Metabolism of T-2 Toxin in Farm Animals and Human In Vitro and in Chickens In Vivo Using Ultra High-Performance Liquid Chromatography- Quadrupole/Time-of-Flight Hybrid Mass Spectrometry Along with Online Hydrogen/Deuterium Exchange Technique

Exploring the relationship between daily intake and urinary excretion of the mycotoxins T-2 and HT-2 toxin in humans

T-2 toxin (T-2) and HT-2 toxin (HT-2) are mycotoxins that can contaminate food, especially cereals. Exposure to T-2 and HT-2 has mainly been estimated using dietary exposure assessment, however, human biomonitoring presents another valuable approach. The relationship between daily intake and urinary excretion of T-2 and HT-2 over time in 40 Norwegian adults was modelled. T-2, HT-2 and T-2 triol were analysed in 24-h urine samples using LC-MS/MS. Dietary exposure of T-2 and HT-2 was calculated using 24-h weighed dietary records and concentration data in food derived from measured concentrations in raw food commodities. A statistical model was developed and fit to estimate the excreted fraction (fabs_excr) and residence time parameters. Without deconjugation prior to analysis, T-2, HT-2 or T-2 triol were not detected in the urine of the 40 adults. Applying a deconjugation step, total HT-2 (HT-2 and its glucuronides) was detected in almost all samples. Using the statistical model, the mean fabs_excr was estimated to be 0.184, equivalent to 18.4 %. The estimated time in which 97.5 % of the ingested T-2 and HT-2 was excreted as total HT-2 was 14.3 h, and the elimination half-life was 4.0 h. This study highlights the challenges involved in modelling the relationship between daily intake and urinary excretion of T-2 and HT-2 over time in humans. The findings indicate that approximately 20 % of the external exposure can be traced back in the urine within 24 h. However, additional research is required to support and strengthen these findings.

Quantification and metabolic variations of mycotoxins in raw milk: Implications for dairy cow health and human safety

This study established a method using ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem MS for the quantitative analysis of 9 harmful mycotoxins: zearalenone (ZEN), α-zearalanol, HT-2 toxin, T-2 toxin, ochratoxin A, fumonisin B1, deoxynivalenol, aflatoxin M1, and aflatoxin B1 in raw milk. The method exhibited good linearity, sensitivity, accuracy, and precision, making it suitable for trace analysis of these toxins in raw milk. We applied this method to analyze 200 raw milk samples from Heilongjiang Province, China, and found that they contained multiple mycotoxins, with a relatively high concentration of ZEN. To further explore the metabolism of these mycotoxins in dairy cows, we conducted a metabolic study on 12 lactating dairy cows. The results showed significant metabolic changes among the 9 mycotoxins, with ZEN demonstrating notably higher metabolic conversion rates compared with other mycotoxins in the transitions from feed to serum, from feed to milk, and from feed to feces. These findings provide new insights into the safety of raw milk and emphasize the importance of strict monitoring and regulation of these toxins in dairy products to protect human health. Simultaneously, we believe that future research should delve deeper into the metabolism of mycotoxins in dairy cows, which is crucial for ensuring public health safety.

T-2 Toxin Nephrotoxicity: Toxic Effects, Mechanisms, Mitigations, and Future Perspectives

T-2 toxin is a highly toxic fungal toxin that threatens humans and animals' health. As a major detoxifying and metabolic organ, the kidney is also a target of T-2 toxin. This article reviews T-2 toxin nephrotoxicity research progress, covering renal structure and function damage, nephrotoxicity mechanisms, and detoxification methods to future research directions. T-2 toxin damages kidney structure, causing renal dysfunction. The nephrotoxicity mechanism of T-2 toxin involves multiple factors including oxidative stress, endoplasmic reticulum stress, mitophagy, inflammatory responses, and apoptosis, which are intertwined and interdependent. Current detoxification strategies mainly involve reducing T-2 toxin in feedstuff and using antioxidant substances, but both have limits. Future research should focus on renal cells sensitivity to T-2 toxin, exploring key molecules in T-2 toxin's nephrotoxicity, renal injury's impact on other organs, and better detoxification methods. This review aims to guide future research and underpin T-2 toxin-induced nephrotoxicity prevention and treatment.

