Ultrafast Optoelectronic Processes in 1D Radial van der Waals Heterostructures: Carbon, Boron Nitride, and MoS2 Nanotubes with Coexisting Excitons and Highly Mobile Charges

van der Waals one-dimensional atomic crystal heterostructure derived from carbon nanotubes

One-dimensional (1D) van der Waals (vdWs) heterojunctions, due to the dimensional reduction leading to 1D quantum confinement effects and interface effects of the heterojunctions, typically exhibit discrete energy levels and strong electron interactions, resulting in unique conductive and optical behaviors. Carbon nanotube (CNT)-derived 1D atomic crystal vdWs heterojunctions represent a new class of 1D vdWs heterojunctions. They leverage the excellent chemical stability, nanoscale cavities, and adjustable diameters provided by CNTs as templates, ensuring controlled synthesis and precise structural tuning. The 1D radial pathways can alter the photonic-electronic propagation characteristics. At the same time, their unique metal-semiconductor-like electronic structure creates conditions for constructing various types of heterojunctions. The CNTs and their encapsulated 1D materials can lead to synergistic enhancement in the fields of electronics, magnetism, and optics. Currently, research is concentrated on understanding the synthesis mechanisms, integration characteristics, and host-guest interactions, and the exploration of novel 1D atomic crystal vdWs heterojunctions derived from CNTs. This review is focused on the latest progress made in 1D vdWs heterojunctions using CNTs as growth templates, emphasizing the construction methods, selection criteria, and the unique properties and applications arising from these complex interfacial electronic or phonon interactions. We also propose several future directions for the development of CNT-derived 1D atomic crystal vdWs heterojunctions. This review aims to enhance the understanding of their synthesis mechanisms and fundamental properties, broaden the range of available materials, and explore new and broader applications.

"Surface-Like Growth" Strategy for the Direct Synthesis of Horizontally Aligned Boron Nitride Nanotubes

The inherent properties of boron nitride nanotubes (BNNTs) can be further enhanced through the control of their anisotropy. In particular, horizontally aligned BNNTs (HABNNTs) exhibit considerable potential for various applications. However, directly synthesizing HABNNTs is difficult owing to the random floating of BNNTs and the absence of directional forces. Here, we employed a simple, efficient, and universal "surface-like growth" strategy to synthesize high-density and high-quality HABNNTs in the W2B5/Zn precursor system. First, the floating range of BNNTs was restricted to the vicinity of the precursor, and then, directional forces were applied to induce BNNT directional growth along the substrate surface. Experiments and simulations confirmed that the HABNNT orientation could be controlled through manipulation of the directional forces. Furthermore, the strategy was employed for HABNNTs synthesis using the MoB2/Zn, further demonstrating the universality of the approach. Overall, this work offers a fresh perspective on the synthesis of HABNNTs, further expanding their potential applications.

Photoinduced dynamics during electronic transfer from narrow to wide bandgap layers in one-dimensional heterostructured materials

Electron transfer is a fundamental energy conversion process widely present in synthetic, industrial, and natural systems. Understanding the electron transfer process is important to exploit the uniqueness of the low-dimensional van der Waals (vdW) heterostructures because interlayer electron transfer produces the function of this class of material. Here, we show the occurrence of an electron transfer process in one-dimensional layer-stacking of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and boron nitride nanotubes (BNNTs). This observation makes use of femtosecond broadband optical spectroscopy, ultrafast time-resolved electron diffraction, and first-principles theoretical calculations. These results reveal that near-ultraviolet photoexcitation induces an electron transfer from the conduction bands of CNT to BNNT layers via electronic decay channels. This physical process subsequently generates radial phonons in the one-dimensional vdW heterostructure material. The gathered insights unveil the fundamentals physics of interfacial interactions in low dimensional vdW heterostructures and their photoinduced dynamics, pushing their limits for photoactive multifunctional applications.

Recent Advances in Low-Dimensional Nanomaterials for Photodetectors

New emerging low-dimensional such as 0D, 1D, and 2D nanomaterials have attracted tremendous research interests in various fields of state-of-the-art electronics, optoelectronics, and photonic applications due to their unique structural features and associated electronic, mechanical, and optical properties as well as high-throughput fabrication for large-area and low-cost production and integration. Particularly, photodetectors which transform light to electrical signals are one of the key components in modern optical communication and developed imaging technologies for whole application spectrum in the daily lives, including X-rays and ultraviolet biomedical imaging, visible light camera, and infrared night vision and spectroscopy. Today, diverse photodetector technologies are growing in terms of functionality and performance beyond the conventional silicon semiconductor, and low-dimensional nanomaterials have been demonstrated as promising potential platforms. In this review, the current states of progress on the development of these nanomaterials and their applications in the field of photodetectors are summarized. From the elemental combination for material design and lattice structure to the essential investigations of hybrid device architectures, various devices and recent developments including wearable photodetectors and neuromorphic applications are fully introduced. Finally, the future perspectives and challenges of the low-dimensional nanomaterials based photodetectors are also discussed.

