulation and toxicity of persistent organic pollutants and chemicals of emerging concern in Arctic food webs

This review summarizes current understanding of how climate change-driven physical and ecological processes influence the levels of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and contaminants of emerging Arctic concern (CEACs) in Arctic biota and food webs. The review also highlights how climate change may interact with other stressors to impact contaminant toxicity, and the utility of modeling and newer research tools in closing knowledge gaps on climate change-contaminant interactions. Permafrost thaw is influencing the concentrations of POPs in freshwater ecosystems. Physical climate parameters, including climate oscillation indices, precipitation, water salinity, sea ice age, and sea ice quality show statistical associations with POPs concentrations in multiple Arctic biota. Northward range-shifting species can act as biovectors for POPs and CEACs into Arctic marine food webs. Shifts in trophic position can alter POPs concentrations in populations of Arctic species. Reductions in body condition are associated with increases in levels of POPs in some biota. Although collectively understudied, multiple stressors, including contaminants and climate change, may act to cumulatively impact some populations of Arctic biota. Models are useful for predicting the net result of various contrasting climate-driven processes on POP and CEAC exposures; however, for some parameters, especially food web changes, insufficient data exists with which to populate such models. In addition to the impact of global regulations on POP levels in Arctic biota, this review demonstrates that there are various direct and indirect mechanisms by which climate change can influence contaminant exposure, accumulation, and effects; therefore, it is important to attribute POP variations to the actual contributing factors to inform future regulations and policies. To do so, a broad range of habitats, species, and processes must be considered for a thorough understanding and interpretation of the consequences to the distribution, accumulation, and effects of environmental contaminants. Given the complex interactions between climate change, contaminants, and ecosystems, it is important to plan for long-term, integrated pan-Arctic monitoring of key biota and ecosystems, and to collect ancillary data, including information on climate-related parameters, local meteorology, ecology, and physiology, and when possible, behavior, when carrying out research on POPs and CEACs in biota and food webs of the Arctic.

Metabolic activation mechanism of 2,2',3,3',6,6'-hexachlorobiphenyl (PCB136) by cytochrome P450 2B6: A QM/MM approach

Cytochrome P450 enzymes (CYPs) play an essential role in the bio-transformation of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). The present work implemented quantum mechanic/molecular mechanic methods (QM/MM) and density functional theory (DFT) to study the metabolic activation of 2,2',3,3',6,6'-hexachlorobiphenyl (PCB136) catalyzed by CYP2B6. Electrophilic additions at the C^α and C^β positions generate different active intermediates. The electrophilic addition energy barrier of C^β is 10.9 kcal/mol higher than that of C^α, and C^α is the preferred site for the electrophilic addition reaction. Based on the previous experimental studies, this work investigated the mechanism of converting active intermediates into OH-PCB136, which has high toxicity in a non-enzymatic environment. Structural analysis via the electrostatic and noncovalent interactions indicates that Phe108, Ile114, Phe115, Phe206, Phe297, Ala298, Leu363, Val367, TIP32475 and TIP32667 play crucial roles in substrate recognition and metabolism. The analysis suggests that the halogen-π interactions are important factors for the metabolism of CYP2B6 to halogenated environmental pollutants. This work improved the understanding of the metabolism and activation process of chiral PCBs, and can be used as a guide to improve the microbial degradation efficiency of PCB136.

Prioritization of Pesticides for Assessment of Risk to Aquatic Ecosystems in Canada and Identification of Knowledge Gaps

Pesticides can enter aquatic environments via direct application, via overspray or drift during application, or by runoff or leaching from fields during rain events, where they can have unintended effects on non-target aquatic biota. As such, Fisheries and Oceans Canada identified a need to prioritize current-use pesticides based on potential risks towards fish, their prey species, and habitats in Canada. A literature review was conducted to: (1) Identify current-use pesticides of concern for Canadian marine and freshwater environments based on use and environmental presence in Canada, (2) Outline current knowledge on the biological effects of the pesticides of concern, and (3) Identify general data gaps specific to biological effects of pesticides on aquatic species. Prioritization was based upon recent sales data, measured concentrations in Canadian aquatic environments between 2000 and 2020, and inherent toxicity as represented by aquatic guideline values. Prioritization identified 55 pesticides for further research nationally. Based on rank, a sub-group of seven were chosen as the top-priority pesticides, including three herbicides (atrazine, diquat, and S-metolachlor), three insecticides (chlorpyrifos, clothianidin, and permethrin), and one fungicide (chlorothalonil). A number of knowledge gaps became apparent through this process, including gaps in our understanding of sub-lethal toxicity, environmental fate, species sensitivity distributions, and/or surface water concentrations for each of the active ingredients reviewed. More generally, we identified a need for more baseline fish and fish habitat data, ongoing environmental monitoring, development of marine and sediment-toxicity benchmarks, improved study design including sufficiently low method detection limits, and collaboration around accessible data reporting and management.

