Effect of Supplementing Diets of Anglo-Nubian Goats with Soybean and Flaxseed Oils on Lactational Performance

Effects of Different Technological Forms of the Perilla frutescens in the Diet on Ruminal Fermentation, Milk and Plasma Fatty Acid Composition, Ruminal Biohydrogenation and Milk Quality in Dairy Goats

BACKGROUND

Fatty acids can be protected by changing their structure or form against microbial activity, and the different forms of fatty acids can modulate the ruminal biohydrogenation rate and contribute to the desired fatty acid profile in milk fat.

OBJECTIVES

The study investigated the effects of perilla (Perilla frutescens) dietary supplementation in the diet in different technological forms (seed, oil and formaldehyde-treated oil) on milk, plasma and ruminal fatty acid composition, and milk quality in lactating goats.

METHODS

The four dietary treatments consisted of (1) no supplementation, basal diet (CON); (2) perilla supplementation as seed at 44.7 g/kg (consisting of 20 g/kg oil (PS)); (3) perilla supplementation as oil at 20 g/kg (PO); (4) perilla supplementation as formaldehyde treated oil at 20 g/kg (protected perilla oil [PPO]). The experiment was implemented in a double 4 × 4 Latin square trial design, and sampling was carried out for 7 days after 21 days of adaptation.

RESULTS

Performance parameters were not affected by P. frutescens supplementation to the diet. PO decreased milk fat, whereas PPO increased milk fat. Milk cholesterol was not affected by P. frutescens dietary supplementation. Perilla oil supplementation in different forms to the diet did not affect ruminal pH, VFA and methane production. Perilla oil supplementation in different forms to the diet did not also affect the concentration of blood serum glucose, cholesterol and non-esterified fatty acids. Perilla supplementation to the diet increased the milk conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), C18:3n-3, C22:5n-3, C20:5n-3, C22:6n-3 and polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) concentrations, and PPO group showed the greatest values. Ruminal palmitic (C16:0) acid was decreased, and in perilla groups, stearic acid (C18:0) concentration had the lowest, and ruminal c-9, t-11 CLA concentration had the highest value in PPO.

CONCLUSIONS

It has been found that the most effective form of perilla oil in increasing milk quality is that with formaldehyde treatment (protected form). Perilla oil, which is a rich source of omega 3 in the diet, can be used to increase milk quality in goats without adversely affecting performance, ruminal fermentation and blood parameters.

Partial replacement of corn with chocolate byproducts or protected fat in diets of early lactating Holstein cows: feed utilization and lactational performance

This study determined the effects of the partial replacement of corn with chocolate byproducts or protected fat on the performance of cows. Forty multiparous Holstein cows were assigned to four treatments in a completely randomized design for 90 d. The control diet was a complete diet containing 41.2% concentrate feed mixture, 41.2% corn silage, and 17.6% berseem hay. In the other experimental diets, each kg of crushed corn grain in the control diet (DM basis) was replaced with 600 g chocolate byproducts (CH), 400 g protected fat (PF), or 500 g of a mixture of chocolate byproducts and protected fat (1:1 DM basis) (CHPF). Both amounts of PF and CH had the same energy concentration as 1 kg of corn. The experimental treatments did not affect total intake; however, they increased (p < 0.001) daily production of milk, milk fat content, and feed efficiency. Moreover, treatments increased (p < 0.05) blood total protein, albumin, glucose, cholesterol, and triglyceride. The CH, PF, and CHPF treatments increased (p < 0.01) nutrient digestibility. It is concluded that replacing 1 kg of corn in the diet of lactating Holstein cows with PF at 400 g, followed by CHPF at 500 g, and CH at 600 g enhanced milk production and feed efficiency.

Sustainable utilization of unsaleable walnut kernel in substitution for corn grain in the diet of fattening lambs improves growth performance and meat quality

As a cost-effective typical co-product of walnut processing; this study aimed to investigate the effects of feeding poor quality, unsaleable walnut kernel, also known as wasted walnut (WW) kernel, on growth performance, carcass characteristics, meat quality and fatty acid (FA) composition of fattening lambs. The experiment was conducted using 24 fattening lambs (27 ±1.07 kg initial BW) assigned to two total mixed concentrate-based diets, over a 80-day experimental period on a completely randomized design. Dietary treatments were: 1) WW (10% WW), and 2) CON (without WW). Average daily and total gain, and final weight increased with WW inclusion (P < 0.05). Also, a significant enhancement in feed conversion ratio (P < 0.05) and carcass cooler shrink loss (P = 0.03) were observed by feeding WW. Dry matter intake (DMI) was not influenced by feeding WW as did carcass prime cuts, meat, bone and fat-tail; however, the backfat thickness was increased (P = 0.01). WW inclusion reduced cholesterol and increased protein load in muscle tissue (P ≤ 0.05). Moreover, this inclusion led to higher concentration of vaccenic acid (VA), conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) and C20 polyunsaturated FAs (PUFA), total n3 and n6 PUFA in muscle and fat-tail (P ≤ 0.05). Due to enhanced animal performance, also chemical and FA composition of muscle and adipose tissue, WW can be included in fattening lamb diets as a rich source of protein and PUFA.