Ternary GePdS3: 1D van der Waals Nanowires for Integration of High-Performance Flexible Photodetectors

One-dimensional (1D) van der Waals (vdW) materials are anticipated to leverage for high-performance, giant polarized, and hybrid-dimension photodetection owing to their dangling-bond free surface, intrinsic crystal structure, and weak vdW interaction. However, only a few related explorations have been conducted, especially in the field of flexible and integrated applications. Here, high-quality 1D vdW GePdS₃ nanowires were synthesized and proven to be an n-type semiconductor. The Raman vibration and band gap (1.37-1.68 eV, varying from bulk to single chain) of GePdS₃ were systemically studied by experimental and theoretical methods. The photodetector based on a single GePdS₃ nanowire possesses fast photoresponse at a broadband spectrum of 254-1550 nm. The highest responsivity and detectivity reach up to ∼219 A/W and ∼2.7 × 10¹⁰ Jones (under 254 nm light illumination), respectively. Furthermore, an image sensor with 6 × 6 pixels based on GePdS₃ nanowires is integrated on a flexible polyethylene terephthalate (PET) substrate and exhibits sensitive and homogeneous detection at 808 nm light. These results indicate that the ternary noble metal chalcogenides show great potential in flexible and broadband optoelectronics applications.

Spectroscopic Insights into the Influence of Filling Carbon Nanotubes with Atomic Nanowires for Photophysical and Photochemical Applications

Studying the optical performance of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) filled with guest materials can reveal the fundamental photochemical nature of ultrathin one-dimensional (1D) nanosystems, which are attractive for applications including photocatalysis. Here, we report comprehensive spectroscopic studies of how infiltrated HgTe nanowires (NWs) alter the optical properties of small-diameter (d _t < 1 nm) single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) in different environments: isolated in solution, suspended in a gelatin matrix, and heavily bundled in network-like thin films. Temperature-dependent Raman and photoluminescence measurements revealed that the HgTe NW filling can alter the stiffness of SWCNTs and therefore modify their vibrational and optical modes. Results from optical absorption and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy demonstrated that the semiconducting HgTe NWs did not provide substantial charge transfer to or from the SWCNTs. Transient absorption spectroscopy further highlighted that the filling-induced nanotube distortion can alter the temporal evolution of excitons and their transient spectra. In contrast to previous studies on functionalized CNTs, where electronic or chemical doping often drove changes to the optical spectra, we highlight structural distortion as playing an important role.

Enhancing Photodetection Ability of MoS2 Nanoscrolls via Interface Engineering

Van der Waals semiconductors have been really confirmed in two-dimensional (2D) layered systems beyond the traditional limits of lattice-matching requirements. The extension of this concept to the 1D atomic level may generate intriguing physical functionalities due to its non-covalent bonding surface. However, whether the curvature of the lattice in such rolled-up structures affects their optoelectronic features or the performance of devices established on them remains an open question. Here, MoS₂-based nanoscrolls were obtained by virtue of an alkaline solution-assisted method and the 0D/1D (BaTiO₃/MoS₂) strategy to tune their optoelectronic properties and improve the light sensing performance was explored. The capillary force generated by a drop of NaHCO₃ solution could drive the delamination of nanosheets from the underlying substrate and a spontaneous rolling-up process. The package of BaTiO₃ particles in MoS₂ nanoscrolls has been evident by TEM image, and the optical characterizations were mirrored via micro-Raman spectroscopy and photoluminescence. These bare MoS₂ nanoscrolls reveal a reduced photoresponse compared to the plane structures due to the curvature of the lattice. However, such BaTiO₃/MoS₂ nanoscrolls exhibit a significantly improved photodetection (R_hybrid = 73.9 A/W vs R_only = 1.1 A/W and R_2D = 1.5 A/W at 470 nm, 0.58 mW·cm^-2), potentially due to the carrier extraction/injection occurring between BaTiO₃ and MoS₂. This study thereby provides an insight into 1D van der Waals material community and demonstrates a general approach to fabricate high-performance 1D van der Waals optoelectronic devices.

