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Yuan Y, Zhao J, Liu Q, Liu Y, Liu Y, Tian X, Qiao W, Zhao Y, Liu Y, Chen L. Human milk sphingomyelin: Function, metabolism, composition and mimicking. Food Chem 2024; 447:138991. [PMID: 38520905 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2024.138991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2023] [Revised: 02/28/2024] [Accepted: 03/08/2024] [Indexed: 03/25/2024]
Abstract
Human milk, which contains various nutrients, is the "gold standard" for infant nutrition. Healthy human milk meets all the nutritional needs of early infant development. Polar lipids mainly exist in the milk fat globule membrane, accounting for approximately 1-2% of human milk lipids; sphingomyelin (SM) accounts for approximately 21-24% of polar lipids. SM plays an important role in promoting the development of the brain and nervous system, regulating intestinal flora, and improving skin barriers. Though SM could be synthesized de novo, SM nutrition from dietary is also important for infants. The content and composition of SM in human milk has been reported, however, the molecular mechanisms of nutritional functions of SM for infants required further research. This review summarizes the functional mechanisms, metabolic pathways, and compositional, influencing factors, and mimicking of SM in human milk, and highlights the challenges of improving maternal and infant early/long-term nutrition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuying Yuan
- Key Laboratory of Dairy Science, Ministry of Education, Food Science College, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China; National Engineering Research Center of Dairy Health for Maternal and Child, Beijing Sanyuan Foods Co. Ltd., Beijing 100163, China; Beijing Engineering Research Center of Dairy, Beijing Technical Innovation Center of Human Milk Research, Beijing Sanyuan Foods Co. Ltd., Beijing 100163, China
| | - Junying Zhao
- National Engineering Research Center of Dairy Health for Maternal and Child, Beijing Sanyuan Foods Co. Ltd., Beijing 100163, China; Beijing Engineering Research Center of Dairy, Beijing Technical Innovation Center of Human Milk Research, Beijing Sanyuan Foods Co. Ltd., Beijing 100163, China
| | - Qian Liu
- Key Laboratory of Dairy Science, Ministry of Education, Food Science College, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China; National Engineering Research Center of Dairy Health for Maternal and Child, Beijing Sanyuan Foods Co. Ltd., Beijing 100163, China; Beijing Engineering Research Center of Dairy, Beijing Technical Innovation Center of Human Milk Research, Beijing Sanyuan Foods Co. Ltd., Beijing 100163, China
| | - Yan Liu
- National Engineering Research Center of Dairy Health for Maternal and Child, Beijing Sanyuan Foods Co. Ltd., Beijing 100163, China; Beijing Engineering Research Center of Dairy, Beijing Technical Innovation Center of Human Milk Research, Beijing Sanyuan Foods Co. Ltd., Beijing 100163, China
| | - Yan Liu
- National Engineering Research Center of Dairy Health for Maternal and Child, Beijing Sanyuan Foods Co. Ltd., Beijing 100163, China; Beijing Engineering Research Center of Dairy, Beijing Technical Innovation Center of Human Milk Research, Beijing Sanyuan Foods Co. Ltd., Beijing 100163, China
| | - Xiaoyan Tian
- Key Laboratory of Dairy Science, Ministry of Education, Food Science College, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China; National Engineering Research Center of Dairy Health for Maternal and Child, Beijing Sanyuan Foods Co. Ltd., Beijing 100163, China; Beijing Engineering Research Center of Dairy, Beijing Technical Innovation Center of Human Milk Research, Beijing Sanyuan Foods Co. Ltd., Beijing 100163, China
| | - Weicang Qiao
- National Engineering Research Center of Dairy Health for Maternal and Child, Beijing Sanyuan Foods Co. Ltd., Beijing 100163, China; Beijing Engineering Research Center of Dairy, Beijing Technical Innovation Center of Human Milk Research, Beijing Sanyuan Foods Co. Ltd., Beijing 100163, China
| | - Yanyan Zhao
- National Engineering Research Center of Dairy Health for Maternal and Child, Beijing Sanyuan Foods Co. Ltd., Beijing 100163, China; Beijing Engineering Research Center of Dairy, Beijing Technical Innovation Center of Human Milk Research, Beijing Sanyuan Foods Co. Ltd., Beijing 100163, China; Affiliated Hospital of Weifang Medical University, Weifang, Shandong 261031, China
| | - Yanpin Liu
- National Engineering Research Center of Dairy Health for Maternal and Child, Beijing Sanyuan Foods Co. Ltd., Beijing 100163, China; Beijing Engineering Research Center of Dairy, Beijing Technical Innovation Center of Human Milk Research, Beijing Sanyuan Foods Co. Ltd., Beijing 100163, China
| | - Lijun Chen
- Key Laboratory of Dairy Science, Ministry of Education, Food Science College, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China; National Engineering Research Center of Dairy Health for Maternal and Child, Beijing Sanyuan Foods Co. Ltd., Beijing 100163, China; Beijing Engineering Research Center of Dairy, Beijing Technical Innovation Center of Human Milk Research, Beijing Sanyuan Foods Co. Ltd., Beijing 100163, China.