Effect of Fish Oil and Linseed Oil on Intake, Milk Yield and Milk Fatty Acid Profile in Goats

This study aimed to evaluate the effect of incorporating linseed oil and fish oil in the diet on intake, ruminal fermentation, milk yield, and milk fatty acid profiles in dairy goats. Four crossbred Saanen lactating goats in mid-lactation and milking 1.30 ± 0.28 g/day were used in a 4 × 4 Latin square design. The basal diet contained concentrate and Para grass (C:F 40:60). Treatments included a basal diet without oil supplementation (Ctrl) or with 2.5% linseed oil (LO_2.5), 2.5% linseed oil and fish oil (3:2, w/w, LFO_2.5), and 4.16% linseed oil and fish oil (3:2, w/w, LFO_4.16). Diets had no effect on intake, milk yield, milk composition, or ruminal fermentation (p > 0.05). Compared with Ctrl, lower (p < 0.05) proportions of C10:0-C14:0 in milk fat were observed with LFO_4.16. Compared with the Ctrl and linseed oil added alone, feeding LFO_4.16 led to a greater (p < 0.01) concentration of C18:1 t11. Compared with both the Ctrl and LO_2.5 diets, milk c9,t11 CLA was 4.53 and 2.94 times greater with the LFO_4.16 diet. Compared with Ctrl and LO_2.5 diets (0.06% and 0.08%), goats fed LFO_2.5, and LFO_4.16 had greater (p < 0.001) concentrations of C22:6n-3 (0.63% and 0.87%). Overall, the combined data suggested that including 4.16% linseed oil and fish oil in the diet of dairy goats was effective in improving the concentrations of health-promoting fatty acids in milk without affecting milk production.

Chocolate byproducts and protected fats enriched with chromium to replace corn in diets of early lactation Holstein cows: feed utilization, blood profile, and lactational performance

The present experiment aimed to evaluate the partial replacement of corn with chocolate byproducts or protected fats in the diet of lactating cows on feed utilization, blood profile and lactation performance. Fifty multiparous Holstein cows (560±22 kg BW, 3±1 parity, 7±1 days in milk, and previous milk production of 34±3 kg/d), were randomly assigned to 5 treatments in a completely randomized design for 90 days. The control diet contained a concentrate feed mixture containing (per kg DM 412 g concentrate feed mixture, 412 g corn silage, and 176 g berseem hay). The control diet contained 17.6% crushed corn (DM basis). In another treatment, the control diet was supplemented with 1 g chromium daily (Chromium diet). In the other diets, each kg of crushed corn grain was replaced with 600 g chocolate byproducts (CH diet), 400 g protected fats (PF diet), or 500 g of chocolate byproducts and protected fats mixture (1:1 DM basis) (CHPF diet), DM basis, and each of the diets was also supplemented with 1 g chromium daily. Both amounts of protected fats and chocolate byproducts had the same energy concentration as 1 kg of corn. Without affecting feed intake, the replacement increased (P<0.01) milk production, milk fat concentration, and feed efficiency. The replacement (P<0.05) increased the concentrations of serum total proteins, albumin, glucose, cholesterol, triglyceride, and chromium in comparison with the control diet. Higher (P<0.001) nutrient digestibility was observed with CH, PF, and CHPF treatments. It is concluded that chromium supplementation did not affect feed utilization or cows performance; however, partial replacement of corn with chromium supplemented protected fat, chocolate byproducts or their mixture improved milk production and feed efficiency.

The enrichment of chocolate byproducts and protected fats with zinc to partially replace corn in diets of early lactation Holstein cows

The present experiment aimed to evaluate the effect of partial replacement of corn with chocolate byproducts, protected fats, or their mixture supplemented with zinc in the diet of lactating cows on feed utilization and lactation performance for 90 days. Fifty multiparous Holstein cows (565±25 kg BW, 3±1 parity, 7±1 days in milk, a previous milk production of 35±2.9 kg/d), were randomly assigned to 5 treatments in a completely randomized design. The control diet contained (per kg DM): 412 g concentrate feed mixture, 412 g corn silage, and 176 g berseem hay. The control diet was supplemented with 1 g of zinc daily (Zinc diet). In the other diets, each kg of crushed corn grain was replaced with (DM basis) 600 g chocolate byproducts (CH diet), 400 g protected fats (PF diet), or 500 g of chocolate byproducts and protected fats mixture (1:1 DM basis) (CHPF diet). Both amounts of protected fats and chocolate byproducts had the same energy concentration as 1 kg of corn. The total mixed ration was prepared and distributed using a horizontal mixer system after mixing for 20 min. Chemical analysis showed that the replacement minimally affected the composition of the total mixed rations. Additionally, treatments did not affect feed intake. Compared to the control treatment, the zinc treatment did not affect milk production, milk composition, or feed efficiency. Increased (P<0.05) daily production of milk and component yields, and feed efficiency as well as fat concentration were observed by the CH, PF and CHPF treatments. Without affecting other measured blood parameters or hematocrit, treatments increased (P<0.05) the concentrations of total proteins, albumin, glucose, cholesterol, triglyceride, and zinc in the blood of cows. Additionally, the CH, PF and CHPF treatments increased (P<0.01) the digestibility of nutrients compared to the control treatment. It is concluded that the addition of zinc to the control did not affect cow performance; however, its addition to chocolate byproducts, protected fats, or their mixture to partially replace corn improved the performance of cows.