Identification of Biotransformation Products of T-2 Toxin in HepG2 Cells Using LC-Q-TOF MS

The T-2 toxin (T-2) is a type A trichothecene found in cereals. The formation of metabolites is a frequent cause of mycotoxin-induced toxicity. In this work, the conversion of T-2 during biotransformation reactions in HepG2 cells was evaluated. For this, HepG2 cells were exposed to 30 (IC50/2) and 60 (IC50) nM of T-2 for 0, 1, 2, 3, 6, 8 and 24 h, and the concentrations of T-2 and its metabolites HT-2, T2-triol, T2-tetraol and neosolaniol were determined in both the cell fraction and culture medium through liquid chromatography coupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry-time of flight (LC-Q-TOF MS). Results showed a fast metabolization of T-2 (>90%) during the first 2 h, with HT-2 as its main (>95%) biotransformation product. The cell fraction showed higher levels (p < 0.05) of HT-2 (39.9 ± 2.1 nM) compared to the culture medium (12.53 ± 2.4 nM). This trend was also observed for the identified metabolites. T2-triol reached its maximum concentration (1.7 ± 0.4 nM) at 2 h, and at later times a time-dependent increase in the T2-tetraol and neosolaniol concentrations was observed. The identification of T-2 metabolites shows the need to continue combined toxicity studies of mycotoxins for a correct risk characterization of these natural contaminants.

Pathological consequences, metabolism and toxic effects of trichothecene T-2 toxin in poultry

Contamination of feed with mycotoxins has become a severe issue worldwide. Among the most prevalent trichothecene mycotoxins, T-2 toxin is of particular importance for livestock production, including poultry posing a significant threat to animal health and productivity. This review article aims to comprehensively analyze the pathological consequences, metabolism, and toxic effects of T-2 toxin in poultry. Trichothecene mycotoxins, primarily produced by Fusarium species, are notorious for their potent toxicity. T-2 toxin exhibits a broad spectrum of negative effects on poultry species, leading to substantial economic losses as well as concerns about animal welfare and food safety in modern agriculture. T-2 toxin exposure easily results in negative pathological consequences in the gastrointestinal tract, as well as in parenchymal tissues like the liver (as the key organ for its metabolism), kidneys, or reproductive organs. In addition, it also intensely damages immune system-related tissues such as the spleen, the bursa of Fabricius, or the thymus causing immunosuppression and increasing the susceptibility of the animals to infectious diseases, as well as making immunization programs less effective. The toxin also damages cellular processes on the transcriptional and translational levels and induces apoptosis through the activation of numerous cellular signaling cascades. Furthermore, according to recent studies, besides the direct effects on the abovementioned processes, T-2 toxin induces the production of reactive molecules and free radicals resulting in oxidative distress and concomitantly occurring cellular damage. In conclusion, this review article provides a complex and detailed overview of the metabolism, pathological consequences, mechanism of action as well as the immunomodulatory and oxidative stress-related effects of T-2 toxin. Understanding these effects in poultry is crucial for developing strategies to mitigate the impact of the T-2 toxin on avian health and food safety in the future.

