1
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Zhang B, Chuang GY, Biju A, Biner D, Cheng J, Wang Y, Bao S, Chao CW, Lei H, Liu T, Nazzari AF, Yang Y, Zhou T, Chen SJ, Chen X, Kong WP, Ou L, Parchment DK, Sarfo EK, SiMa H, Todd JP, Wang S, Woodward RA, Cheng C, Rawi R, Mascola JR, Kwong PD. Cholesterol reduction by immunization with a PCSK9 mimic. Cell Rep 2024; 43:114285. [PMID: 38819987 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2024.114285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2023] [Revised: 04/22/2024] [Accepted: 05/13/2024] [Indexed: 06/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) is a plasma protein that controls cholesterol homeostasis. Here, we design a human PCSK9 mimic, named HIT01, with no consecutive 9-residue stretch in common with any human protein as a potential heart attack vaccine. Murine immunizations with HIT01 reduce low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and cholesterol levels by 40% and 30%, respectively. Immunization of cynomolgus macaques with HIT01-K21Q-R218E, a cleavage-resistant variant, elicits high-titer PCSK9-directed antibody responses and significantly reduces serum levels of cholesterol 2 weeks after each immunization. However, HIT01-K21Q-R218E immunizations also increase serum PCSK9 levels by up to 5-fold, likely due to PCSK9-binding antibodies altering the half-life of PCSK9. While vaccination with a PCSK9 mimic can induce antibodies that block interactions of PCSK9 with the LDL receptor, PCSK9-binding antibodies appear to alter homeostatic levels of PCSK9, thereby confounding its vaccine impact. Our results nevertheless suggest a mechanism for increasing the half-life of soluble regulatory factors by vaccination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Baoshan Zhang
- Vaccine Research Center, NIAID, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Gwo-Yu Chuang
- Vaccine Research Center, NIAID, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Andrea Biju
- Vaccine Research Center, NIAID, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Daniel Biner
- Vaccine Research Center, NIAID, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Jiaxuan Cheng
- Vaccine Research Center, NIAID, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Yiran Wang
- Vaccine Research Center, NIAID, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Saran Bao
- Vaccine Research Center, NIAID, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Cara W Chao
- Vaccine Research Center, NIAID, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Haotian Lei
- Research Technologies Branch, NIAID, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Tracy Liu
- Vaccine Research Center, NIAID, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Alexandra F Nazzari
- Vaccine Research Center, NIAID, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Yongping Yang
- Vaccine Research Center, NIAID, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Tongqing Zhou
- Vaccine Research Center, NIAID, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Steven J Chen
- Vaccine Research Center, NIAID, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Xuejun Chen
- Vaccine Research Center, NIAID, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Wing-Pui Kong
- Vaccine Research Center, NIAID, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Li Ou
- Vaccine Research Center, NIAID, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Danealle K Parchment
- Vaccine Research Center, NIAID, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Edward K Sarfo
- Vaccine Research Center, NIAID, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - HaoMin SiMa
- Vaccine Research Center, NIAID, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - John-Paul Todd
- Vaccine Research Center, NIAID, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Shuishu Wang
- Vaccine Research Center, NIAID, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Ruth A Woodward
- Vaccine Research Center, NIAID, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Cheng Cheng
- Vaccine Research Center, NIAID, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Reda Rawi
- Vaccine Research Center, NIAID, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - John R Mascola
- Vaccine Research Center, NIAID, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Peter D Kwong
- Vaccine Research Center, NIAID, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; Aaron Diamond AIDS Research Center, Columbia University Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY 10032, USA.
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2
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Kim N, Cho JM, Yang IH. Recurrent Acute Coronary Syndrome in Young Man with Familial Hypercholesterolemia: Efficacy of Evolocumab Add-On Treatment Demonstrated via Serial Coronary Angiography. Biomedicines 2024; 12:1113. [PMID: 38791076 PMCID: PMC11117489 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines12051113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2024] [Revised: 05/10/2024] [Accepted: 05/15/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
In patients with acute coronary syndrome (ACS), lipid-lowering therapy plays an important role in the prevention of the recurrence of cardiovascular disease. Recent guidelines recommend the use of proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) inhibitors in patients with ACS if their low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) levels are not adequately controlled with statins and ezetimibe. Based on this, we report a case in which administering a PCSK9 inhibitor successfully lowered the patient's LDL-C level to the target level and managed the coronary artery disease (CAD) recurrence. A 39-year-old man who was taking statins presented to the hospital with chest pain and was diagnosed with unstable angina. He started taking maximum doses of statins and ezetimibe to lower his LDL-C. However, the patient's unstable angina recurred 1 year later, and a de novo lesion with plaque rupture was demonstrated via coronary angiography. The LDL-C failed to reach the target level despite maintaining the maximum dose of statin and ezetimibe. Accordingly, evolocumab was initiated in addition to rosuvastatin/ezetimibe 20/10 mg daily. Subsequently, coronary angiography was performed twice, and on follow-up, the patient remained free of CAD recurrence. This case highlights the efficacy of lipid-lowering therapy with evolocumab in high-risk patients with repeated ACS.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - In-Ho Yang
- Department of Cardiology, Kyung Hee University Hospital at Gangdong, College of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 05278, Republic of Korea; (N.K.); (J.-M.C.)
