Associative and Entanglement Contributions to the Solution Rheology of a Bacterial Polysaccharide

Cyclic di-GMP as an antitoxin regulates bacterial genome stability and antibiotic persistence in biofilms

Biofilms are complex bacterial communities characterized by a high persister prevalence, which contributes to chronic and relapsing infections. Historically, persister formation in biofilms has been linked to constraints imposed by their dense structures. However, we observed an elevated persister frequency accompanying the stage of cell adhesion, marking the onset of biofilm development. Subsequent mechanistic studies uncovered a comparable type of toxin-antitoxin (TA) module (TA-like system) triggered by cell adhesion, which is responsible for this elevation. In this module, the toxin HipH acts as a genotoxic deoxyribonuclease, inducing DNA double strand breaks and genome instability. While the second messenger c-di-GMP functions as the antitoxin, exerting control over HipH expression and activity. The dynamic interplay between c-di-GMP and HipH levels emerges as a crucial determinant governing genome stability and persister generation within biofilms. These findings unveil a unique TA system, where small molecules act as the antitoxin, outlining a biofilm-specific molecular mechanism influencing genome stability and antibiotic persistence, with potential implications for treating biofilm infections.

Microstructures and Rheological Properties of Short-Side-Chain Perfluorosulfonic Acid in Water/2-Propanol

The viscosity and viscoelasticity of polyelectrolyte solutions with a single electrostatic interaction have been carefully studied experimentally and theoretically. Despite some theoretical models describe experimental results well, the influence of multiple interactions (electrostatic and hydrophobic) on rheological scaling is not yet fully resolved. Herein, we systematically study the microstructures and rheological properties of short-side-chain perfluorosulfonic acid (S-PFSA), the most promising candidate of a proton exchange membrane composed of a hydrophobic backbone with hydrophilic side-chains, in water/2-propanol. Small-angle X-ray scattering confirms that semiflexible S-PFSA colloidal particles with a length of ~38 nm and a diameter of 1-1.3 nm are formed, and the concentration dependence of the correlation length (ξ) obeys the power law ξ~c-0.5 consistent with the prediction of Dobrynin et al. By combining macrorheology with diffusing wave spectroscopy microrheology, the semidilute unentangled, semidilute entangled, and concentrated regimes corresponding to the scaling relationships ηsp~c0.5, ηsp~c1.5, and ηsp~c4.1 are determined. The linear viscoelasticity indicates that the entanglement concentration (ce) obtained from the dependence of ηsp on the polymer concentration is underestimated owing to hydrophobic interaction. The true entanglement concentration (cte) is obtained by extrapolating the plateau modulus (Ge) to the terminal modulus (Gt). Furthermore, Ge and the plateau width, τr/τe (τr and τe denote reptation time and Rouse time), scale as Ge~c2.4 and τr/τe~c4.2, suggesting that S-PFSA dispersions behave like neutral polymer solutions in the concentrated regime. This work provides mechanistic insight into the rheological behavior of an S-PFSA dispersion, enabling quantitative control over the flow properties in the process of solution coating.

Microbes in porous environments: from active interactions to emergent feedback

Microbes thrive in diverse porous environments-from soil and riverbeds to human lungs and cancer tissues-spanning multiple scales and conditions. Short- to long-term fluctuations in local factors induce spatio-temporal heterogeneities, often leading to physiologically stressful settings. How microbes respond and adapt to such biophysical constraints is an active field of research where considerable insight has been gained over the last decades. With a focus on bacteria, here we review recent advances in self-organization and dispersal in inorganic and organic porous settings, highlighting the role of active interactions and feedback that mediates microbial survival and fitness. We discuss open questions and opportunities for using integrative approaches to advance our understanding of the biophysical strategies which microbes employ at various scales to make porous settings habitable.