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Ghini V, Meoni G, Vignoli A, Di Cesare F, Tenori L, Turano P, Luchinat C. Fingerprinting and profiling in metabolomics of biosamples. PROGRESS IN NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE SPECTROSCOPY 2023; 138-139:105-135. [PMID: 38065666 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnmrs.2023.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2023] [Revised: 10/13/2023] [Accepted: 10/15/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023]
Abstract
This review focuses on metabolomics from an NMR point of view. It attempts to cover the broad scope of metabolomics and describes the NMR experiments that are most suitable for each sample type. It is addressed not only to NMR specialists, but to all researchers who wish to approach metabolomics with a clear idea of what they wish to achieve but not necessarily with a deep knowledge of NMR. For this reason, some technical parts may seem a bit naïve to the experts. The review starts by describing standard metabolomics procedures, which imply the use of a dedicated 600 MHz instrument and of four properly standardized 1D experiments. Standardization is a must if one wants to directly compare NMR results obtained in different labs. A brief mention is also made of standardized pre-analytical procedures, which are even more essential. Attention is paid to the distinction between fingerprinting and profiling, and the advantages and disadvantages of fingerprinting are clarified. This aspect is often not fully appreciated. Then profiling, and the associated problems of signal assignment and quantitation, are discussed. We also describe less conventional approaches, such as the use of different magnetic fields, the use of signal enhancement techniques to increase sensitivity, and the potential of field-shuttling NMR. A few examples of biomedical applications are also given, again with the focus on NMR techniques that are most suitable to achieve each particular goal, including a description of the most common heteronuclear experiments. Finally, the growing applications of metabolomics to foodstuffs are described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronica Ghini
- Magnetic Resonance Center (CERM), University of Florence, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy; Department of Chemistry "Ugo Schiff", University of Florence, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
| | - Gaia Meoni
- Magnetic Resonance Center (CERM), University of Florence, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy; Department of Chemistry "Ugo Schiff", University of Florence, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
| | - Alessia Vignoli
- Magnetic Resonance Center (CERM), University of Florence, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy; Department of Chemistry "Ugo Schiff", University of Florence, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
| | - Francesca Di Cesare
- Magnetic Resonance Center (CERM), University of Florence, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy; Department of Chemistry "Ugo Schiff", University of Florence, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
| | - Leonardo Tenori
- Magnetic Resonance Center (CERM), University of Florence, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy; Department of Chemistry "Ugo Schiff", University of Florence, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy; Consorzio Interuniversitario Risonanze Magnetiche Metallo Proteine (CIRMMP), Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
| | - Paola Turano
- Magnetic Resonance Center (CERM), University of Florence, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy; Department of Chemistry "Ugo Schiff", University of Florence, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy; Consorzio Interuniversitario Risonanze Magnetiche Metallo Proteine (CIRMMP), Sesto Fiorentino, Italy.
| | - Claudio Luchinat
- Consorzio Interuniversitario Risonanze Magnetiche Metallo Proteine (CIRMMP), Sesto Fiorentino, Italy; Giotto Biotech S.r.l., Sesto Fiorentino, Italy.