Overview of T-2 Toxin Enterotoxicity: From Toxic Mechanisms and Detoxification to Future Perspectives

Fusarium species produce a secondary metabolite known as T-2 toxin, which is the primary and most harmful toxin found in type A trichothecenes. T-2 toxin is widely found in food and grain-based animal feed and endangers the health of both humans and animals. T-2 toxin exposure in humans and animals occurs primarily through food administration; therefore, the first organ that T-2 toxin targets is the gut. In this overview, the research progress, toxicity mechanism, and detoxification of the toxin T-2 were reviewed, and future research directions were proposed. T-2 toxin damages the intestinal mucosa and destroys intestinal structure and intestinal barrier function; furthermore, T-2 toxin disrupts the intestinal microbiota, causes intestinal flora disorders, affects normal intestinal metabolic function, and kills intestinal epidermal cells by inducing oxidative stress, inflammatory responses, and apoptosis. The primary harmful mechanism of T-2 toxin in the intestine is oxidative stress. Currently, selenium and plant extracts are mainly used to exert antioxidant effects to alleviate the enterotoxicity of T-2 toxin. In future studies, the use of genomic techniques to find upstream signaling molecules associated with T-2 enterotoxin toxicity will provide new ideas for the prevention of this toxicity. The purpose of this paper is to review the progress of research on the intestinal toxicity of T-2 toxin and propose new research directions for the prevention and treatment of T-2 toxin toxicity.

T-2 toxin induces cardiotoxicity by activating ferroptosis and inhibiting heme oxygenase-1

T-2 toxin, a natural secondary sesquiterpenoid metabolite produced by numerous strains of Fusarium fungi, is prevalent in both contaminated food and the environment. T-2 toxin is known to be highly toxic to the cardiovascular system, but the precise mechanisms that lead to T-2 toxin-induced cardiotoxicity are not yet fully understood. Recent findings indicate that ferroptosis is a pivotal factor in cardiovascular damage and exhibits a strong correlation with the detrimental impacts of T-2 toxin. The present study was designed to examine the involvement of ferroptosis in T-2 toxin-induced cardiac injury. Male mice and human cardiomyocytes were subjected to T-2 toxin for 24 h to induce acute cardiotoxicity for in vivo and in vitro studies, respectively. Our results demonstrated that T-2 toxin increased reactive oxygen species production, malondialdehyde, and decreased glutathione/oxidized glutathione and adenosine triphosphate levels. Furthermore, T-2 toxin was observed to activate ferroptosis, as evidenced by an increase in iron (Fe2+) concentration and upregulation of prostaglandin endoperoxide synthase 2, downregulation of glutathione peroxidase 4 and ferritin heavy chain 1, as well as ferroptotic morphological alterations. Inhibition of ferroptosis by Liproxstatin-1 reversed T-2 toxin-induced cardiac injury. Additionally, the downregulation of heme oxgenase-1 (HO-1) expression by T-2 toxin exacerbates ferroptosis and oxidative damage, which can be further aggravated by HO-1 inhibition with Sn-protoporphyrin. These findings provide novel insights into the mechanism of T-2 toxin-induced cardiotoxicity and suggest that targeting ferroptosis and HO-1 may represent a promising cardioprotective strategy against T-2 toxin.

T-2 Toxin Induces Kidney Fibrosis via the mtROS-NLRP3-Wnt/β-Catenin Axis

T-2 toxin causes kidney fibrosis. Wnt/β-catenin signaling promotes kidney fibrosis when sustained and activated. However, whether T-2-induced kidney fibrosis involves Wnt/β-catenin signaling activation has not been explored yet. T-2 toxin causes renal mitochondrial damage, leading to mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mtROS) overproduction and NLRP3-inflammasome activation. The activated NLRP3-inflammasome can mediate fibrosis. However, whether the NLRP3-inflammasome can be mediated by mtROS and further regulate T-2-induced kidney fibrosis through Wnt/β-catenin signaling is unclear. In this study, first, we confirmed that T-2 toxin caused Wnt/β-catenin signaling activation in mice kidneys and HK-2 cells. Second, we confirmed that mtROS activated the NLRP3-inflammasome in T-2-exposed mice kidneys and HK-2 cells. Third, we confirmed that the NLRP3-inflammasome regulated the Wnt/β-catenin signaling in T-2 toxin-exposed mice kidneys and HK-2 cells. Finally, we confirmed that Wnt/β-catenin signaling regulated fibrosis in T-2 toxin-exposed mice kidneys and HK-2 cells. The above results confirm that T-2 toxin induces kidney fibrosis via the mtROS-NLRP3-Wnt/β-catenin axis.