Recent Advances in Rolling 2D TMDs Nanosheets into 1D TMDs Nanotubes/Nanoscrolls

Transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs) van der Waals (vdW) 1D heterostructures are recently synthesized from 2D nanosheets, which open up new opportunities for potential applications in electronic and optoelectronic devices. The most recent and promising strategies in regards to forming 1D TMDs nanotubes (NTs) or nanoscrolls (NSs) in this review article as well as their heterostructures that are produced from 2D TMDs are summarized. In order to improve the functionality of ultrathin 1D TMDs that are coaxially combined with boron nitride nanotubes and single-walled carbon nanotubes. 1D heterostructured devices perform better than 2D TMD nanosheets when the two devices are compared. The photovoltaic effect in WS₂ or MoS₂ NTs without a junction may exceed the Shockley-Queisser limit for the above-band-gap photovoltage generation. Photoelectrochemical hydrogen evolution is accelerated when monolayer WS₂ or MoS₂ NSs are incorporated into a heterojunction. In addition, the photovoltaic performance of the WSe₂ /MoS₂  NSs junction is superior to that of the performance of MoS₂ NSs. The summary of the current research about 1D TMDs can be used in a variety of ways, which assists in the development of new types of nanoscale optoelectronic devices. Finally, it also summarizes the current challenges and prospects.

Measurement of tissue optical properties in a wide spectral range: a review [Invited]

A distinctive feature of this review is a critical analysis of methods and results of measurements of the optical properties of tissues in a wide spectral range from deep UV to terahertz waves. Much attention is paid to measurements of the refractive index of biological tissues and liquids, the knowledge of which is necessary for the effective application of many methods of optical imaging and diagnostics. The optical parameters of healthy and pathological tissues are presented, and the reasons for their differences are discussed, which is important for the discrimination of pathologies and the demarcation of their boundaries. When considering the interaction of terahertz radiation with tissues, the concept of an effective medium is discussed, and relaxation models of the effective optical properties of tissues are presented. Attention is drawn to the manifestation of the scattering properties of tissues in the THz range and the problems of measuring the optical properties of tissues in this range are discussed. In conclusion, a method for the dynamic analysis of the optical properties of tissues under optical clearing using an application of immersion agents is presented. The main mechanisms and technologies of optical clearing, as well as examples of the successful application for differentiation of healthy and pathological tissues, are analyzed.

Buckling behavior of ternary one-dimensional van der Waals heterostructures

One-dimensional van der Waals heterostructures (1D vdWHs) may suffer from external compression when applied in field-effect, light-emitting and photovoltaic devices. Ternary 1D vdWHs were recently reported to be successfully synthesized (Xianget al2020Science367, 537). In present work, the buckling behavior of ternary 1D vdWH consisting of an inner carbon nanotube, a middle boron nitride nanotube and an outer molybdenum disulfide nanotube is extensively investigated by using molecular dynamics simulations. We find that the composite can effectively enhance the capability of axial compression of the inner nanotubes. The 1D vdWH gradually loses its stability under uniaxial compression and the critical stress of buckling decreases as the temperature increases. Slenderness ratioαof 4.8 ≤α≤ 7.2 has a slight influence on the strength and stability of ternary 1D vdWH under axial compression. To obtain a 1D vdWH with best compressive stability and strength, there is an optimal diameter existing for any specific length. Our work provides guidance for the design of 1D vdWH with desired compressive stability.

Zigzag HgTe Nanowires Modify the Electron-Phonon Interaction in Chirality-Refined Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes

Atomically thin nanowires (NWs) can be synthesized inside single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) and feature unique crystal structures. Here we show that HgTe nanowires formed inside small-diameter (<1 nm) SWCNTs can advantageously alter the optical and electronic properties of the SWCNTs. Metallic purification of the filled SWCNTs was achieved by a gel column chromatography method, leading to an efficient extraction of the semiconducting and metallic portions with known chiralities. Electron microscopic imaging revealed that zigzag HgTe chains were the dominant NW geometry in both the semiconducting and metallic species. Equilibrium-state and ultrafast spectroscopy demonstrated that the coupled electron-phonon system was modified by the encapsulated HgTe NWs, in a way that varied with the chirality. For semiconducting SWCNTs with HgTe NWs, Auger relaxation processes were suppressed, leading to enhanced photoluminescence emission. In contrast, HgTe NWs enhanced the Auger relaxation rate of metallic SWCNTs and created faster phonon relaxation, providing experimental evidence that encapsulated atomic chains can suppress hot carrier effects and therefore boost electronic transport.