Enhancing Milk Production by Nutrient Supplements: Strategies and Regulatory Pathways

The enhancement of milk production is essential for dairy animals, and nutrient supplements can enhance milk production. This work summarizes the influence of nutrient supplements-including amino acids, peptides, lipids, carbohydrates, and other chemicals (such as phenolic compounds, prolactin, estrogen and growth factors)-on milk production. We also attempt to provide possible illuminating insights into the subsequent effects of nutrient supplements on milk synthesis. This work may help understand the strategy and the regulatory pathway of milk production promotion. Specifically, we summarize the roles and related pathways of nutrients in promoting milk protein and fat synthesis. We hope this review will help people understand the relationship between nutritional supplementation and milk production.

Quality of milk fat obtained from cows and buffaloes fed a diet supplemented with flaxseed or soybean oils

The experiment was carried out to evaluate the quality of anhydrous milk fat (AMF) of cows and buffaloes supplemented with flaxseed oil (FO), soybean oil (SO), or their mixture (FSO). Lactating crossbred cows and buffaloes were fed with control diet or with one of three supplements: 2% FO, 2% SO, and 2% FSO according to a double 4 x 4 Latin Square Design. The diets with FO, SO, or FSO reduced saturated FA, mainly C4:0, C14:0 and C16:0, while increased the unsaturated FA C18:1 and C18:2 in milk from cows and buffaloes. Cholesterol content decreased in cow's AMF while increased in buffalo's AMF when a diet supplemented with FO, SO, or FSO. The diet with SO or FSO increased the content of vitamin E in AMF obtained from cows (25.06 and 17.89 mg 100 g-1) and buffaloes (28.48 and 30.32 mg 100 g-1) compared with the control diet (11.02 and 15.68 mg 100 g-1), respectively, which correlated positively with scavenging activity for DPPH• (r2 = 0.66) and ABTS• (r2 = 0.67) radicals. Solid fat content (SFC) was high for cow’s AMF, with 58.12-60.37% at 5°C compared to that of buffalo's AMF, with 52.37-56.98%, but was low for cow's AMF at >15°C. Finally, supplementing a diet with vegetable oils, particularly SO, improves the quality of AMF; increases USFA/SFA ratio, vitamin E content, and antioxidant activities

Milk yield and composition in dairy goats fed extruded flaxseed or a high-palmitic acid fat supplement

We compared the potential of dietary lipid supplements of different fatty acid compositions to affect milk performance when early lactation dairy goats were fed a high-concentrate diet. Thirty Alpine goats at 23 ± 5 d in milk were allocated to 1 of 10 blocks according to parity and milk fat concentration. Within each block, goats were randomly assigned to receive, during a period of 41 d, either CONT) a basal diet with a forage to concentrate ratio of 45:55, used as control, or PALM) the basal diet + 2% of a palmitic acid-enriched fat supplement, or FLAX) the basal diet + 7% of extruded flaxseed. Body weight, dry matter intake and milk yield were not different between treatments. As compared with CONT, goats fed PALM and FLAX had a greater milk fat concentration. Moreover, milk fat yield was numerically (but non-significantly) greater with PALM than with CONT. Milk fat from goats receiving PALM had a greater concentration of 16:0 as compared with CONT and FLAX, whereas a greater concentration of cis-9, cis-12, cis-15 18:3 was observed when goats were fed FLAX as compared with CONT and PALM. Under the conditions of the current experiment, dietary fat supplementation had only minor impacts on the yield of major milk constituents, with the exception of a modest increase in fat yield when goats were fed PALM. The impact of a greater concentration of 16:0 in milk fat of goats receiving this feed ingredient on the nutritive value of dairy products remains to be determined.