Advances in the study of liver microsomes in the in vitro metabolism and toxicity evaluation of foodborne contaminants

Foodborne contaminants are closely related to anthropologic activities and represent an important food safety hazard. The study of metabolic transformation and toxic side effects of foodborne contaminants in the body is important for their safety assessment. Liver microsomes contain a variety of enzymes related to substance metabolism and biotransformation. An in vitro model simulating liver metabolic transformation is associated with a significant advantage in the study of the metabolic transformation mechanisms of contaminants. This review summarizes the recent progress in the application of liver microsomes in metabolic transformation and toxicity evaluation of various foodborne pollutants based on metabolic kinetics, molecular docking and enzyme inhibition studies. The purpose of this review is to distinguish the existing studies involving liver microsomes and provide strategies for their application in the future. Finally, the prospects and challenges of the liver microsomal model are discussed.

Assessment of information as regards the toxicity of T-2 and HT-2 toxin for ruminants

In 2011, the EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM) adopted a Scientific Opinion on the risks for animal health related to the presence of T-2 (T2) and HT-2 (HT2) toxin in food and feed. No observed adverse effect levels (NOAELs) and lowest observed adverse effect levels (LOAELs) were derived for different animal species. In ruminants a LOAEL was established for the sum of T2 and HT2 of 0.3 mg/kg body weight (bw) per day, based on studies with calves and lambs. The CONTAM Panel noted that the effects observed in nutritionally challenged heifers and ewes give rise to the assumption that rumen detoxification of T2 may not always be complete and therefore effective to prevent adverse effects in ruminants. However, the limited data on the effects of T2 on adult ruminants did not allow a conclusion. The European Commission requested EFSA to review the information regarding the toxicity of T2 and HT2 for ruminants and to revise, if necessary, the established Reference Point (RP). Adverse effect levels of 0.001 and 0.01 mg T2/kg bw per day for, respectively, sheep and cows, were derived from case studies, estimated to correspond to feed concentrations of 0.035 mg T2/kg for sheep and 0.6 mg T2/kg for cows. RPs for adverse animal health effects of 0.01 mg/kg feed for sheep and 0.2 mg/kg feed for cows were established. For goats, the RP for cows was selected, in the absence of data that they are more sensitive. Based on mean exposure estimates performed in the previous Opinion, the risk of adverse health effects of feeds containing T2 and HT2 was considered a concern for lactating sheep. For milking goats, a comparison performed between dietary exposure and the RP derived for cows, indicates a potential risk for adverse health effects. For dairy cows and fattening beef, the risk is considered low.

Toxicity and detoxification of T-2 toxin in poultry

This review summarizes the updated knowledge on the toxicity of T-2 on poultry, followed by potential strategies for detoxification of T-2 in poultry diet. The toxic effects of T-2 on poultry include cytotoxicity, genotoxicity, metabolism modulation, immunotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, gastrointestinal toxicity, skeletal toxicity, nephrotoxicity, reproductive toxicity, neurotoxicity, etc. Cytotoxicity is the primary toxicity of T-2, characterized by inhibiting protein and nucleic acid synthesis, altering the cell cycle, inducing oxidative stress, apoptosis and necrosis, which lead to damages of immune organs, liver, digestive tract, bone, kidney, etc., resulting in pathological changes and impaired physiological functions of these organs. Glutathione redox system, superoxide dismutase, catalase and autophagy are protective mechanisms against oxidative stress and apoptosis, and can compensate the pathological changes and physiological functions impaired by T-2 to some degree. T-2 detoxifying agents for poultry feeds include adsorbing agents (e.g., aluminosilicate-based clays and microbial cell wall), biotransforming agents (e.g., Eubacterium sp. BBSH 797 strain), and indirect detoxifying agents (e.g., plant-derived antioxidants). These T-2 detoxifying agents could alleviate different pathological changes to different degrees, and multi-component T-2 detoxifying agents can likely provide more comprehensive protection against the toxicity of T-2.