Identification of Arctic Food Fish Species for Anthropogenic Contaminant Testing Using Geography and Genetics

The identification of food fish bearing anthropogenic contaminants is one of many priorities for Indigenous peoples living in the Arctic. Mercury (Hg), arsenic (As), and persistent organic pollutants including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are of concern, and these are reported, in some cases for the first time, for fish sampled in and around King William Island, located in Nunavut, Canada. More than 500 salmonids, comprising Arctic char, lake trout, lake whitefish, and ciscoes, were assayed for contaminants. The studied species are anadromous, migrating to the ocean to feed in the summers and returning to freshwater before sea ice formation in the autumn. Assessments of muscle Hg levels in salmonids from fishing sites on King William Island showed generally higher levels than from mainland sites, with mean concentrations generally below guidelines, except for lake trout. In contrast, mainland fish showed higher means for As, including non-toxic arsenobetaine, than island fish. Lake trout were highest in As and PCB levels, with salmonid PCB congener analysis showing signatures consistent with the legacy of cold-war distant early warning stations. After DNA-profiling, only 4–32 Arctic char single nucleotide polymorphisms were needed for successful population assignment. These results support our objective to demonstrate that genomic tools could facilitate efficient and cost-effective cluster assignment for contaminant analysis during ocean residency. We further suggest that routine pollutant testing during the current period of dramatic climate change would be helpful to safeguard the wellbeing of Inuit who depend on these fish as a staple input to their diet. Moreover, this strategy should be applicable elsewhere.

Hydroxylated polychlorinated biphenyls (OH-PCBs) exert strong inhibitory effects towards human carboxylesterases (CESs)

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) have been reported to pose a severe risk towards human health, and hydroxylated polychlorinated biphenyls (OH-PCBs) were potential substances basis for PCBs' toxicity. This study aims to determine the inhibition of OH-PCBs towards human carboxylesterases (CESs), including CES1 and CES2. For phenotypic analysis of CES1 and CES2 activity, we used the hydrolysis metabolism of 2-(2-benzoyl3-methoxyphenyl) benzothiazole (BMBT) and fluorescein diacetate (FD) catalyzed by human liver microsomes (HLMs) as the probe reactions. Preliminary inhibition screening showed that the inhibition potential of OH-PCBs towards CES1 and CES2 increased with the increased numbers of chlorine atoms in OH-PCBs. Both 2'-OH-PCB61 and 2'-OH-PCB65 showed concentration-dependent inhibition towards both CES1 and CES2. Lineweaver-Burk plots showed that 2'-OH-PCB61 and 2'-OH-PCB65 exerted non-competitive inhibition towards CES1 and competitive inhibition towards CES2. The inhibition kinetics parameters (Ki) were 6.8 μM and 7.0 μM for 2'-OH-PCB61 and 2'-OH-PCB65 towards CES1, respectively. The inhibition kinetics parameters (Ki) were 1.4 μM and 1.0 μM for 2'-OH-PCB61 and 2'-OH-PCB65 towards CES2, respectively. In silico docking methods elucidate the contribution of hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic contacts towards the binding of 2'-OH-PCB61 and 2'-OH-PCB65 with CES1 and CES2. All these results will provide a new perspective for elucidation of toxicity mechanism of PCBs and OH-PCBs.

Will Climate Change Influence Production and Environmental Pathways of Halogenated Natural Products?