Using probiotics to improve the utilization of chopped dried date palm leaves as a feed in diets of growing Farafra lambs

The study determined the ability of three probiotics to improve the nutritional value of date palm leaves in diets of growing lambs. Twenty male Farafra lambs (26 ± 0.33 kg) were randomly allocated to one of four treatments (n = 6) and fed: a control or basal diet (C; 70% concentrate + 30% date palm leaves without additives) and supplemented with Bacillofort containing 2 × 1011 CFU of Bacillus subtilis/g (BAC treatment), Lacotpro containing 1 × 1012 CFU of Lactobacillus acidophilus/g (LAC treatment) or ZAD containing 6 × 108 CFU of R. albus/g (ZAD treatment) at 4 g of all additives for 150 days. As a result of this study, LAC improved (P < 0.05) growth performance and feed efficiency compared to control. Additives increased (P = 0.001) concentrations of albumin, triiodothyronine, and thyroxine, hemoglobin concentration and red blood cells and decreased (P = 0.001) globulin and urea-N. Additives increased hot carcass (P = 0.040) while BAC increased Longissimus dorsi, meat and fat without affecting water holding capacity compared to other treatments. In the metabolism experiment, BAC increased the digestibility of crude protein, while BAC and ZAD increased the digestibility of dry matter, organic matter, and neutral detergent fiber. Additives did not affect nitrogen (N) intake and urinary N; however, decreased fecal N and increased N balance compared to the control. BAC and ZAD increased ruminal volatile fatty acids concentration compared to the control. Based on our results, Lacotpro could be used to improve growth performance and feed efficiency, while Bacillofort could be used to improve meat quality of in lambs.

Producing natural functional and low-carbon milk by regulating the diet of the cattle-The fatty acid associated rumen fermentation, biohydrogenation, and microorganism response

Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) has drawn significant attention in the last two decades for its various potent beneficial effects on human health, such as anticarcinogenic and antidiabetic properties. CLA could be generally found in ruminant products, such as milk. The amount of CLA in ruminant products mainly depends on the diet of the animals. In general, the fat content in the ruminant diet is low, and dietary fat supplementation can be provided to improve rumen activity and the fatty acid (FA) profile of meat and milk. Especially, dietary 18-carbon polyunsaturated FA (C18 PUFA), the dominant fat source for ruminants, can modify the milk FA profile and other components by regulating the ruminal microbial ecosystem. In particular, it can improve the CLA in milk, intensify the competition for metabolic hydrogen for propionate producing pathways and decrease methane formation in the rumen. Therefore, lipid supplementation appears to be a promising strategy to naturally increase the additional nutritional value of milk and contribute to lower methane emissions. Meanwhile, it is equally important to reveal the effects of dietary fat supplementation on rumen fermentation, biohydrogenation (BH) process, feed digestion, and microorganisms. Moreover, several bacterial species and strains have been considered to be affected by C18 PUFA or being involved in the process of lipolysis, BH, CLA, or methane emissions. However, no review so far has thoroughly summarized the effects of C18 PUFA supplementation on milk CLA concentration and methane emission from dairy cows and meanwhile taken into consideration the processes such as the microorganisms, digestibility, rumen fermentation, and BH of dairy cattle. Therefore, this review aims to provide an overview of existing knowledge of how dietary fat affects rumen microbiota and several metabolic processes, such as fermentation and BH, and therefore contributes to functional and low-carbon milk production.

Blood thyroid hormones, insulin and leptin, metabolites and enzymes in transition dairy ewes, as affected by dietary linseed and physiological stage

This study investigated the effects of dietary linseed and physiological state on blood concentrations of some metabolic hormones and indicators, in transition dairy ewes. From 21 d before lambing to 60 d post-partum, ewes were provided with one of three isoenergetic and iso‑nitrogenous pelleted concentrates, without (CTR, n = 21), or with 100 (EL-10, n = 22) or 200 g/kg (EL-20, n = 22) of extruded linseed. Animals were fed alfalfa hay ad libitum and had access to mixed pasture. Plasma thyroid hormones and insulin concentrations were not affected by diet and significantly changed by time. The last week of pregnancy T3 (2.27 ± 0.15 ng/mL) and T4 (102.63 ± 2.85 ng/mL) were lower than at 4 weeks before lambing (T3: 3.27 ± 0.27 ng/mL; T4: 125.89 ± 2.63 ng/mL). After lambing, T3 rose to be highest at 4 and 8 weeks of lactation (3.41 ± 0.22). Mean insulin peaked 2 weeks after lambing (0.31 ± 0.02 ng/mL) vs. late pregnancy (0.22 ± 0.01 ng/mL) and progressing lactation (0.18 ± 0.01 ng/mL). Plasma Leptin concentration (2.43 ± 0.03 ng/mL) was not affected by diet nor time. All the blood metabolites and enzymes investigated showed significant time x treatment interaction. Differences of several haematological parameters were found in EL vs. CTR (cholesterol, triglycerides, total protein, bilirubin, ALP, ALT), however, in most cases the values were fairly within the reference physiological ranges. Metabolic hormones are confirmed to be mainly linked to the different physiological states, energy intake and variations of energy balance, without clear effects by different sources of energy and quality of dietary lipids.