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Comparison of Workflows for Milk Lipid Analysis: Phospholipids. Foods 2022; 12:foods12010163. [PMID: 36613379 PMCID: PMC9818897 DOI: 10.3390/foods12010163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2022] [Revised: 12/19/2022] [Accepted: 12/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Milk is a rich source of lipids, with the major components being triglycerides (TAG) and phospholipids (mainly phosphatidylcholine (PC), sphingomyelin (SM), phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), phosphatidylserine (PS) and phosphatidylinositol (PI)). Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) is the predominant technique for lipid identification and quantification across all biological samples. While fatty acid (FA) composition of the major lipid classes of milk can be readily determined using tandem MS, elucidating the regio-distribution and double bond position of the FA remains difficult. Various workflows have been reported on the quantification of lipid species in biological samples in the past 20 years, but no standard or consensus methods are currently available for the quantification of milk phospholipids. This study will examine the influence of several common factors in lipid analysis workflow (including lipid extraction protocols, LC stationary phases, mobile phase buffers, gradient elution programmes, mass analyser resolution and isotope correction) on the quantification outcome of bovine milk phospholipids. The pros and cons of the current LC-MS methods as well as the critical problems to be solved will also be discussed.
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Phospholipid profiling, cholesterol, and tocopherols: Comparison of sow milk fats from two lactation stages and five breeds. FOOD BIOSCI 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fbio.2022.101871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Zhao Y, Zhang Y, Liu C, Yan D, Dong P. Compositional Differences Between Preterm Milk of Different Gestational Ages with the Term Milk: A Comparative Lipidomic Study by LC‐MS/MS. EUR J LIPID SCI TECH 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/ejlt.202100224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ying‐chun Zhao
- Department of Neonatology Children's Hospital of Shanghai 355 Luding Road Shanghai 200062 P. R. China
| | - Ying Zhang
- Department of Child Healthcare Children's Hospital of Fudan University National Children's Medical Center 399 Wanyuan Road Shanghai 201102 P. R. China
| | - Chun‐xue Liu
- Department of Child Healthcare Children's Hospital of Fudan University National Children's Medical Center 399 Wanyuan Road Shanghai 201102 P. R. China
| | - Dong‐yong Yan
- Department of Child Healthcare Children's Hospital of Fudan University National Children's Medical Center 399 Wanyuan Road Shanghai 201102 P. R. China
| | - Ping Dong
- Department of Child Healthcare Children's Hospital of Fudan University National Children's Medical Center 399 Wanyuan Road Shanghai 201102 P. R. China
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Jiang C, Cheong LZ, Zhang X, Ali AH, Jin Q, Wei W, Wang X. Dietary Sphingomyelin Metabolism and Roles in Gut Health and Cognitive Development. Adv Nutr 2021; 13:S2161-8313(22)00073-4. [PMID: 34549256 PMCID: PMC8970835 DOI: 10.1093/advances/nmab117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Sphingomyelin (SM) is a widely occurring sphingolipid that is a major plasma membrane constituent. Milk and dairy products are rich SM sources, and human milk has high SM content. Numerous studies have evaluated the roles of SM in maintaining cell membrane structure and cellular signal transduction. There has been a growing interest in exploring the role of dietary SM, especially from human milk, in imparting health benefits. This review focuses on recent publications regarding SM content in several dietary sources and dietary SM metabolism. SM digestion and absorption are slow and incomplete and mainly occur in the middle sections of the small intestine. This review also evaluates the effect of dietary SM on gut health and cognitive development. Studies indicate that SM may promote gut health by reducing intestinal cholesterol absorption in adults. However, there has been a lack of data supporting clinical trials. An association between milk SM and neural development is evident before childhood. Hence, additional studies and well-designed randomized controlled trials that incorporate dietary SM evaluation, SM metabolism, and its long-term functions on infants and children are required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chenyu Jiang
- State Key Lab of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China,Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control in Jiangsu Province, School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
| | - Ling-Zhi Cheong
- Department of Food Science and Engineering, College of Food and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Xue Zhang
- State Key Lab of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China,Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control in Jiangsu Province, School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
| | - Abdelmoneim H Ali
- State Key Lab of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China,Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control in Jiangsu Province, School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