T-2 Toxin Induces Apoptotic Cell Death and Protective Autophagy in Mouse Microglia BV2 Cells

T-2 toxin exposure could cause neurotoxicity; however, the precise molecular mechanisms remain unclear. In the present study, we investigated T-2 toxin-induced cytotoxicity and underlying molecular mechanisms using a mouse microglia BV2 cell line. The results show that T-2 toxin treatment-induced cytotoxicity of BV2 cells was dose- and time-dependent. Compared to the control, T-2 toxin treatment at 1.25–5 ng/mL significantly increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and triggered oxidative stress. T-2 toxin treatment also caused mitochondrial dysfunction in BV2 cells, which was evidenced by decreased mitochondrial transmembrane potential, upregulated expression of Bax protein, and decreased expression of Bcl-2 protein. Meanwhile, T-2 toxin treatment upregulated the expression of cleaved-caspase-3, cleaved-PARP-1 proteins, and downregulated the expression of HO-1 and nuclear Nrf2 proteins, finally inducing cell apoptosis in BV2 cells. N-acetylcysteine (NAC) supplementation significantly attenuated T-2 toxin-induced cytotoxicity. Moreover, T-2 toxin treatment activated autophagy and upregulated autophagy flux, and the inhibition of autophagy significantly promoted T-2 toxin-induced cell apoptosis. Taken together, our results reveal that T-2 toxin-induced cytotoxicity in BV2 cells involves the production of ROS, the activation of the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway, and the inhibition of the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway. Our study offers new insight into the underlying molecular mechanisms in T-2 toxin-mediated neurotoxicity.

T-2 toxin and its cardiotoxicity: New insights on the molecular mechanisms and therapeutic implications

T-2 toxin is one of the most toxic and common trichothecene mycotoxins, and can cause various cardiovascular diseases. In this review, we summarized the current knowledge-base and challenges as it relates to T-2 toxin related cardiotoxicity. The molecular mechanisms and potential treatment approaches were also discussed. Pathologically, T-2 toxin-induced cardiac toxicity is characterized by cell injury and death in cardiomyocyte, increased capillary permeability, necrosis of cardiomyocyte, hemorrhage, and the infiltration of inflammatory cells in the heart. T-2 toxin exposure can cause cardiac fibrosis and finally lead to cardiac dysfunction. Mechanistically, T-2 toxin exposure-induced cardiac damage involves the production of ROS, mitochondrial dysfunction, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma (PPAR-γ) signaling pathway, endoplasmic reticulum (ER stress), transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-β1)/smad family member 2/3 (Smad2/3) signaling pathway, and autophagy and inflammatory responses. Antioxidant supplementation (e.g., catalase, vitamin C, and selenium), induction of autophagy (e.g., rapamycin), blockade of inflammatory signaling (e.g., methylprednisolone) or treatment with PPAR-γ agonists (e.g., pioglitazone) may provide protective effects against these detrimental cardiac effects caused by T-2 toxin. We believe that our review provides new insights in understanding T-2 toxin exposure-induced cardiotoxicity and fuels effective prevention and treatment strategies against this important food-borne toxin-induced health problems.