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3
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Wang K, Li Z, Zhang W, Liu Y, Wang X, Sun M, Fang X, Han W. The study on synthesis and vitro hypolipidemic activity of novel berberine derivatives nitric oxide donors. Fitoterapia 2024; 176:105964. [PMID: 38663561 DOI: 10.1016/j.fitote.2024.105964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2024] [Revised: 04/12/2024] [Accepted: 04/14/2024] [Indexed: 05/18/2024]
Abstract
Berberine was used as the lead compound in the present study to design and synthesize novel berberine derivatives by splicing bromine bridges of different berberine carbon chain lengths coupled nitric oxide donors, and their lipid lowering activities were assessed in a variety of ways. This experiment synthesized 17 new berberine nitric oxide donor derivatives. Compared with berberine hydrochloride, most of the compounds exhibited certain glycerate inhibitory activity, and compounds 6a, 6b, 6d, 12b and 12d showed higher inhibitory activity than berberine, with 6a, 6b and 6d having significant inhibitory activity. In addition, compound 6a linked to furazolidone nitric oxide donor showed better NO release in experiments; In further mechanistic studies, we screened and got two proteins, PCSK9 and ACLY, and docked two proteins with 17 compounds, and found that most of the compounds bound better with ATP citrate lyase (ACLY), among which there may be a strong interaction between compound 6a and ACLY, and the interaction force was better than the target drug Bempedoic Acid, which meaning that 6a may exert hypolipidemic effects by inhibiting ACLY; moreover, we also found that 6a may had the better performance in gastrointestinal absorption, blood-brain barrier permeability, Egan, Muegge class drug principle model calculation and bioavailability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kexin Wang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Natural Medicine Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, Harbin Medical University, Harbin 150081, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhixiong Li
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Natural Medicine Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, Harbin Medical University, Harbin 150081, People's Republic of China
| | - Weicong Zhang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Natural Medicine Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, Harbin Medical University, Harbin 150081, People's Republic of China
| | - Yu Liu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Natural Medicine Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, Harbin Medical University, Harbin 150081, People's Republic of China
| | - Xutong Wang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Natural Medicine Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, Harbin Medical University, Harbin 150081, People's Republic of China
| | - Meng Sun
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Natural Medicine Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, Harbin Medical University, Harbin 150081, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaodong Fang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Natural Medicine Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, Harbin Medical University, Harbin 150081, People's Republic of China
| | - Weina Han
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Natural Medicine Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, Harbin Medical University, Harbin 150081, People's Republic of China.
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4
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Meibom D, Wasnaire P, Beyer K, Broehl A, Cancho-Grande Y, Elowe N, Henninger K, Johannes S, Jungmann N, Krainz T, Lindner N, Maassen S, MacDonald B, Menshykau D, Mittendorf J, Sanchez G, Schaefer M, Stefan E, Torge A, Xing Y, Zubov D. BAY-9835: Discovery of the First Orally Bioavailable ADAMTS7 Inhibitor. J Med Chem 2024; 67:2907-2940. [PMID: 38348661 PMCID: PMC10895658 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.3c02036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2023] [Revised: 12/20/2023] [Accepted: 12/22/2023] [Indexed: 02/23/2024]
Abstract
The matrix metalloprotease ADAMTS7 has been identified by multiple genome-wide association studies as being involved in the development of coronary artery disease. Subsequent research revealed the proteolytic function of the enzyme to be relevant for atherogenesis and restenosis after vessel injury. Based on a publicly known dual ADAMTS4/ADAMTS5 inhibitor, we have in silico designed an ADAMTS7 inhibitor of the catalytic domain, which served as a starting point for an optimization campaign. Initially our inhibitors suffered from low selectivity vs MMP12. An X-ray cocrystal structure inspired us to exploit amino acid differences in the binding site of MMP12 and ADAMTS7 to improve selectivity. Further optimization composed of employing 5-membered heteroaromatic groups as hydantoin substituents to become more potent on ADAMTS7. Finally, fine-tuning of DMPK properties yielded BAY-9835, the first orally bioavailable ADAMTS7 inhibitor. Further optimization to improve selectivity vs ADAMTS12 seems possible, and a respective starting point could be identified.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Eric Stefan
- Broad
Institute, 02142 Cambridge, United States