| | - Qingzhe Jin
- State Key Lab of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China,Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control in Jiangsu Province, School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
| | - Wei Wei
- Address correspondence to WW (e-mail: )
| | - Xingguo Wang
- State Key Lab of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China,Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control in Jiangsu Province, School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
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A promising 31P NMR-multivariate analysis approach for the identification of milk phosphorylated metabolites and for rapid authentication of milk samples. Biochem Biophys Rep 2021; 27:101087. [PMID: 34381881 PMCID: PMC8339344 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrep.2021.101087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2021] [Revised: 07/19/2021] [Accepted: 07/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
A fast and reliable method for the identification of milk from different mammalians was developed by using 31P NMR metabolite profile of milk serum coupled to multivariate analysis (PCA and classification models UNEQ, SIMCA and K-NN). Ten milk samples from six different mammalians, relevant to human nutrition (human, cow, donkey, mare, goat, sheep), were analyzed and eight monophosphorylated components were identified and quantified: phosphocreatine (PCr), glycerophosphorylcholine (GPC), glycerophosphorylethanolamine (GPE), N-acetylglucosamine-1-phosphate (NAcGlu-1P), lactose-1-phosphate (Lac-1P), galactose-1-phosphate (Gal-1P), phosphorylcholine (PC), glucose-6-phosphate (Glu-6P). PCA showed interesting clustering based on the animal genus. K-NN can be successfully used to discriminate between donkey and cow samples while UNEQ class-modeling resulted more suitable for compliance verification. Results confirm the natural variability of milk samples among different species. These data highlight the great potentials of NMR/multivariate analysis combined method in the rapid analysis of phosphorylated milk serum metabolites for milk origin assessment and milk adulteration detection.
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Investigation of alterations in phospholipids during the production chain of infant formulas via HILIC-QTOF-MS and multivariate data analysis. Food Chem 2021; 364:130414. [PMID: 34175632 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.130414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2021] [Revised: 06/16/2021] [Accepted: 06/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Phospholipids play a key role in infant nutrition and cognitive function. In this study, hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography coupled to quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry method was firstly developed to analyze the composition of phospholipids. Then we characterized and quantified phospholipids extracted from raw, pasteurized, homogenized, and spray-dried milk to investigate the effect of the technological process on the composition of the phospholipids. Results indicate that the composition of the phospholipids underwent minor changes after pasteurization, while the concentration of phospholipids was significantly affected by the spray-drying process, especially phosphatidylethanolamine and phosphatidylinositol. Multivariate data analysis further verified the results and indicated that phospholipids containing polyunsaturated fatty acids had undergone significant changes during the production chain, especially in spray-drying. This work reveals the changes of phospholipids composition during the production chain of infant formulas and serve as a reference for the subsequent optimization of infant formulas to meet nutritional need of infants.
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Artavia G, Cortés-Herrera C, Granados-Chinchilla F. Selected Instrumental Techniques Applied in Food and Feed: Quality, Safety and Adulteration Analysis. Foods 2021; 10:1081. [PMID: 34068197 PMCID: PMC8152966 DOI: 10.3390/foods10051081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2021] [Revised: 03/13/2021] [Accepted: 03/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
This review presents an overall glance at selected instrumental analytical techniques and methods used in food analysis, focusing on their primary food science research applications. The methods described represent approaches that have already been developed or are currently being implemented in our laboratories. Some techniques are widespread and well known and hence we will focus only in very specific examples, whilst the relatively less common techniques applied in food science are covered in a wider fashion. We made a particular emphasis on the works published on this topic in the last five years. When appropriate, we referred the reader to specialized reports highlighting each technique's principle and focused on said technologies' applications in the food analysis field. Each example forwarded will consider the advantages and limitations of the application. Certain study cases will typify that several of the techniques mentioned are used simultaneously to resolve an issue, support novel data, or gather further information from the food sample.