Human Biomonitoring of T-2 Toxin, T-2 Toxin-3-Glucoside and Their Metabolites in Urine through High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry

The metabolic profile of T-2 toxin (T-2) and its modified form T-2-3-glucoside (T-2-3-Glc) remain unexplored in human samples. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate the presence of T-2, T-2-3-Glc and their respective major metabolites in human urine samples (n = 300) collected in South Italy through an ultra-high performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC) coupled to Q-Orbitrap-HRMS methodology. T-2 was quantified in 21% of samples at a mean concentration of 1.34 ng/mg Crea (range: 0.22–6.54 ng/mg Crea). Almost all the major T-2 metabolites previously characterized in vitro were tentatively found, remarking the occurrence of 3′-OH-T-2 (99.7%), T-2 triol (56%) and HT-2 (30%). Regarding T-2-3-Glc, a low prevalence of the parent mycotoxin (1%) and its metabolites were observed, with HT-2-3-Glc (17%) being the most prevalent compound, although hydroxylated products were also detected. Attending to the large number of testing positive for T-2 or its metabolites, this study found a frequent exposure in Italian population.

T-2 Toxin-The Most Toxic Trichothecene Mycotoxin: Metabolism, Toxicity, and Decontamination Strategies

Among trichothecenes, T-2 toxin is the most toxic fungal secondary metabolite produced by different Fusarium species. Moreover, T-2 is the most common cause of poisoning that results from the consumption of contaminated cereal-based food and feed reported among humans and animals. The food and feed most contaminated with T-2 toxin is made from wheat, barley, rye, oats, and maize. After exposition or ingestion, T-2 is immediately absorbed from the alimentary tract or through the respiratory mucosal membranes and transported to the liver as a primary organ responsible for toxin's metabolism. Depending on the age, way of exposure, and dosage, intoxication manifests by vomiting, feed refusal, stomach necrosis, and skin irritation, which is rarely observed in case of mycotoxins intoxication. In order to eliminate T-2 toxin, various decontamination techniques have been found to mitigate the concentration of T-2 toxin in agricultural commodities. However, it is believed that 100% degradation of this toxin could be not possible. In this review, T-2 toxin toxicity, metabolism, and decontamination strategies are presented and discussed.

Glycolysis and Reactive Oxygen Species Production Participate in T-2 Toxin-Stimulated Chicken Heterophil Extracellular Traps

T-2 toxin (T-2) is a kind of trichothecene toxin produced from Fusarium fungi, which is an environmental pollutant that endangers poultry and human health. Heterophil extracellular traps (HETs) are not only a form of chicken immune defense against pathogen infection but also involved in pathophysiological mechanisms of several diseases. However, the immunotoxicity of T-2 on HET formation in vitro has not yet been reported. In this study, heterophils were exposed to T-2 at doses of 20, 40, and 80 ng/mL for 90 min. Observation of the structure of HETs by immunofluorescence staining and the mechanism of HET formation was analyzed by inhibitors and PicoGreen. These results showed that T-2-triggered HET formation consisted of DNA, elastase, and citH3. Furthermore, T-2 increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, and the formation of T-2-triggered HETs was also decreased by the inhibitors of glycolysis, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase, p38 and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)_1/2 signaling pathways, suggesting that T-2-induced HETs are associated with glycolysis, ROS production, ERK_1/2 and p38 signaling pathways, and NADPH oxidase. Taken together, this study elucidates the mechanism of T-2-triggered HET formation, and it may provide new insight into understanding the immunotoxicity of T-2 to early innate immunity in chickens.

An update on T-2 toxin and its modified forms: metabolism, immunotoxicity mechanism, and human exposure assessment