| | | | - Yi Xing
- Broad
Institute, 02142 Cambridge, United States
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5
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Ahamad S, Bano N, Khan S, Hussain MK, Bhat SA. Unraveling the Puzzle of Therapeutic Peptides: A Promising Frontier in Huntington's Disease Treatment. J Med Chem 2024; 67:783-815. [PMID: 38207096 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.3c01131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2024]
Abstract
Huntington's disease (HD) is a neurodegenerative genetic disorder characterized by a mutation in the huntingtin (HTT) gene, resulting in the production of a mutant huntingtin protein (mHTT). The accumulation of mHTT leads to the development of toxic aggregates in neurons, causing cell dysfunction and, eventually, cell death. Peptide therapeutics target various aspects of HD pathology, including mHTT reduction and aggregation inhibition, extended CAG mRNA degradation, and modulation of dysregulated signaling pathways, such as BDNF/TrkB signaling. In addition, these peptide therapeutics also target the detrimental interactions of mHTT with InsP3R1, CaM, or Caspase-6 proteins to mitigate HD. This Perspective provides a detailed perspective on anti-HD therapeutic peptides, highlighting their design, structural characteristics, neuroprotective effects, and specific mechanisms of action. Peptide therapeutics for HD exhibit promise in preclinical models, but further investigation is required to confirm their effectiveness as viable therapeutic strategies, recognizing that no approved peptide therapy for HD currently exists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shakir Ahamad
- Department of Chemistry, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202002, India
| | - Nargis Bano
- Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202002, India
| | - Sameera Khan
- Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202002, India
| | | | - Shahnawaz A Bhat
- Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202002, India
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6
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Bao X, Liang Y, Chang H, Cai T, Feng B, Gordon K, Zhu Y, Shi H, He Y, Xie L. Targeting proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9): from bench to bedside. Signal Transduct Target Ther 2024; 9:13. [PMID: 38185721 PMCID: PMC10772138 DOI: 10.1038/s41392-023-01690-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2023] [Revised: 09/27/2023] [Accepted: 10/27/2023] [Indexed: 01/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) has evolved as a pivotal enzyme in lipid metabolism and a revolutionary therapeutic target for hypercholesterolemia and its related cardiovascular diseases (CVD). This comprehensive review delineates the intricate roles and wide-ranging implications of PCSK9, extending beyond CVD to emphasize its significance in diverse physiological and pathological states, including liver diseases, infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders, and notably, cancer. Our exploration offers insights into the interaction between PCSK9 and low-density lipoprotein receptors (LDLRs), elucidating its substantial impact on cholesterol homeostasis and cardiovascular health. It also details the evolution of PCSK9-targeted therapies, translating foundational bench discoveries into bedside applications for optimized patient care. The advent and clinical approval of innovative PCSK9 inhibitory therapies (PCSK9-iTs), including three monoclonal antibodies (Evolocumab, Alirocumab, and Tafolecimab) and one small interfering RNA (siRNA, Inclisiran), have marked a significant breakthrough in cardiovascular medicine. These therapies have demonstrated unparalleled efficacy in mitigating hypercholesterolemia, reducing cardiovascular risks, and have showcased profound value in clinical applications, offering novel therapeutic avenues and a promising future in personalized medicine for cardiovascular disorders. Furthermore, emerging research, inclusive of our findings, unveils PCSK9's potential role as a pivotal indicator for cancer prognosis and its prospective application as a transformative target for cancer treatment. This review also highlights PCSK9's aberrant expression in various cancer forms, its association with cancer prognosis, and its crucial roles in carcinogenesis and cancer immunity. In conclusion, this synthesized review integrates existing knowledge and novel insights on PCSK9, providing a holistic perspective on its transformative impact in reshaping therapeutic paradigms across various disorders. It emphasizes the clinical value and effect of PCSK9-iT, underscoring its potential in advancing the landscape of biomedical research and its capabilities in heralding new eras in personalized medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuhui Bao
- Institute of Therapeutic Cancer Vaccines, Fudan University Pudong Medical Center, Shanghai, China.
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Regulatory Biology, School of Life Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China.
- Department of Oncology, Fudan University Pudong Medical Center, Shanghai, China.
- Center for Clinical Research, Fudan University Pudong Medical Center, Shanghai, China.
- Clinical Research Center for Cell-based Immunotherapy, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.