Elevated fucose content enhances the cryoprotective performance of anionic polysaccharides

Biological cryopreservation often involves using a cryoprotective agent (CPA) to mitigate lethal physical stressors cells endure during freezing and thawing, but effective CPA concentrations are cytotoxic. Hence, natural polysaccharides have been studied as biocompatible alternatives. Here, a subset of 26 natural polysaccharides of various chemical composition was probed for their potential in enhancing the metabolic post-thaw viability (PTV) of cryopreserved Vero cells. The best performing cryoprotective polysaccharides contained significant fucose amounts, resulting in average PTV 2.8-fold (up to 3.1-fold) compared to 0.8-fold and 2.2-fold for all non-cryoprotective and cryoprotective polysaccharides, respectively, outperforming the optimized commercial CryoStor™ CS5 formulation (2.6-fold). Stoichiometrically, a balance between fucose (18-35.7 mol%), uronic acids (UA) (13.5-26 mol%) and high molecular weight (MW > 1 MDa) generated optimal PTV. Principal component analysis (PCA) revealed that fucose enhances cell survival by a charge-independent, MW-scaling mechanism (PC1), drastically different from the charge-dominated ice growth disruption of UA (PC2). Its neutral nature and unique properties distinguishable from other neutral monomers suggest fucose may play a passive role in conformational adaptability of polysaccharide to ice growth inhibition, or an active role in cell membrane stabilization through binding. Ultimately, fucose-rich anionic polysaccharides may indulge in polymer-ice and polymer-cell interactions that actively disrupt ice and minimize lethal volumetric fluctuations due to a balanced hydrophobic-hydrophilic character. Our research showed the critical role neutral fucose plays in enhancing cellular cryopreservation outcomes, disputing previous assumptions of polyanionicity being the sole governing predictor of cryoprotection.

Molecular and Colloidal Transport in Bacterial Cellulose Hydrogels

Bacterial cellulose biofilms are complex networks of strong interwoven nanofibers that control transport and protect bacterial colonies in the film. The design of diverse applications of these bacterial cellulose films also relies on understanding and controlling transport through the fiber mesh, and transport simulations of the films are most accurate when guided by experimental characterization of the structures and the resultant diffusion inside. Diffusion through such films is a function of their key microstructural length scales, determining how molecules, as well as particles and microorganisms, permeate them. We use microscopy to study the unique bacterial cellulose film via its pore structure and quantify the mobility dynamics of various sizes of tracer particles and macromolecules. Mobility is hindered within the films, as confinement and local movement strongly depend on the void size relative to diffusing tracers. The biofilms have a naturally periodic structure of alternating dense and porous layers of nanofiber mesh, and we tune the magnitude of the spacing via fermentation conditions. Micron-sized particles can diffuse through the porous layers but cannot penetrate the dense layers. Tracer mobility in the porous layers is isotropic, indicating a largely random pore structure there. Molecular diffusion through the whole film is only slightly reduced by the structural tortuosity. Knowledge of transport variations within bacterial cellulose networks can be used to guide the design of symbiotic cultures in these structures and enhance their use in applications like biomedical implants, wound dressings, lab-grown meat, clothing textiles, and sensors.

Population genetics, biofilm recalcitrance, and antibiotic resistance evolution

Biofilms are communities of bacteria forming high-density sessile colonies. Such a lifestyle comes associated with costs and benefits: while the growth rate of biofilms is often lower than that of their free-living counterparts, this cost is readily repaid once the colony is subjected to antibiotics. Biofilms can grow in antibiotic concentrations a thousand times higher than planktonic bacteria. While numerous mechanisms have been proposed to explain biofilm recalcitrance towards antibiotics, little is yet known about their effect on the evolution of resistance. We synthesize the current understanding of biofilm recalcitrance from a pharmacodynamic and a population genetics perspective. Using the pharmacodynamic framework, we discuss the effects of various mechanisms and show that biofilms can either promote or impede resistance evolution.