T-2 toxin is the most toxic trichothecene mycotoxin, and it exerts potent toxic effects, including immunotoxicity, neurotoxicity, and reproductive toxicity. Recently, several novel metabolites, including 3',4'-dihydroxy-T-2 toxin and 4',4'-dihydroxy-T-2 toxin, have been uncovered. The enzymes CYP3A4 and carboxylesterase contribute to T-2 toxin metabolism, with 3'-hydroxy-T-2 toxin and HT-2 toxin as the corresponding primary products. Modified forms of T-2 toxin, including T-2-3-glucoside, exert their immunotoxic effects by signaling through JAK/STAT but not MAPK. T-2-3-glucoside results from hydrolyzation of the corresponding parent mycotoxin and other metabolites by the intestinal microbiota, which leads to enhanced toxicity. Increasing evidence has shown that autophagy, hypoxia-inducible factors, and exosomes are involved in T-2 toxin-induced immunotoxicity. Autophagy promotes the immunosuppression induced by T-2 toxin, and a complex crosstalk between apoptosis and autophagy exists. Very recently, "immune evasion" activity was reported to be associated with this toxin; this activity is initiated inside cells and allows pathogens to escape the host immune response. Moreover, T-2 toxin has the potential to trigger hypoxia in cells, which is related to activation of hypoxia-inducible factor and the release of exosomes, leading to immunotoxicity. Based on the data from a series of human exposure studies, free T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin, and HT-2-4-glucuronide should be considered human T-2 toxin biomarkers in the urine. The present review focuses on novel findings related to the metabolism, immunotoxicity, and human exposure assessment of T-2 toxin and its modified forms. In particular, the immunotoxicity mechanisms of T-2 toxin and the toxicity mechanism of its modified form, as well as human T-2 toxin biomarkers, are discussed. This work will contribute to an improved understanding of the immunotoxicity mechanism of T-2 toxin and its modified forms.

T-2 toxin and its metabolites: Characterization, cytotoxic mechanisms and adaptive cellular response in human hepatocarcinoma (HepG2) cells

The T-2 toxin (T-2) is a type A trichothecene produced by Fusarium species, and the most cytotoxic mycotoxin of the group. A study was made to determine T-2 cytotoxicity in human hepatocarcinoma (HepG2) cells; evaluate whether there is an adaptive response of HepG2 cells exposed to low concentrations of T-2; identify the T-2 metabolites by LC-Q-TOF MS; and determine whether T-2 disrupts cell proliferation in HepG2 cells. The IC₅₀ values obtained ranged from 61.9 ± 2.4 nM to 70.7 ± 7.4 nM. No adaptive response was observed. There was no evidence of extra- or intracellular accumulation of T-2 after 24 h of exposure as determined by LC-Q-TOF MS. However, some T-2 metabolites such as HT-2 toxin, neosolaniol and T-2 triol showed important (>75%) intracellular accumulation. Cell distribution was significantly increased in SubG0/G1 phase (11.8-fold higher) and decreased (12%) in G2/M phase at 60 nM T-2, versus the control. Simultaneously, increased necrosis (238%) and apoptosis/necrosis (up to 35.5%) were observed in HepG2 cells exposed to T-2. In conclusion, the results show that T-2 leads to loss of cell viability without an adaptive response, and that the metabolites generated play an important role in T-2 cytotoxicity, increasing HepG2 cell damage.

Comparative toxicokinetics of Fusarium mycotoxins in pigs and humans

Mycotoxins frequently contaminate food and feed materials, posing a threat to human and animal health. Fusarium species produce important mycotoxins with regard to their occurrence and toxicity, especially deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisin B1 (FB1), zearalenone (ZEN) and T-2 toxin (T-2). The susceptibility of an animal species towards the effects of these toxins in part depends on the absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion (ADME processes) of these toxins from the body. For humans, in vivo information is scarce and often animal data is used for extrapolation to humans. From a kinetic and safety point of view, the pig seems to be a promising animal model to aid in the assessment of the toxicological risk of mycotoxins to humans. Qualitatively, the ADME processes seem to be quite similar between pigs and humans. In addition, similar metabolite and excretion patterns are observed, although some quantitative differences are noticed which are subject of this review. The high sensitivity of pigs towards mycotoxins and the similar kinetics are an advantage for the use of this animal species in the risk assessment of mycotoxins, and for the establishment of legal limits of mycotoxins.