- Department of Pathology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA.
| | - Yongjun Liang
- Center for Medical Research and Innovation, Fudan University Pudong Medical Center, Shanghai, China
| | - Hanman Chang
- Institute for Food Safety and Health, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Tianji Cai
- Department of Sociology, University of Macau, Taipa, Macau, China
| | - Baijie Feng
- Department of Oncology, Fudan University Pudong Medical Center, Shanghai, China
| | - Konstantin Gordon
- Medical Institute, Peoples' Friendship University of Russia, Moscow, Russia
- A. Tsyb Medical Radiological Research Center, Obninsk, Russia
| | - Yuekun Zhu
- Department of Colorectal Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China
| | - Hailian Shi
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Compound Chinese Medicines, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Zhangjiang Hi-tech Park, Shanghai, China
| | - Yundong He
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Regulatory Biology, School of Life Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China.
| | - Liyi Xie
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, Shanghai, China.
- Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.
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7
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Chau B, Liivak K, Gao J. Construction of Nonnatural Cysteine-Cross-Linked Phage Libraries. Methods Mol Biol 2024; 2738:317-332. [PMID: 37966607 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-3549-0_19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2023]
Abstract
Phage display is a powerful technique for rapid construction and screening of peptide libraries with over 109 sequence diversity. The M13 bacteriophage genome can be edited to incorporate randomized amino acids, which will be displayed on its minor coat protein (pIII). To enable screening of nonnatural cyclic peptides on phage, the minor coat protein can be modified with a chemical cross-linker. By taking advantage of the nucleophilicity and low abundance of free cysteines on phage, a variety of cysteine cross-linkers can be installed on the pIII protein. Here, we describe the construction of a chemically modified cyclic phage library through a cysteine cross-linking reagent, 1,3-dichloroacetone (DCA).
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Affiliation(s)
- Brittney Chau
- Department of Chemistry, Merkert Chemistry Center, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, USA
| | - Kristi Liivak
- Department of Chemistry, Merkert Chemistry Center, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, USA
| | - Jianmin Gao
- Department of Chemistry, Merkert Chemistry Center, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, USA.
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8
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Li Y, Zhang Y, Zhang Y, Lin T, Gao Y, Cai Y, Zhou C, Yang L, Liu B, Dong S, Jiang Y. Optimization of the proportions of advantageous components in the hypolipidemic "bioequivalent substance system" of Jiang-Zhi-Ning and its mechanism of action. PHARMACEUTICAL BIOLOGY 2023; 61:1374-1386. [PMID: 37655554 PMCID: PMC10478595 DOI: 10.1080/13880209.2023.2243999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2022] [Revised: 06/06/2023] [Accepted: 07/29/2023] [Indexed: 09/01/2023]
Abstract
CONTEXT Jiang-Zhi-Ning (JZN), a traditional Chinese medicinal formula, is used to treat hyperlipidemia in clinics. OBJECTIVE To screen the hypolipidemic "bioequivalent substance system (BSS)" of JZN and elucidate the potential hypolipidemic mechanism. MATERIALS AND METHODS In vitro, the TG content in HepG2 cells was determined after the intervention of the combination of advantageous components (CAC) by uniform design. In vivo, hyperlipidemia models were established by Triton WR-1339 (400 mg/kg; i.p.) in male ICR mice, and corresponding treatments were administered via oral administration once. The mice were divided into 12 groups (n = 5): control, hyperlipidemic model, simvastatin (positive control, 20 mg/kg), gradient doses of JZN granules (2, 4 and 8 g/kg) and the hypolipidemic effective extraction (HEE) of JZN (120, 240 and 480 mg/kg) and CAC groups (20, 40 and 160 mg/kg). Serum TC, TG, LDL-C and HDL-C were performed after 24 h. Transcriptomics and qRT-PCR technology were used to explore the mechanism of the "BSS" of JZN. RESULTS In vitro, the ratio of CAC was determined. CAC could reduce the TG content in HepG2 cells (77.21%). Compared with the model group, the high dose of CAC could markedly decrease the levels of TC (61.86%), TG (105.54%) and LDL-C (39.38%) and increase the level of HDL-C (232.67%). CAC was proved to be the "BSS". Transcriptomics and qRT-PCR analysis revealed CAC regulated non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, bile secretion, PPAR and adipocytokine signalling pathway. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS These findings provided new feasible ideas and methods for the elucidation of the pharmacodynamic material basis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yumiao Li
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Yan Zhang
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Yu Zhang
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Tianfeng Lin
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Yanyan Gao
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Yuan Cai
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Chang Zhou
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Leyi Yang
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Bin Liu
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
- The Key Research Laboratory of "Exploring Effective Substance in Classic and Famous Prescriptions of Traditional Chinese Medicine". The State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine of the People’s Republic of China, Beijing, China
| | - Shifen Dong
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Yanyan Jiang
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