Thousands of halogenated natural products (HNPs) pervade the terrestrial and marine environment. HNPs are generated by biotic and abiotic processes and range in complexity from low molecular mass natural halocarbons (nHCs, mostly halomethanes and haloethanes) to compounds of higher molecular mass which often contain oxygen and/or nitrogen atoms in addition to halogens (hHNPs). nHCs have a key role in regulating tropospheric and stratospheric ozone, while some hHNPs bioaccumulate and have toxic properties similar those of anthropogenic-persistent organic pollutants (POPs). Both chemical classes have common sources: biosynthesis by marine bacteria, phytoplankton, macroalgae, and some invertebrate animals, and both may be similarly impacted by alteration of production and transport pathways in a changing climate. The nHCs scientific community is advanced in investigating sources, atmospheric and oceanic transport, and forecasting climate change impacts through modeling. By contrast, these activities are nascent or nonexistent for hHNPs. The goals of this paper are to (1) review production, sources, distribution, and transport pathways of nHCs and hHNPs through water and air, pointing out areas of commonality, (2) by analogy to nHCs, argue that climate change may alter these factors for hHNPs, and (3) suggest steps to improve linkage between nHCs and hHNPs science to better understand and predict climate change impacts.

Influence of climate and biological variables on temporal trends of persistent organic pollutants in Arctic char and ringed seals from Greenland

Climate change may affect temporal trends of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in Arctic wildlife. We studied how biological and climate variables influence temporal trends of selected POP groups in landlocked Arctic char muscle and in ringed seal blubber from West and East Greenland. The variables included fish length or animal age, sex, a stable nitrogen isotope, sea ice extent, air or seawater temperature, salinity and the Arctic Oscillation Index (AOI). Model selection for multiple regression showed that the most important predictors varied among POP groups, species and region. Decreasing time trends were found for all POP groups with the exception of hexachlorobenzene (HCB) concentration which remained stable in Arctic char and ringed seals from West Greenland. When retained in the most parsimonious model, the AOI was positively associated with POP concentrations for East Greenland seals, but negatively for West Greenland seals. Seawater temperature and sea ice extent were positively associated with POP concentrations. The effects of explanatory variables on the annual rates of change in POP concentrations were relatively minor relative to the decline caused by reduction in POP emissions following national and international regulations introduced since the 1970s.

Multi-year assessment (2006-2015) of persistent organic pollutant concentrations in blubber and muscle from Western Arctic bowhead whales (Balaena mysticetus), North Slope, Alaska

Blubber and muscle were collected from male bowhead whales (n = 71) landed near Utqiaġvik (Barrow), Alaska, between 2006 and 2015 and analyzed for lipid content and concentrations of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in order to determine levels and trends over the collection period. Collection year was a significant predictor of blubber concentrations for most classes of POPs, while for a few classes, animal length (proxy for age) was also a significant predictor. This is the first report on levels of PBDEs in bowhead whales; concentrations of these compounds are low (≤55 ng/g wet weight). Blubber concentrations were lower than those reported in samples collected between 1992 and 2000, and many POP classes in blubber declined significantly between 2006 and 2015. Concentrations of POPs in bowhead whale tissues, which are subsistence foods for Native Alaskan communities, appear to be declining at rates comparable with previously reported temporal trends in Arctic biota.

Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) in Fish Consumed by the Indigenous Peoples from Nenets Autonomous Okrug

Currently, monitoring of persistent organic pollutant (POP) content in various biological and environmental matrixes in the Arctic is an urgent task. The present study focused on the determination of POPs such as: PCB#28, PCB#52, PCB#101, PCB#105, PCB#118, PCB#123, PCB#153, PCB#128, p,p’-DDE, o,p’-DDE, p,p’-DDD, o,p’-DDD, hexachlorobenzene (HCB), cis-nonachlor, trans-nonachlor, cis-chlordane, trans-chlordane, mirex, 1,2,3,5-tetrachlorobenzene and 1,2,4,5-tetrachlorobenzene in fish consumed by the indigenous people of the Nenets Autonomous Okrug (NAO) of the Russian Arctic. Fish samples were analyzed by gas chromatography triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS) using the multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) technique. The obtained results show that the major POPs in fish were dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) breakdown products and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) congeners. The ∑PCB8 in pink salmon, Arctic char, navaga, humpback whitefish and northern pike were 1.54, 1.58, 1.24, 0.72 and 0.32 ng/g (ww), respectively. The main PCB congeners maximum average medium concentrations were 0.68 ng/g (ww) and 0.51 ng/g (ww) of PCB#153 in navaga and PCB#128 in pink salmon, respectively. The main DDT breakdown product was p,p’-DDE. In Arctic char, pink salmon, navaga, humpback whitefish and northern pike, the concentration of p,p’-DDE was 0.58, 1.61, 0.49, 0.63 and 0.08 ng/g (ww), respectively. A moderate positive relationship between ∑PCB8 and lipid content and a high positive relationship between ∑DDT and lipid content were observed. In fish samples with fat content <0.5% (northern pike, humpback whitefish), the amount of analyzed POPs was 2 or more times lower than that in fish species with fat content >1% (pink salmon, Arctic char). Despite the large number of fish in the diet of indigenous peoples from NAO, no significant risks were identified. Most legacy POP and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) tend to decrease, which can be explained by past national and regional bans and restriction on their use and emission.