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Affiliation(s)
- Graciela Artavia
- Centro Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología de Alimentos, Sede Rodrigo Facio, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José 11501-2060, Costa Rica;
| | - Carolina Cortés-Herrera
- Centro Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología de Alimentos, Sede Rodrigo Facio, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José 11501-2060, Costa Rica;
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Ueno HM, MacKenzie A, Scott D, Higurashi S, Toba Y, Kobayashi T. Milk Phospholipid Profiling Among Japanese Women with Differing Docosahexaenoic Acid Levels. JPGN REPORTS 2021; 2:e058. [PMID: 37207066 PMCID: PMC10191534 DOI: 10.1097/pg9.0000000000000058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2020] [Accepted: 01/27/2021] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
To characterize the milk phospholipids (PLs) profile using phosphorus-31 nuclear magnetic resonance (31P-NMR) and to investigate the effect of elevated milk docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels on PLs profiles in Japanese mothers. Methods Milk samples from eligible patients with high and low DHA from a former cross-sectional study (n = 20; n = 10 for each group) were included. Fifteen milk PLs were analyzed using 31P-NMR, and the profiles were compared group-wise using Mann-Whitney U-test. The P value of <0.05 was considered statistically significant. Results The median DHA content in milk was 1.13% and 0.29% for the high and low milk DHA groups, respectively. Twelve PLs, excluding lysophosphatidylserine, cardiolipin, and phosphatidylglycerol, were detected in all participants with 100% positive results. The median concentrations and proportions of total PLs, sphingophospholipids, and glycerophospholipids were comparable between groups. The proportions of choline-containing glycerophospholipid were significantly higher in the high milk DHA group than that in the low milk DHA group (24.09% [median, interquartile range: 23.08%-26.38%] and 21.41% [20.74%-22.84%], P = 0.019). Although the proportions of phosphatidylinositol were significantly lower in the high milk DHA group than that in the low milk DHA group (6.62% [5.75%-6.72%] versus 7.63% [7.11%-8.16%], P = 0.002), while that of phosphatidylcholine (21.90% [18.51%-23.22%] versus 19.78% [18.17%-20.26%], P = 0.059) and alkyl-acyl phosphatidylcholine (0.60% [0.40%-0.74%] versus 0.33% [0.14%-0.51%], P = 0.059) were higher in the former than that in the latter. Conclusions Our results were comparable to that of the previous literature. Large variations in the milk DHA might affect the composition of choline-containing glycerophospholipids in Japanese mothers. However, possible confounders were not excluded in the study populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi M. Ueno
- From the Research and Development Department, Bean Stalk Snow Co., Ltd., Kawagoe, Japan
| | | | - Dawn Scott
- Callaghan Innovation, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Satoshi Higurashi
- From the Research and Development Department, Bean Stalk Snow Co., Ltd., Kawagoe, Japan
| | - Yasuhiro Toba
- From the Research and Development Department, Bean Stalk Snow Co., Ltd., Kawagoe, Japan
| | - Toshiya Kobayashi
- From the Research and Development Department, Bean Stalk Snow Co., Ltd., Kawagoe, Japan
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Hewelt-Belka W, Garwolińska D, Młynarczyk M, Kot-Wasik A. Comparative Lipidomic Study of Human Milk from Different Lactation Stages and Milk Formulas. Nutrients 2020; 12:E2165. [PMID: 32708300 PMCID: PMC7401268 DOI: 10.3390/nu12072165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2020] [Revised: 07/09/2020] [Accepted: 07/10/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
In this report, we present a detailed comparison of the lipid composition of human milk (HM) and formula milk (FM) targeting different lactation stages and infant age range. We studied HM samples collected from 26 Polish mothers from colostrum to 19 months of lactation, along with FM from seven brands available on the Polish market (infant formula, follow-on formula and growing-up formula). Lipid extracts were analysed using liquid chromatography coupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-Q-TOF-MS). We found that the lipid composition of FM deviates significantly from the HM lipid profile in terms of qualitative and quantitative differences. FM had contrasting lipid profiles mostly across brands and accordingly to the type of fat added but not specific to the target age range. The individual differences were dominant in HM; however, differences according to the lactation stage were also observed, especially between colostrum and HM collected in other lactation stages. Biologically and nutritionally important lipids, such as long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFAs) containing lipid species, sphingomyelines or ether analogues of glycerophosphoethanoloamines were detected in HM collected in all studied lactation stages. The observed differences concerned all the major HM lipid classes and highlight the importance of the detailed compositional studies of both HM and FM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weronika Hewelt-Belka
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Chemical Faculty, Gdańsk University of Technology, 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland; (D.G.); (M.M.); (A.K.-W.)
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