- The Key Research Laboratory of "Exploring Effective Substance in Classic and Famous Prescriptions of Traditional Chinese Medicine". The State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine of the People’s Republic of China, Beijing, China
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9
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Raschi E, Casula M, Cicero AFG, Corsini A, Borghi C, Catapano A. Beyond statins: New pharmacological targets to decrease LDL-cholesterol and cardiovascular events. Pharmacol Ther 2023; 250:108507. [PMID: 37567512 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2023.108507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2023] [Revised: 08/01/2023] [Accepted: 08/07/2023] [Indexed: 08/13/2023]
Abstract
The pharmacological treatment of dyslipidemia, a major modifiable risk factor for developing atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD), remains a debated and controversial issue, not only in terms of the most appropriate therapeutic range for lipid levels, but also with regard to the optimal strategy and sequence approach (stepwise vs upstream therapy). Current treatment guidelines for the management of dyslipidemia focus on the intensity of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) reduction, stratified according to risk for developing ASCVD. Beyond statins and ezetimibe, different medications targeting LDL-C have been recently approved by regulatory agencies with potential innovative mechanisms of action, including proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 modulators (monoclonal antibodies such as evolocumab and alirocumab; small interfering RNA molecules such as inclisiran), ATP-citrate lyase inhibitors (bempedoic acid), angiopoietin-like 3 inhibitors (evinacumab), and microsomal triglyceride transfer protein inhibitors (lomitapide). An understanding of their pharmacological aspects, benefit-risk profile, including impact on hard cardiovascular endpoints beyond LDL-C reduction, and potential advantages from the patient perspective (e.g., adherence) - the focus of this evidence-based review - is crucial for practitioners across medical specialties to minimize therapeutic inertia and support clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emanuel Raschi
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum - University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy.
| | - Manuela Casula
- Epidemiology and Preventive Pharmacology Service (SEFAP), Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Milan, Milan, Italy; IRCCS MultiMedica, Sesto S. Giovanni, Milan, Italy
| | - Arrigo F G Cicero
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum - University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy; IRCCS AOU S. Orsola-Malpighi, Bologna, Italy
| | - Alberto Corsini
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Claudio Borghi
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum - University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy; IRCCS AOU S. Orsola-Malpighi, Bologna, Italy
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10
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Iyer DR, Venkatraman J, Tanguy E, Vitale N, Mahapatra NR. Chromogranin A and its derived peptides: potential regulators of cholesterol homeostasis. Cell Mol Life Sci 2023; 80:271. [PMID: 37642733 PMCID: PMC11072126 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-023-04908-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2023] [Revised: 08/02/2023] [Accepted: 08/03/2023] [Indexed: 08/31/2023]
Abstract
Chromogranin A (CHGA), a member of the granin family of proteins, has been an attractive therapeutic target and candidate biomarker for several cardiovascular, neurological, and inflammatory disorders. The prominence of CHGA stems from the pleiotropic roles of several bioactive peptides (e.g., catestatin, pancreastatin, vasostatins) generated by its proteolytic cleavage and by their wide anatomical distribution. These peptides are emerging as novel modulators of cardiometabolic diseases that are often linked to high blood cholesterol levels. However, their impact on cholesterol homeostasis is poorly understood. The dynamic nature of cholesterol and its multitudinous roles in almost every aspect of normal body function makes it an integral component of metabolic physiology. A tightly regulated coordination of cholesterol homeostasis is imperative for proper functioning of cellular and metabolic processes. The deregulation of cholesterol levels can result in several pathophysiological states. Although studies till date suggest regulatory roles for CHGA and its derived peptides on cholesterol levels, the mechanisms by which this is achieved still remain unclear. This review aims to aggregate and consolidate the available evidence linking CHGA with cholesterol homeostasis in health and disease. In addition, we also look at common molecular regulatory factors (viz., transcription factors and microRNAs) which could govern the expression of CHGA and genes involved in cholesterol homeostasis under basal and pathological conditions. In order to gain further insights into the pathways mediating cholesterol regulation by CHGA/its derived peptides, a few prospective signaling pathways are explored, which could act as primers for future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dhanya R Iyer
- Department of Biotechnology, Bhupat and Jyoti Mehta School of Biosciences, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, 600036, India
| | - Janani Venkatraman
- Department of Biotechnology, Bhupat and Jyoti Mehta School of Biosciences, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, 600036, India
| | - Emeline Tanguy
- Institut des Neurosciences Cellulaires et Intégratives, CNRS UPR 3212 and Université de Strasbourg, 5 Rue Blaise Pascal, 67000, Strasbourg, France
| | - Nicolas Vitale
- Institut des Neurosciences Cellulaires et Intégratives, CNRS UPR 3212 and Université de Strasbourg, 5 Rue Blaise Pascal, 67000, Strasbourg, France.
| | - Nitish R Mahapatra
- Department of Biotechnology, Bhupat and Jyoti Mehta School of Biosciences, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, 600036, India.