Snow Deposition and Melting as Drivers of Polychlorinated Biphenyls and Organochlorine Pesticides in Arctic Rivers, Lakes, and Ocean

Concurrent sampling of freshwater (lakes and rivers), seawater, snow, air, and zooplankton for a range of legacy polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) was undertaken in the Canadian High Arctic during ice-covered, melting, and ice-free conditions. Overall, there was a general trend of higher fluvial PCB/OCP concentrations associated with the spring snow melt (early-mid June), while much lower concentrations were detected during the snow-free season (end of July). In contrast, PCB concentrations in two Arctic lakes (West and East Lakes, Melville Island) and in ocean waters, sharply increased in the ice-free period, likely because of inputs from the ice/snow layer melting and river runoff. The resulting air-water fugacity ratios and fluxes followed a remarkable shift during the sampling campaign. PCBs and OCPs shifted from equilibrium during ice/snow-covered conditions toward a clear net volatilization of PCBs and most of the OCPs during snow/ice-free conditions. Differences in the bioaccumulation factor for PCB/OCPs in zooplankton between West and East Lakes were observed, likely because of zooplankton being exposed to more contaminated food in West Lake due to higher turbidity related to in-lake disturbances.

Climate influence on mercury in Arctic seabirds

The historic influence of interannual weather and climate variability on total mercury concentrations (THg) in the eggs of two species of Arctic seabird in the Canadian High Arctic was investigated. Time series of THg in the eggs of northern fulmars (Fulmarus glacialis) and thick-billed murres (Uria lomvia) from Prince Leopold Island span 40 years (1975-2014), making these among the longest time series available for contaminants in Arctic wildlife and uniquely suitable for evaluation of long-term climate and weather influence. We compiled a suite of weather and climate time series reflecting atmospheric (air temperature, wind speed, sea level pressure) and oceanic (sea surface temperature, sea ice cover) conditions, atmosphere-ocean transfer (snow and rain), as well as broad-scale teleconnection indices such as the Arctic Oscillation (AO) and North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO). We staggered these to the optimal time lag, then in a tiered approach of successive General Linear Models (GLMs), strategically added them to GLMs to identify possible key predictors and assess any main effects on THg concentrations. We investigated time lags of 0 to 10 years between weather/climate shifts and egg collections. For both fulmars and murres, after time lags of two to seven years, the most parsimonious models included NAO and temperature, and for murres, snowfall, while the fulmar model also included sea ice. Truncated versions of the datasets (2005-2014), reflective of typical time series length for THg in Arctic wildlife, were separately assessed and generally identified similar weather predictors and effects as the full time series, but not for NAO, indicating that longer time series are more effective at elucidating relationships with broad scale climate indices. Overall, the results suggest a significant and larger than expected effect of weather and climate on THg concentrations in Arctic seabirds.

Temporal trends, lake-to-lake variation, and climate effects on Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus) mercury concentrations from six High Arctic lakes in Nunavut, Canada