Flaxseed added to the diet of Alpine goats affects the nutrients intake and blood parameters

The flaxseed is a nutraceutical food used as a source of α-linolenic acid, which can bring benefits to the health of mammals. This study was carried out to examine the effect of flaxseed inclusion in the diets on the intake of nutrients, body weight, and blood parameters of Alpine goats. Twenty-one adult females with an initial average weight of 41.06 ± 1.84 kg were used in a completely randomized design, with four experimental treatments (0, 5, 10, and 15% of flaxseed in the total diet) and five replications per treatment. The intake of the dry matter presented a decreasing linear effect (P < 0.001), with a reduction of 53.5% between the control diet (0% of flaxseed) and 15% of flaxseed, but no effect was observed on weight gain (P > 0.05). Inclusion of flaxseed from 0 to 15% linearly decreased the intakes of organic matter, crude protein, non-fibrous carbohydrates, and neutral detergent fiber, but increased the ether extract intake (P < 0.001). Regarding plasma concentration traits, increasing the flaxseed levels from 0 to 15% had linear positive effect on LDL, VLDL, and triglycerides (P < 0.05), but no effect on cholesterol, HDL, glucose, creatinine, and urea (P > 0.05). The inclusion of flaxseed in the diet for 80 days changes the nutrients intake and blood parameters but shows no impact on body weight. However, further studies are required to determine the impact of flaxseed on the goat's health in the long term since there has been an increase in the concentration of triglycerides, LDL, and VLDL.

Effects of conjugated linoleic acid on growth performance, nutrient digestibility and blood biochemical indexes of male sika deer (Cervus nippon)

ContextConjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is very important for animals and humans. CLA has many important biological functions, such as reducing fat and increasing muscle, antioxidation, improving immunity and so on. CLA requirements for deer have not been established.AimsA single-factor test was conducted to evaluate the effects of CLA supplementation on male sika deer.MethodsSixteen deer were divided in four groups (from G0 to G3) of four animals, each according to their bodyweight. Deer in G0 were fed a basal diet without CLA supplementation. Deer in G1, G2 and G3 were fed diets supplemented with CLA at concentrations of 0.25%, 0.5% and 1.0%. Growth performance, nutrient digestibility and blood biochemical indexes were measured.Key resultsThe results suggested that the average daily gain of deer increased with conjugated linoleic acid supplementation (P&lt;0.05); maximal growth performance was seen in G2. The average daily feed intake showed differences among the treatments (P&lt;0.01). The highest average daily feed intake was observed in Group G2. Feed to gain ratio (F:G) in Groups G1, G2 and G3 was different from that in Group G0 (P&lt;0.01). The digestibility of crude protein and ether extract was increased by conjugated linoleic acid concentrations (P&lt;0.05). The alkaline phosphatase activity showed a significant increase (P&lt;0.05) in Groups G2 and G3, compared with Group G0. There were significant differences in cholesterol between G1 and G2 groups (P&lt;0.05).ConclusionsThe results indicated that conjugated linoleic acid supplementation to diet plays a positive role in the growth of sika deer.ImplicationsThis experiment has shown the effects of dietary supplementation with CLA in sika deer breeding. It has layed a good foundation for the application of CLA supplementation in sika deer industry to promote the healthy development of sika deer breeding industry.

Dietary strategies to enrich milk with healthy fatty acids – a review

Feed is the main factor impacting the composition and quality of milk of dairy animals. Therefore, the present review explores the effects of feed and nutrition on milk fat content and levels of healthy fatty acids (FA) in milk consumed by humans. Milk and dairy products are two main sources of healthy and unhealthy FA in human nutrition. The concentrations of FA in milk depend mainly on diets; therefore, milk FA concentrations and ratios can be greatly altered by some feeding strategies. Dietary supplementation of the diets of dairy livestock with vegetable seeds or oils, microalgae and phytogenic feed additives, and feeding of some grasses can enhance the contents of healthy FA, including n-3 FA, α-linolenic acid, conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) and, generally, unsaturated FA in milk and dairy products. Enrichment of milk with healthy FA may make milk a source of anticarcenogens (CLA and polyphenols) for human health. This review, therefore, focusses on the current research findings on enrichment of milk with healthy FA and summarizes some effective supplementation strategies to alter milk FA profile.

Chlorella vulgaris microalgae in Ruminant Nutrition: a Review of the Chemical Composition and Nutritive Value

Recently, microalgae, natural marine resources, have gained increasing interests as a feed for animals. Chlorella vulgaris microalgae are single-cell microorganisms that have been used to provide nutrition to humans and animals for centuries. In the present review, we unveil the composition and nutritive value of C. vulgaris microalgae as a feed for ruminants. Research has shown that inclusion of C. vulgaris microalgae in diets improved feed utilization, milk production and quality, growth performance, and meat quality in ruminants, as a result of improved diet nutritive value. Very low doses of C. vulgaris in feed enhance growth and lactational performance of ruminants. Additionally, C. vulgaris showed very promising results as an alternative to corn and soybean meal; however, it is an expensive protein feed. Therefore, the main constraint to use of C. vulgaris as a feedstuff is its high cost of production, making improvement of cultivation technology to reduce the production costs a critical issue in the near future.