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11
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Kuethe JT, Lee J, Thaisrivongs D, Yasuda N, Pollack SR, Leone J, DaSilva J, Biba M, Tsay FR, Regalado EL, Qi J, Li H, Poggetto GD, Cohen R. Synthesis of a Complex and Highly Potent PCSK9 Inhibitor. Org Lett 2023; 25:5001-5005. [PMID: 37382389 DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.3c01635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/30/2023]
Abstract
The solution-based gram-scale synthesis of complex and highly potent proprotein convertase subtilisin-like/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) inhibitor 1 is presented. Construction of Northern fragment 2, followed by stepwise installation of Eastern 3, Southern 4, and Western 5 fragments, provided macrocyclic precursor 19. This intermediate was cross-linked via an intramolecular azide-alkyne click reaction, which preceded macrolactamization to afford the core framework of compound 1. Finally, coupling with poly(ethylene glycol) side-chain-based 6 gave the PCSK9 inhibitor 1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey T Kuethe
- Department of Process Research and Development, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey 07065, United States
| | - Joshua Lee
- Department of Process Research and Development, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey 07065, United States
| | - David Thaisrivongs
- Department of Process Research and Development, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey 07065, United States
| | - Nobuyoshi Yasuda
- Department of Process Research and Development, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey 07065, United States
| | - Scott R Pollack
- Department of Process Research and Development, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey 07065, United States
| | - Joseph Leone
- Department of Process Research and Development, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey 07065, United States
| | - Jimmy DaSilva
- Department of Process Research and Development, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey 07065, United States
| | - Mirlinda Biba
- Department of Process Research and Development, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey 07065, United States
| | - Fuh-Rong Tsay
- Department of Process Research and Development, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey 07065, United States
| | - Erik L Regalado
- Department of Process Research and Development, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey 07065, United States
| | - Ji Qi
- Department of Process Research and Development, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey 07065, United States
| | - Hongming Li
- Department of Process Research and Development, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey 07065, United States
| | - Guilherme Dal Poggetto
- Department of Process Research and Development, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey 07065, United States
| | - Ryan Cohen
- Department of Process Research and Development, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey 07065, United States
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12
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Burnett JR, Hooper AJ. MK-0616: an oral PCSK9 inhibitor for hypercholesterolemia treatment. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2023; 32:873-878. [PMID: 37815341 DOI: 10.1080/13543784.2023.2267972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2023] [Accepted: 10/04/2023] [Indexed: 10/11/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Lowering LDL-cholesterol, by lifestyle modification or therapeutically, reduces the risk of ASCVD. Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9), a protein which binds to the LDL-receptor and induces degradation, is a clinically validated target to lower LDL-cholesterol. Injectable PCSK9 inhibitor therapies have demonstrated substantial reductions in LDL-cholesterol with associated decreased risk of ASCVD events. AREAS COVERED MK-0616 is an orally bioavailable, renally excreted, macrocyclic peptide inhibitor of PCSK9. The article provides an understanding of the chemistry and development, pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic characteristics of MK-0616 and insight into its clinical efficacy and safety. In clinical trials, MK-0616 produced dose-dependent reductions in LDL-cholesterol, non-HDL-cholesterol, and apolipoprotein (apo) B levels. Furthermore, MK-0616 modestly lowered lipoprotein (a) [Lp(a)]. EXPERT OPINION MK-0616 is a potent, oral macrocyclic peptide inhibitor of PCSK9 that is not only able to reduce LDL-cholesterol, non-HDL-cholesterol, and apoB, but can also lower Lp(a). Safety and tolerability studies reported to date are promising. MK-0616 may offer advantages over injectable anti-PCSK9 therapies in terms of ease of dosing, patient preference and cost. The results from phase III trials of MK-0616 on cardiovascular outcomes are awaited with interest.