Quantifying Properties of Polysaccharide Solutions

We apply a scaling theory of semidilute polymer solutions to quantify solution properties of polysaccharides such as galactomannan, chitosan, sodium carboxymethyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose, methyl cellulose, xanthan, apple pectin, cellulose tris(phenyl carbamate), hydroxyethyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl cellulose, sodium hyaluronate, sodium alginate, and sodium κ-carrageenan. In particular, we obtain the molar mass of the chain segment inside a correlation blob M _g = B̂ ^3/(3ν-1) c ^1/(1-3ν) as a function of concentration c, interaction parameter B̂, and exponent ν. Parameter B̂ assumes values B̂ _g, B̂ _th and M ₀/N _A ^1/3 l for exponents v = 0.588, 0.5 and 1, respectively, where M ₀ is the molar mass of a repeat unit, l is the projection length of a repeat unit, and N _A is the Avogadro number. In the different solution regimes, the values of the B̂-parameters are extracted from the plateaus of the normalized specific viscosity η_sp (c)/M _w c ^1/(3ν-1), where M _w is the weight-average molecular weight of the polymer chain. The values of the B̂-parameters are used in calculations of the excluded volume v, Kuhn length b, and crossover concentrations c*, c _th, and c** into a semidilute polymer solution, a solution of overlapping thermal blobs and a concentrated polymer solution, respectively. This information is summarized as a diagram of states of different polysaccharide solution regimes by implementing a v/bl ² and c/c** representation. The scaling approach is extended to the entangled solution regime, allowing us to obtain the chain packing number, P̃ _e. This completes the set of parameters {B̂ _g, B̂ _th, P̃ _e} which uniquely describes the static and dynamic properties of a polysaccharide solution.

Glyceraldehyde as an Efficient Chemical Crosslinker Agent for the Formation of Chitosan Hydrogels

The rheological changes that occur during the chemical gelation of semidilute solutions of chitosan in the presence of the low-toxicity agent glyceraldehyde (GCA) are presented and discussed in detail. The entanglement concentration for chitosan solutions was found to be approximately 0.2 wt.% and the rheological experiments were carried out on 1 wt.% chitosan solutions with various amounts of GCA at different temperatures (25 °C and 40 °C) and pH values (4.8 and 5.8). High crosslinker concentration, as well as elevated temperature and pH close to the pKa value (pH ≈ 6.3-7) of chitosan are three parameters that all accelerate the gelation process. These conditions also promote a faster solid-like response of the gel-network in the post-gel region after long curing times. The mesh size of the gel-network after a very long (18 h) curing time was found to contract with increasing level of crosslinker addition and elevated temperature. The gelation of chitosan in the presence of other chemical crosslinker agents (glutaraldehyde and genipin) is discussed and a comparison with GCA is made. Small angle neutron scattering (SANS) results reveal structural changes between chitosan solutions, incipient gels, and mature gels.

Oscillatory rheology of carboxymethyl cellulose gels: Influence of concentration and pH

The flow properties of ionic polysaccharides are determined by the interplay of electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions, which depend on the ionic strength and pH of the solvent. We explore the LVE and LAOS rheology of carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) in aqueous media, focusing on its gelling behaviour. We find that addition of HCl promotes gel formation and addition of NaOH suppresses it. The former effect is interpreted as being caused by a decrease of the charge density of the polymer, which facilitates interchain associations and the later effect can be assigned to solubilisation of cellulose backbone by NaOH. Our results along with a review of the literature allow us to establish the concentration regimes and associated properties of physical gels of carboxymethyl cellulose. At neutral pH, the storage modulus of NaCMC gels of varying molecular weight and DS at a given concentration does not vary by more than a factor 5.

Polyelectrolyte cellulose gel with PEG/water: Toward fully green lubricating grease

Developing a fully green lubricant is an urgent need due to the growing consciousness of environmental protection and dwindling resources. In this work, fully green gel lubricants were developed out of cellulose derivatives as gelator and mixture of water and poly(ethylene glycol) 200 (PEG 200) as the base fluid. The non-ionic hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC) and anionic sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (NaCMC) were chosen to understand the effect of ionic and non-ionic gelators on the thermal, rheological and the tribological properties of the gel lubricant. HEC or NaCMC is demonstrated as effective additive to reduce wear, stabilize friction coefficient and enhance the thermal stability of developed lubricants. It is shown that anionic gelator will result in producing lower friction and wear in comparison to non-ionic gelator, which may be attributed to the possible tribo-film formation due to the negative charge in the NaCMC molecules and its larger molecular weight.