Chlorella vulgaris Microalgae and Copper Mixture Supplementation Enhanced the Nutrient Digestibility and Milk Attributes in Lactating Boer Goats

Thirty-two lactating Boer goats (35.2 ± 1.4 kg body weight) were grouped into control and three treatment groups in completely randomised design. In treatment groups, supplementation was done as a mixture of 5 g Chlorella vulgaris + 4.5 mg of supplemental Cu/kg diet from CuSO4 (Alg5 treatment), 10 g C. vulgaris + 9 mg of supplemental Cu/kg diet (Alg10 treatment), or a mixture of 15 g C. vulgaris + 13.5 mg of supplemental Cu/kg diet (Alg15 treatment). Treatments did not affect feed intake; however, Alg10 treatment increased (P<0.001) nutrient digestibility. Treatments did not affect ruminal pH, ammonia-N, butyrate; however, the Alg10 treatment increased (P<0.01) ruminal total volatile fatty acids, propionate and acetate concentrations. Without affecting other blood measurements, the Alg10 treatment quadratically increased (P<0.001) serum glucose and Cu. The Alg10 treatments increased (P<0.001) daily milk production and the concentration of fat, and enhanced milk (feed) efficiency. The Alg10 treatment decreased (P<0.05) milk saturated fatty acids and the atherogenic index, and increased the proportions of total conjugated linoleic acids, C18:1n9t, odd fatty acids and total unsaturated fatty acids compared with the control treatment. Present study concluded that inclusion of a mixture of 10 g C. vulgaris + 9 mg Cu/kg diet in the diet of lactating Boer goats enhanced nutrient digestibility, ruminal fermentation, milk production, feed efficiency as well as milk nutritive value. Increasing the dose of the mixture to 15 g C. vulgaris + 13.5 mg Cu/kg diet is not recommended in the diet of lactating Boer goats.

Influence of flaxseed with rumen undegradable protein level on milk yield, milk fatty acids and blood metabolites in transition ewes

An experiment was conducted to determine the effects of two levels of rumen undegradable protein (RUP) without or with whole or extruded flaxseed on milk yield, milk component, milk fatty acids (FAs) profile and plasma metabolites in transition ewes. Three weeks before and after lambing, seventy-two Baluchi ewes were used in a completely randomized design with a 3 × 2 factorial arrangement of treatments. The treatments contained 1) no flaxseed + 20% RUP (no flaxseed, low RUP [NFLR]); 2) no flaxseed + 40% RUP (no flaxseed, high RUP [NFHR]); 3) 10% whole flaxseed + 20% RUP (whole flaxseed, low RUP [WFLR]); 4) 10% whole flaxseed + 40% RUP (whole flaxseed, high RUP [WFHR]); 5) 10% extruded flaxseed + 20% RUP (extruded flaxseed, low RUP [EFLR]), and 6) 10% extruded flaxseed + 40% RUP (extruded flaxseed, high RUP [EFHR]). Ewes fed 10% extruded flaxseed exhibited higher (p < 0.001) dry matter intake (DMI) and colostrum yield (p < 0.1) compared to other treatments. Two types of flaxseed and RUP levels had no significant effect on milk yield, but milk fat and protein contents decreased and increased in diets containing 40% RUP, respectively. Ewes fed extruded flaxseed produced milk with lower concentrations of saturated fatty acids (SFA) and higher α-linolenic and linoleic acids and also polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) compared to other groups (p < 0.05). During post-lambing, the ewes fed diets containing flaxseed exhibited higher concentration of serum non-esterified FAs (NEFA) compared to diets without flaxseed (p < 0.01). The concentration of serum β-hydroxybutyric acid (BHBA) decreased in the diets containing flaxseed types at pre-lambing, but increased in diets containing extruded flaxseed at post-lambing (p < 0.01). The serum glucose concentration of ewes (pre and post-lambing) which consumed diets containing extruded flaxseed or 40% RUP increased, but blood urea concentration was elevated following supplementation of diet with whole flaxseed or 40% RUP (p < 0.001). In conclusion, utilization of 10% extruded flaxseed in the diets of transition ewes had positive effects on animal performance with favorable changes in milk FAs profile. However, there is no considerable advantage to supply more than 20% RUP level in the diet of transition dairy sheep.

Performance and Milk Composition of Nubian Goats as Affected by Increasing Level of Nannochloropsis oculata Microalgae

Fat supplementation affects the lactational performance of goats and dramatically changes milk nutritive value. In the present experiment, two levels of Nannochloropsis oculata microalgae, a natural source of rumen-protected eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), were studied in the diet of Nubian goats. Using quintuplicated 3 × 3 Latin square design, fifteen lactating goats, (14 ± 2 months old and 33.0 ± 1.3 kg) after kidding, were randomly assigned into three treatments in an 84-d assay. Goats were offered a basal diet comprising berseem clover, wheat straw and concentrates in 3:2:5, respectively, (control treatment-no supplementation). The other two treatments were supplemented with N. oculata microalgae at 5 g (NOM5 treatment) or 10 g (NOM10 treatment)/doe/d. Without affecting intake, treatments improved (p < 0.01) nutrient digestibility. Supplementations had no effect on ruminal pH and ammonia-nitrogen, however, NOM5 and NOM10 linearly improved (p < 0.05) total volatile fatty acids and propionic acids. N. oculata supplementation linearly increased (p < 0.01) milk yield and lactose content. Supplementation reduced atherogenic index (p = 0.004) and enhanced the concentrations of unsaturated fatty acids and C20:5n3 (EPA). Conclusively, feeding Nubian goats on diet supplemented with N. oculata at 5 and 10 g improved milk production and the nutritive value. No improvements in the performance were observed when N. oculata dose was increased from 5 g to 10 g/doe; thus, 5 g dose is recommended for use.