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Affiliation(s)
- John R Burnett
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, PathWest Laboratory Medicine, Perth, Western Australia
- Royal Perth Hospital & Fiona Stanley Hospital Network, Perth, Western Australia
| | - Amanda J Hooper
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, PathWest Laboratory Medicine, Perth, Western Australia
- School of Medicine, University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia
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13
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Rikhi R, Shapiro MD. Proprotein Convertase Subtilisin/Kexin Type 9 Inhibition: The Big Step Forward in Lipid Control. Eur Cardiol 2023; 18:e45. [PMID: 37456766 PMCID: PMC10345936 DOI: 10.15420/ecr.2023.14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2023] [Accepted: 04/14/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The breakthrough discovery of proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) 20 years ago revolutionised the current understanding of cholesterol homeostasis. Genetic studies have shown that gain-of-function mutations in PCSK9 lead to elevated LDL cholesterol and increased risk of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, while loss-of-function mutations in PCSK9 result in lifelong low levels of circulating LDL cholesterol and dramatic reduction in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Therapies inhibiting PCSK9 lead to a higher density of LDL receptor on the surface of hepatocytes, resulting in greater ability to clear circulating LDL. Thus far, randomised controlled trials have shown that subcutaneous fully human monoclonal antibodies targeting PCSK9, evolocumab and alirocumab, and PCSK9 silencing with inclisiran result in drastic reductions in LDL cholesterol. Additionally, several novel strategies to target PCSK9 are in development, including oral antibody, gene silencing, DNA base editing and vaccine therapies. This review highlights the efficacy, safety and clinical use of these various approaches in PCSK9 inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rishi Rikhi
- Center for Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease, Section on Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Wake Forest University School of Medicine Winston-Salem, NC, US
| | - Michael D Shapiro
- Center for Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease, Section on Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Wake Forest University School of Medicine Winston-Salem, NC, US
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14
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Gherasie FA, Popescu MR, Bartos D. Acute Coronary Syndrome: Disparities of Pathophysiology and Mortality with and without Peripheral Artery Disease. J Pers Med 2023; 13:944. [PMID: 37373933 DOI: 10.3390/jpm13060944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2023] [Revised: 05/25/2023] [Accepted: 05/28/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
There are a number of devastating complications associated with peripheral artery disease, including limb amputations and acute limb ischemia. Despite the overlap, atherosclerotic diseases have distinct causes that need to be differentiated and managed appropriately. In coronary atherosclerosis, thrombosis is often precipitated by rupture or erosion of fibrous caps around atheromatous plaques, which leads to acute coronary syndrome. Regardless of the extent of atherosclerosis, peripheral artery disease manifests itself as thrombosis. Two-thirds of patients with acute limb ischemia have thrombi associated with insignificant atherosclerosis. A local thrombogenic or remotely embolic basis of critical limb ischemia may be explained by obliterative thrombi in peripheral arteries of patients without coronary artery-like lesions. Studies showed that thrombosis of the above-knee arteries was more commonly due to calcified nodules, which are the least common cause of luminal thrombosis associated with acute coronary events in patients with acute coronary syndrome. Cardiovascular mortality was higher in peripheral artery disease without myocardial infarction/stroke than in myocardial infarction/stroke without peripheral artery disease. The aim of this paper is to gather published data regarding the disparities of acute coronary syndrome with and without peripheral artery disease in terms of pathophysiology and mortality.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mihaela-Roxana Popescu
- Department of Cardiology, University of Medicine and Pharmacy "Carol Davila," 050474 Bucharest, Romania
- Department of Cardiology, Elias Emergency University Hospital, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 011461 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Daniela Bartos
- Department of Cardiology, University of Medicine and Pharmacy "Carol Davila," 050474 Bucharest, Romania
- Department of Internal Medicine, Clinical University Emergency Hospital, 014461 Bucharest, Romania
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15
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Cable J, Witwer KW, Coffey RJ, Milosavljevic A, von Lersner AK, Jimenez L, Pucci F, Barr MM, Dekker N, Barman B, Humphrys D, Williams J, de Palma M, Guo W, Bastos N, Hill AF, Levy E, Hantak MP, Crewe C, Aikawa E, Adamczyk AM, Zanotto TM, Ostrowski M, Arab T, Rabe DC, Sheikh A, da Silva DR, Jones JC, Okeoma C, Gaborski T, Zhang Q, Gololobova O. Exosomes, microvesicles, and other extracellular vesicles-a Keystone Symposia report. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2023; 1523:24-37. [PMID: 36961472 DOI: 10.1111/nyas.14974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/20/2023]
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are small, lipid-bilayer-bound particles released by cells that can contain important bioactive molecules, including lipids, RNAs, and proteins. Once released in the extracellular environment, EVs can act as messengers locally as well as to distant tissues to coordinate tissue homeostasis and systemic responses. There is a growing interest in not only understanding the physiology of EVs as signaling particles but also leveraging them as minimally invasive diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers (e.g., they can be found in biofluids) and drug-delivery vehicles. On October 30-November 2, 2022, researchers in the EV field convened for the Keystone symposium "Exosomes, Microvesicles, and Other Extracellular Vesicles" to discuss developing standardized language and methodology, new data on the basic biology of EVs and potential clinical utility, as well as novel technologies to isolate and characterize EVs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kenneth W Witwer