Surviving as a Community: Antibiotic Tolerance and Persistence in Bacterial Biofilms

Biofilms are surface-associated bacterial communities that play both beneficial and harmful roles in nature, medicine, and industry. Tolerant and persister cells are thought to underlie biofilm-related bacterial recurrence in medical and industrial contexts. Here, we review recent progress aimed at understanding the mechanical features that drive biofilm resilience and the biofilm formation process at single-cell resolution. We discuss findings regarding mechanisms underlying bacterial tolerance and persistence in biofilms and how these phenotypes are linked to antibiotic resistance. New strategies for combatting tolerance and persistence in biofilms and possible methods for biofilm eradication are highlighted to inspire future development.

Regulating, Measuring, and Modeling the Viscoelasticity of Bacterial Biofilms

Biofilms occur in a broad range of environments under heterogeneous physicochemical conditions, such as in bioremediation plants, on surfaces of biomedical implants, and in the lungs of cystic fibrosis patients. In these scenarios, biofilms are subjected to shear forces, but the mechanical integrity of these aggregates often prevents their disruption or dispersal. Biofilms' physical robustness is the result of the multiple biopolymers secreted by constituent microbial cells which are also responsible for numerous biological functions. A better understanding of the role of these biopolymers and their response to dynamic forces is therefore crucial for understanding the interplay between biofilm structure and function. In this paper, we review experimental techniques in rheology, which help quantify the viscoelasticity of biofilms, and modeling approaches from soft matter physics that can assist our understanding of the rheological properties. We describe how these methods could be combined with synthetic biology approaches to control and investigate the effects of secreted polymers on the physical properties of biofilms. We argue that without an integrated approach of the three disciplines, the links between genetics, composition, and interaction of matrix biopolymers and the viscoelastic properties of biofilms will be much harder to uncover.

Bacterial Biofilm Material Properties Enable Removal and Transfer by Capillary Peeling

Biofilms, surface-attached communities of bacterial cells, are a concern in health and in industrial operations because of persistent infections, clogging of flows, and surface fouling. Extracellular matrices provide mechanical protection to biofilm-dwelling cells as well as protection from chemical insults, including antibiotics. Understanding how biofilm material properties arise from constituent matrix components and how these properties change in different environments is crucial for designing biofilm removal strategies. Here, using rheological characterization and surface analyses of Vibrio cholerae biofilms, it is discovered how extracellular polysaccharides, proteins, and cells function together to define biofilm mechanical and interfacial properties. Using insight gained from our measurements, a facile capillary peeling technology is developed to remove biofilms from surfaces or to transfer intact biofilms from one surface to another. It is shown that the findings are applicable to other biofilm-forming bacterial species and to multiple surfaces. Thus, the technology and the understanding that have been developed could potentially be employed to characterize and/or treat biofilm-related infections and industrial biofouling problems.

Confined Flow: Consequences and Implications for Bacteria and Biofilms

Bacteria overwhelmingly live in geometrically confined habitats that feature small pores or cavities, narrow channels, or nearby interfaces. Fluid flows through these confined habitats are ubiquitous in both natural and artificial environments colonized by bacteria. Moreover, these flows occur on time and length scales comparable to those associated with motility of bacteria and with the formation and growth of biofilms, which are surface-associated communities that house the vast majority of bacteria to protect them from host and environmental stresses. This review describes the emerging understanding of how flow near surfaces and within channels and pores alters physical processes that control how bacteria disperse, attach to surfaces, and form biofilms. This understanding will inform the development and deployment of technologies for drug delivery, water treatment, and antifouling coatings and guide the structuring of bacterial consortia for production of chemicals and pharmaceuticals.