Nutritional Indices for Assessing Fatty Acids: A Mini-Review

Dietary fats are generally fatty acids that may play positive or negative roles in the prevention and treatment of diseases. In nature, fatty acids occur in the form of mixtures of saturated fatty acid (SFA), monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA), and polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), so their nutritional and/or medicinal values must be determined. Herein, we do not consider the classic indices, such as ∑SFA, ∑MUFA, ∑PUFA, ∑n-6 PUFA, ∑n-3 PUFA, and n-6 PUFA/n-3 PUFA; instead, we summarize and review the definitions, implications, and applications of indices used in recent years, including the PUFA/SFA, index of atherogenicity (IA), the index of thrombogenicity (IT), the hypocholesterolemic/hypercholesterolemic ratio (HH), the health-promoting index (HPI), the unsaturation index (UI), the sum of eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid (EPA + DHA), fish lipid quality/flesh lipid quality (FLQ), the linoleic acid/α-linolenic acid (LA/ALA) ratio, and trans fatty acid (TFA). Of these nutritional indices, IA and IT are the most commonly used to assess the composition of fatty acids as they outline significant implications and provide clear evidence. EPA + DHA is commonly used to assess the nutritional quality of marine animal products. All indices have their advantages and disadvantages; hence, a rational choice of which to use is critical.

Chlorella vulgaris microalgae and/or copper supplementation enhanced feed intake, nutrient digestibility, ruminal fermentation, blood metabolites and lactational performance of Boer goat

The associative effects of Chlorella vulgaris microalgae and copper (Cu) supplementation on feed utilisation and lactational performance in goats were evaluated. Thirty-two lactating Boer goats (34.8 ± 1.7 kg body weight) were used to evaluate the supplementation of C. vulgaris microalgae at 10 g/day (AL treatment), 9 mg of Cu/kg diet (CU treatment) or a mixture of both AL and CU treatments (ALCU treatment) on feed intake, nutrient digestibility, ruminal fermentation, blood metabolites and lactation performance of Boer goat milk yield and composition. Treatments did not affect feed intake; however, AL, ALCU and CU treatments increased (p < .001) nutrient digestibility. Treatment effect on ruminal pH, ammonia-N or propionate was marginal, but AL and ALCU treatments increased (p < .01) acetate, acetate/propionate ratio and total volatile fatty acids. Treatments increased (p < .001) serum glucose and Cu concentrations. Additionally, ALCU and AL treatments increased (p < .001) daily milk yield, energy corrected milk production, concentrations of ash, energy content, fat, lactose, solids not fat, total solids and milk (feed) efficiency. Conversely, the CU treatment decreased (p < .001) the concentration of all milk components, without affecting milk (feed) efficiency. Additionally, AL and ALCU treatments decreased (p < .05) the concentrations of saturated fatty acids by 2.4% and 4%, respectively, but increased (p < .05) the concentrations of total unsaturated fatty acids (UFAs) by 5.4% and 9.8%, respectively, mono-UFA by 5.2% and 9.8%, respectively, and conjugated linoleic acid concentrations by 9.3% and 7.4% respectively. In conclusion, supplementation of the diet of lactating Boer goats with C. vulgaris microalgae with or without copper enhanced nutrient digestibility, ruminal fermentation, milk production, milk efficiency and milk nutritive value. Copper supplementation had minimal effects; therefore, its use as a supplement in the presence of C. vulgaris microalgae to the diet of lactating Boer goats is recommended.

Rubber seed oil and flaxseed oil supplementation alter digestion, ruminal fermentation and rumen fatty acid profile of dairy cows