- Department of Molecular and Comparative Pathobiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Robert J Coffey
- Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Aleksandar Milosavljevic
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics; Dan L Duncan Comprehensive Cancer Center; and Program in Quantitative and Computational Biosciences, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA
| | | | - Lizandra Jimenez
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Ferdinando Pucci
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery; Department of Cell, Developmental & Cancer Biology; Knight Cancer Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon, USA
| | - Maureen M Barr
- Department of Genetics and Human Genetics Institute of New Jersey, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, New Jersey, USA
| | - Niek Dekker
- Protein Sciences, Discovery Sciences, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Bahnisikha Barman
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | | | - Justin Williams
- University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, USA
| | - Michele de Palma
- Swiss Institute for Experimental Cancer Research (ISREC), School of Life Sciences, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Lausanne (EPFL); Agora Cancer Research Center; and Swiss Cancer Center Léman (SCCL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Wei Guo
- Department of Biology, School of Arts & Sciences, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Nuno Bastos
- i3S Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde; IPATIMUP Institute of Molecular Pathology and Immunology; and ICBAS Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas Abel Salazar, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Andrew F Hill
- Research Centre for Extracellular Vesicles; Department of Biochemistry and Chemistry, School of Agriculture, Biomedicine and Environment, La Trobe University and Institute for Health and Sport, Victoria University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Efrat Levy
- Center for Dementia Research, Nathan S. Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, Orangeburg, New York, USA
- Department of Psychiatry; Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Pharmacology; and NYU Neuroscience Institute, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA
| | - Michael P Hantak
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA
| | - Clair Crewe
- Touchstone Diabetes Center, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
- Department of Cell Biology, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Elena Aikawa
- Center for Interdisciplinary Cardiovascular Sciences, Division of Cardiovascular Medicine and Center for Excellence in Vascular Biology, Department of Medicine; Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | | | - Tamires M Zanotto
- Section of Integrative Physiology and Metabolism, Joslin Diabetes Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Matias Ostrowski
- Facultad de Medicina, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas en Retrovirus y Sida (INBIRS), Universidad de Buenos Aires (UBA) and Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Tanina Arab
- Department of Molecular and Comparative Pathobiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Daniel C Rabe
- Mass General Cancer Center, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Aadil Sheikh
- Department of Biology, College of Arts and Sciences, Baylor University, Waco, Texas, USA
| | | | - Jennifer C Jones
- Translational Nanobiology Section, Laboratory of Pathology and Vaccine Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Chioma Okeoma
- Department of Pharmacology, Stony Brook University Renaissance School of Medicine, Stony Brook, New York, USA
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, New York Medical College, Valhalla, New York, USA
| | - Thomas Gaborski
- School of Chemistry and Materials Science, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, New York, USA
| | - Qin Zhang
- Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Olesia Gololobova
- Department of Molecular and Comparative Pathobiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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16
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PCSK9 Inhibitors in Cancer Patients Treated with Immune-Checkpoint Inhibitors to Reduce Cardiovascular Events: New Frontiers in Cardioncology. Cancers (Basel) 2023; 15:cancers15051397. [PMID: 36900189 PMCID: PMC10000232 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15051397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2023] [Revised: 02/17/2023] [Accepted: 02/20/2023] [Indexed: 02/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Cancer patients treated with immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) are exposed to a high risk of atherosclerosis and cardiometabolic diseases due to systemic inflammatory conditions and immune-related atheroma destabilization. Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) is a key protein involved in metabolism of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol. PCSK9 blocking agents are clinically available and involve monoclonal antibodies, and SiRNA reduces LDL levels in high-risk patients and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease events in multiple patient cohorts. Moreover, PCSK9 induces peripheral immune tolerance (inhibition of cancer cell- immune recognition), reduces cardiac mitochondrial metabolism, and enhances cancer cell survival. The present review summarizes the potential benefits of PCSK9 inhibition through selective blocking antibodies and siRNA in patients with cancer, especially in those treated with ICIs therapies, in order to reduce atherosclerotic cardiovascular events and potentially improve ICIs-related anticancer functions.
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