T-2 toxin neurotoxicity: role of oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction

Mycotoxins are highly diverse secondary metabolites produced in nature by a wide variety of fungi. Mycotoxins cause animal feed and food contamination, resulting in mycotoxicosis. T-2 toxin is one of the most common and toxic trichothecene mycotoxins. For the last decade, it has garnered considerable attention due to its potent neurotoxicity. Worryingly, T-2 toxin can cross the blood-brain barrier and accumulate in the central nervous system (CNS) to cause neurotoxicity. This review covers the current knowledge base on the molecular mechanisms of T-2 toxin-induced oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction in the CNS. In vitro and animal data have shown that induction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and oxidative stress plays a critical role during T-2 toxin-induced neurotoxicity. Mitochondrial dysfunction and cascade signaling pathways including p53, MAPK, Akt/mTOR, PKA/CREB and NF-κB contribute to T-2 toxin-induced neuronal cell death. T-2 toxin exposure can also result in perturbations of mitochondrial respiratory chain complex and mitochondrial biogenesis. T-2 toxin exposure decreases the mitochondria unfolded protein response and dampens mitochondrial energy metabolism. Antioxidants such as N-acetylcysteine (NAC), activation of Nrf2/HO-1 and autophagy have been shown to provide a protective effect against these detrimental effects. Clearly, translational research and the discovery of effective treatment strategies are urgently required against this common food-borne threat to human health and livestock.

Characterization of Phase I and Glucuronide Phase II Metabolites of 17 Mycotoxins Using Liquid Chromatography-High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry

Routine mycotoxin biomonitoring methods do not include many mycotoxin phase I and phase II metabolites, which may significantly underestimate mycotoxin exposure especially for heavily metabolized mycotoxins. Additional research efforts are also needed to measure metabolites in vivo after exposure and to establish which mycotoxin metabolites should be prioritized for the inclusion during large-scale biomonitoring efforts. The objective of this study was to perform human in vitro microsomal incubations of 17 mycotoxins and systematically characterize all resulting metabolites using liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS). The results obtained were then used to build a comprehensive LC-MS library and expand a validated 17-mycotoxin method for exposure monitoring to screening of additional 188 metabolites, including 100 metabolites reported for the first time. The final method represents one of the most comprehensive LC-HRMS methods for mycotoxin biomonitoring or metabolism/fate studies.

Deglucosylation of zearalenone-14-glucoside in animals and human liver leads to underestimation of exposure to zearalenone in humans

Zearalenone-14-glucoside (ZEN-14G), the modified mycotoxin of zearalenone (ZEN), has attracted considerable attention due to its high potential to be hydrolyzed into ZEN, which would exert toxicity. It has been confirmed that the microflora could metabolize ZEN-14G to ZEN. However, the metabolic profile of ZEN-14G and whether it could be deglucosidated in the liver are unknown. To thoroughly investigate the metabolism of ZEN-14G, in vitro metabolism including phase I and phase II metabolism was studied using liquid chromatography coupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry. Additionally, in vivo metabolism of ZEN-14G was conducted in model animals, rats, by oral administration. As a result, 29 phase I metabolites and 6 phase II metabolites were identified and significant inter-species metabolic differences were observed as well. What is more, ZEN-14G could be considerably deglucosidated into its free form of ZEN after the incubation with animals and human liver microsomes in the absence of NADPH, which was mainly metabolized by human carboxylesterase CES-I and II. Furthermore, results showed that the major metabolic pathways of ZEN-14G were deglucosylation, hydroxylation, hydrogenation and glucuronidation. Although interspecies differences in the biotransformation of ZEN-14G were observed, ZEN, α-ZEL-14G, β-ZEL-14G, α-ZEL, ZEN-14G-16GlcA and ZEN-14GlcA were the major metabolites of ZEN-14G. Additionally, a larger yield of 6-OH-ZEN-14G and 8-OH-ZEN-14G was also observed in human liver microsomes. The obtained data would be of great importance for the safety assessment of modified mycotoxin, ZEN-14G, and provide another perspective for risk assessment of mycotoxin.