Rubber seed oil (RO) that is rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids (FA) can improve milk production and milk FA profiles of dairy cows; however, the responses of digestion and ruminal fermentation to RO supplementation in vivo are still unknown. This experiment was conducted to investigate the effect of RO and flaxseed oil (FO) supplementation on nutrients digestibility, rumen fermentation parameters and rumen FA profile of dairy cows. Forty-eight mid-lactation Holstein dairy cows were randomly assigned to one of four treatments for 8 weeks, including basal diet (CON) or the basal dietary supplemented with 4% RO, 4% FO or 2% RO plus 2% FO on a DM basis. Compared with CON, dietary oil supplementation improved the total tract apparent digestibility of DM, neutral detergent fibre and ether extracts ( P < 0.05). Oil treatment groups had no effects on ruminal digesta pH value, ammonia N and microbial crude protein ( P > 0.05), whereas oil groups significantly changed the volatile fatty acid (VFA) profile by increasing the proportion of propionate whilst decreasing total VFA concentration, the proportion of acetate and the ratio of acetate to propionate ( P < 0.05). However, there were no differences in VFA proportions between the three oil groups (P > 0.05). In addition, dietary oil supplementation increased the total unsaturated FA proportion in the rumen by enhancing the proportion of trans-11 C18:1 vaccenic acid (VA), cis-9, trans-11 conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) and α-linolenic acid (ALA) ( P < 0.05). These results indicate that dietary supplementation with RO and FO could improve nutrients digestibility, ruminal fermentation and ruminal FA profile by enhancing the VA, cis-9, trans-11 CLA and ALA composition of lactating dairy cows. These findings provide a theoretical basis for the application of RO in livestock production.

Sunflower Oil and Nannochloropsis oculata Microalgae as Sources of Unsaturated Fatty Acids for Mitigation of Methane Production and Enhancing Diets' Nutritive Value

The objective of this assay was to investigate the effect of adding sunflower oil, Nannochloropsis oculata microalgae and their mixture at 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5% to three total mixed rations (TMRs) with different concentrate:forage ratios (40C:60F, 50C:50F, and 60C:40F) on in vitro gas production (GP), methane (CH₄) production, and nutrient degradability. Asymptotic GP, GP rate, CH₄ concentration/g acid detergent fiber (ADF), dry matter (DM) degradability (DMD), short chain fatty acids (SCFAs), and ruminal bacteria population increased, but neutral detergent fiber (NDF) degradability (NDFD), ADF degradability (ADFD), and protozoa count decreased with increasing concentrate level in the TMR. Methane production/g DM and NDF was higher for 50C:50F TMR. Sunflower oil reduced asymptotic GP, lag time, CH₄ production/g ADF, ammonia-N (NH₃-N), and SCFA. Compared to the control treatments, additives decreased GP rate, while sunflower oil/N. oculata mixture increased DMD and NDFD. All additives at 5% increased GP rate and lag time and decreased CH₄ production/g DM, ADF, and NDF, ruminal NH₃-N, and protozoa count. All additives at 2% increased DMD, NDFD and ADFD, SCFA, and bacteria population. Supplementation of TMR, containing different concentrate:forage ratios, with sunflower oil, N. oculata, and sunflower oil/N. oculata mixture at different doses modified in vitro GP, CH₄ production, and nutrient degradability.

Milk Technological Properties as Affected by Including Artichoke By-Products Silages in the Diet of Dairy Goats

Traditional farming practices include the use of local agricultural by-products in the diet of ruminants. Artichoke harvesting and transformation yield high amounts of by-products that, if properly used, may reduce farming costs and the environmental impact of farming. The present study tests the inclusion of silages from artichoke by-products (plant and outer bracts) in the diet of dairy goats (0%, 12.5% and 25% inclusion) on the technological and sensory properties of milk during a five-month study. Milk composition, color, stability, coagulation and fermentation properties remained unaffected by diet changes. Panelists were not able to differentiate among yogurts obtained from those milks by discriminant triangular sensory tests. Silages of artichoke by-products can be included in isoproteic and isoenergetic diets for dairy goats, up to a 25% (feed dry matter), without negatively affecting milk technological and sensory properties whereas reducing feeding costs.

Effects of replacement of Moringa oleifera for berseem clover in the diets of Nubian goats on feed utilisation, and milk yield, composition and fatty acid profile

Replacement of conventional feedstuffs with cheap non-conventional ingredients may improve livestock performance and the quality of their products, particularly milk. The study considered the effects of Moringa oleifera (MO) foliage in replacement of berseem clover (BC) on feed utilisation and lactational performance in Nubian goats. A total of 16 lactating Nubian does, weighing 36.2±0.8 kg, were randomly assigned to four experimental treatments containing 0, 125, 250 and 375 g of MO per kg diet to replace 0 (M0), 25 (M25), 50 (M50) and 75% (M75) of BC (on dry matter (DM) basis) in a quadruplicated 4×4 Latin square design. The MO diets increased (P<0.01) feed intake and nutrient digestibility. Feeding MO diets improved (P<0.01) ruminal volatile fatty acids, acetate and propionate but reduced (P<0.01) valerate and iso-butyrate. Moringa diets increased (P<0.01) serum total protein, albumin and glucose but decreased (P<0.05) cholesterol and triglycerides. Milk yield and energy corrected milk, and milk total solids, fat and energy content were increased (P<0.01) in MO diets. Yields of milk components and energy were greater (P<0.05) for MO diets than for control diet. Milk total saturated fatty acids and athrogenicity index were lower (P<0.01), and unsaturated fatty acids, conjugated fatty acids and UFA/SFA ratio higher (P<0.05) for MO diets. It is concluded that feeding MO to replace 75% DM of BC improved feed utilisation, ruminal fermentation, and milk yield and quality in lactating Nubian goats.