Climate warming and mercury (Hg) are concurrently influencing Arctic ecosystems, altering their functioning and threatening food security. Non-anadromous Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus) in small lakes were used to biomonitor these two anthropogenic stressors, because this iconic Arctic species is a long-lived top predator in relatively simple food webs, and yet population characteristics vary greatly, reflecting differences between lake systems. Mercury concentrations in six landlocked Arctic char populations on Cornwallis Island, Nunavut have been monitored as early as 1989, providing a novel dataset to examine differences in muscle [Hg] among char populations, temporal trends, and the relationship between climate patterns and Arctic char [Hg]. We found significant lake-to-lake differences in length-adjusted Arctic char muscle [Hg], which varied by up to 9-fold. Arctic char muscle [Hg] was significantly correlated to dissolved and particulate organic carbon concentrations in water; neither watershed area or vegetation cover explained differences. Three lakes exhibited significant temporal declines in length-adjusted [Hg] in Arctic char; the other three lakes had no significant trends. Though precipitation, temperature, wind speed, and sea ice duration were tested, no single climate variable was significantly correlated to length-adjusted [Hg] across populations. However, Arctic char Hg in Resolute Lake exhibited a significant correlation with sea ice duration, which is likely closely linked to lake ice duration, and which may impact Hg processing in lakes. Additionally, Arctic char [Hg] in Amituk Lake was significantly correlated to snow fall, which may be linked to Hg deposition. The lack of consistent temporal trends in neighboring char populations indicates that currently, within lake processes are the strongest drivers of [Hg] in char in the study lakes and potentially in other Arctic lakes, and that the influence of climate change will likely vary from lake to lake.

Trends of persistent organic pollutants in ringed seals (Phoca hispida) from the Canadian Arctic

Ringed seals (Phoca hispida) have been used as bioindicator species of environmental contamination in Canada since the 1970s. In the present study, seals were harvested during subsistence hunts in four regions of the Canadian Arctic: Beaufort Sea, Arctic Archipelago, Hudson Bay, and coastal Labrador. An extensive suite of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) was determined in seal blubber collected for multiple years between 1972 and 2016. Results from this long-term study indicate geographical differences in the contaminant concentrations in seals and the significant general decrease of most POPs, including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and related compounds, chlordanes (CHL), and hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCH) over time in ringed seals. The highest decrease rates (up to -9.1%/year for α-HCH) were found in seals from the Hudson Bay region where all chemicals investigated have significantly decreased since 1986. Significant increases in concentrations of hexachlorobenzene (HCB) in seals from Labrador and β-HCH in Sachs Harbour, NT and Arctic Archipelago were observed. Site-specific and contaminant-specific associations between climate pattern (i.e., Arctic Oscillation, North Atlantic Oscillation, and Pacific/North American pattern) and mean ice-coverage (total, first-year ice, and old-ice) were found at sites with the longest time trend data (i.e., Arviat, Sachs Harbour/Ulukhaktok and Resolute Bay). Overall, results suggest that North American and international regulations have led to the long-term reduction of most POPs in Canadian Arctic ringed seals by reducing emissions from primary sources. However, other sources of legacy compounds (e.g., environmental reservoirs) as well changes in food web composition and structure in relation to climate changes could also be influencing the very slow rates of decline, or stable levels, of contaminants found in seals at some sites. Further work is warranted to discern between co-variation of climate changes and contaminant concentrations and cause-and-effect relationships.

Climate Influence on Legacy Organochlorine Pollutants in Arctic Seabirds

Changing climate can influence the transport of chemical pollutants into Arctic regions and their fate once there. However, the influence of weather or climate variables on organochlorine accumulation in Arctic wildlife, including seabirds, and associated time scale are poorly understood. We assessed the interannual relationships between a suite of weather/climate variables for time lags of 0 to 10 yr and organochlorine pollutant concentrations spanning 1975-2014 in eggs of two seabird species (northern fulmar Fulmarus glacialis, thick-billed murre Uria lomvia) that breed in the Canadian High Arctic. The majority of variability in the data was associated with declining organochlorine emissions (up to 70.2% for murres and 77.4% for fulmars). By controlling for emissions using principal component ordination and general linear modeling, correlations with the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) were found for fulmars and with rainfall for murres, after a time lag of 4-9 yr between weather/climate conditions and egg collection. Our results suggest that with increasingly NAO+ conditions and increasing rainfall associated with climate change, concentrations of certain organochlorines such as hexachlorobenzene and p, p'-DDE have increased, dependent on seabird species and ecology as well as partitioning characteristics of the chemical. Analysis of a truncated version of the data sets (2005-2014), consistent with typical time series lengths for environmental pollutants in Arctic wildlife, found correlations with precipitation for murres but not with NAO for fulmars, suggesting that longer time series better elucidate relationships with broad-scale climate indices. Organochlorine pollutant data sets spanning 40 years, which is rare for Arctic wildlife, for two species of seabird were assessed, and the results highlight the association between weather/climate and pollutant accumulation in Arctic food webs and the critical role of ongoing monitoring to effectively elucidate these relationships.

Screening-level risk assessment of methylmercury for non-anadromous Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus)

Non-anadromous forms of Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus), those that are restricted to lakes and rivers, typically have higher mercury (Hg) concentrations than anadromous forms, which migrate to and from the sea. Using tissue burden data from the literature and our own analyses, we performed a screening-level risk assessment of methylmercury (MeHg) for non-anadromous Arctic char. Our assessment included 1569 fish distributed across 83 sites. Site-specific mean total Hg concentrations in non-anadromous Arctic char muscle varied considerably from 0.01 to 1.13 µg/g wet weight, with 21% (17 of 83 sites) meeting or exceeding a threshold-effect level in fish of 0.33 µg/g wet weight, and 13% (11 of 83 sites) meeting or exceeding a threshold-effect level in fish of 0.5 µg/g wet weight. Of the sites in exceedance of the 0.33-µg/g threshold, 7 were located in Greenland and 10 in Canada (Labrador, Nunavut, and Yukon). All but one of these sites were located in interfrost or permafrost biomes. Maximum total Hg concentrations exceeded 0.33 µg/g wet weight at 53% of sites (40 of the 75 sites with available maximum Hg values), and exceeded 0.5 µg/g wet weight at 27% (20 of 75 sites). Collectively, these results indicate that certain populations of non-anadromous Arctic char located mainly in interfrost and permafrost regions may be at risk for MeHg toxicity. This approach provides a simple statistical assessment of MeHg risk to non-anadromous Arctic char, and does not indicate actual effects. We highlight the need for studies that evaluate the potential toxic effects of MeHg in non-anadromous Arctic char, as well as those that aid in the development of a MeHg toxic-effect threshold specific to this species of fish. Environ Toxicol Chem 2019;38:489-502. © 2018 SETAC.

Temporal trends of persistent organic pollutants in Arctic marine and freshwater biota

More than 1000 time-series of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in Arctic biota from marine and freshwater ecosystems some extending back to the beginning of 1980s were analyzed using a robust statistical method. The Arctic area encompassed extended from Alaska, USA in the west to northern Scandinavian in the east, with data gaps for Arctic Russia and Arctic Finland. The aim was to investigate whether temporal trends for different animal groups and matrices were consistent across a larger geographical area. In general, legacy POPs showed decreasing concentrations over the last two to three decades, which were most pronounced for α-HCH and least pronounced for HCB and β-HCH. Few time-series of legacy POPs showed increasing trends and only at sites suspected to be influenced by local source. The brominated flame retardant congener BDE-47 showed a typical trend of increasing concentration up to approximately the mid-2000s followed by a decreasing concentration. A similar trend was found for perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS). These trends are likely related to the relatively recent introduction of national and international controls of hexa- and hepta-BDE congeners and the voluntary phase-out of PFOS production in the USA in 2000. Hexabromocyclododecane (HBCDD) was the only compound in this study showing a consistent increasing trend. Only 12% of the long-term time-series were able to detect a 5% annual change with a statistical power of 80% at α < 0.05. The remaining 88% of time-series need additional years of data collection before fulfilling these statistical requirements. In the case of the organochlorine long-term time-series, 45% of these would require >20 years monitoring before this requirement would be fulfilled.

Legacy and Emerging Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) in Terrestrial Compartments in the High Arctic: Sorption and Secondary Sources

Legacy persistent organic pollutants (POPs) such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), and emerging perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) were measured in vegetation and soil samples collected at remote lakes in the Canadian High Arctic. Field studies were carried out in 2015 and 2016 to assess concentrations of POPs, study the relevant sorbing phases, and determine whether Arctic soils were sinks or sources of legacy POPs to the atmosphere and to neighboring lakes. The patterns of legacy POPs in vegetation and soils were dominated by low molecular weight PCB congeners along with OCPs, confirming the importance of long-range atmospheric transport. Lipid and non-lipid organic matter was a key determinant of legacy POPs in Arctic vegetation. Soil organic matter was the main descriptor of hydrophobic PCBs and OCPs in soils, while soil inorganic carbon content, was an important driver of the sorption of PFASs in soils. While contaminant concentrations were low in soil and vegetation, higher PCBs and PFOS organic and inorganic carbon-normalized concentrations were found at Resolute Lake indicating the presence of local sources of contamination. Comparison of fugacities of PCBs in soil and air from Resolute Lake indicated soils as net sources of PCBs to the atmosphere.