One-dimensional transition metal dichalcogenide lateral heterostructures

Forming heterostructures is a well-established technique to utilize different constituent materials to achieve novel properties like efficient light emission and high-quality electron tunneling. Recent experiments have successfully synthesized one-dimensional van der Waals heterostructures and have discovered plenty of superior properties benefiting from the dimension reduction. Inspired by the success of the van der Waals counterparts, we propose a one-dimensional lateral heterostructure based on transition metal dichalcogenide nanotubes. Molecular simulations show that the misfit strain is restricted to the radial direction due to the one-dimensional tubular confined structure, and the regular exponential distribution of the radial misfit strain can be well interpreted by a mechanics model. Besides the normal exponential distribution, there also exists an abnormal strain distribution within a narrow domain nearby the interface, in which the structure of the larger lattice constant is stretched instead of compressed by the misfit strain. The abnormal misfit strain is due to the interplay between several bending interactions and the stretching interaction. Possible experiments to synthesize this new type of heterostructure are discussed based on current experimental techniques.

One-dimensional van der Waals heterostructures: Growth mechanism and handedness correlation revealed by nondestructive TEM

We recently synthesized one-dimensional (1D) van der Waals heterostructures in which different atomic layers (e.g., boron nitride or molybdenum disulfide) seamlessly wrap around a single-walled carbon nanotube (SWCNT) and form a coaxial, crystalized heteronanotube. The growth process of 1D heterostructure is unconventional-different crystals need to nucleate on a highly curved surface and extend nanotubes shell by shell-so understanding the formation mechanism is of fundamental research interest. In this work, we perform a follow-up and comprehensive study on the structural details and formation mechanism of chemical vapor deposition (CVD)-synthesized 1D heterostructures. Edge structures, nucleation sites, and crystal epitaxial relationships are clearly revealed using transmission electron microscopy (TEM). This is achieved by the direct synthesis of heteronanotubes on a CVD-compatible Si/SiO₂ TEM grid, which enabled a transfer-free and nondestructive access to many intrinsic structural details. In particular, we have distinguished different-shaped boron nitride nanotube (BNNT) edges, which are confirmed by electron diffraction at the same location to be strictly associated with its own chiral angle and polarity. We also demonstrate the importance of surface cleanness and isolation for the formation of perfect 1D heterostructures. Furthermore, we elucidate the handedness correlation between the SWCNT template and BNNT crystals. This work not only provides an in-depth understanding of this 1D heterostructure material group but also, in a more general perspective, serves as an interesting investigation on crystal growth on highly curved (radius of a couple of nanometers) atomic substrates.

Nanotube-Based 1D Heterostructures Coupled by van der Waals Forces

1D van der Waals heterostructures based on carbon nanotube templates are raising a lot of excitement due to the possibility of creating new optical and electronic properties, by either confining molecules inside their hollow core or by adding layers on the outside of the nanotube. In contrast to their 2D analogs, where the number of layers, atomic type and relative orientation of the constituting layers are the main parameters defining physical properties, 1D heterostructures provide an additional degree of freedom, i.e., their specific diameter and chiral structure, for engineering their characteristics. The current state-of-the-art in synthesizing 1D heterostructures are discussed here, in particular focusing on their resulting optical properties, and details the vast parameter space that can be used to design heterostructures with custom-built properties that can be integrated into a large variety of applications. First, the effects of van der Waals coupling on the properties of the simplest and best-studied 1D heterostructure, namely a double-walled carbon nanotube, are described, and then heterostructures built from the inside and the outside are considered, which all use a nanotube as a template, and, finally, an outlook is provided for the future of this research field.

Giant anisotropic photonics in the 1D van der Waals semiconductor fibrous red phosphorus

A confined electronic system can host a wide variety of fascinating electronic, magnetic, valleytronic and photonic phenomena due to its reduced symmetry and quantum confinement effect. For the recently emerging one-dimensional van der Waals (1D vdW) materials with electrons confined in 1D sub-units, an enormous variety of intriguing physical properties and functionalities can be expected. Here, we demonstrate the coexistence of giant linear/nonlinear optical anisotropy and high emission yield in fibrous red phosphorus (FRP), an exotic 1D vdW semiconductor with quasi-flat bands and a sizeable bandgap in the visible spectral range. The degree of photoluminescence (third-order nonlinear) anisotropy can reach 90% (86%), comparable to the best performance achieved so far. Meanwhile, the photoluminescence (third-harmonic generation) intensity in 1D vdW FRP is strong, with quantum efficiency (third-order susceptibility) four (three) times larger than that in the most well-known 2D vdW materials (e.g., MoS2). The concurrent realization of large linear/nonlinear optical anisotropy and emission intensity in 1D vdW FRP paves the way towards transforming the landscape of technological innovations in photonics and optoelectronics.

Ultrafast Photoconductivity and Terahertz Vibrational Dynamics in Double-Helix SnIP Nanowires

Tin iodide phosphide (SnIP), an inorganic double-helix material, is a quasi-1D van der Waals semiconductor that shows promise in photocatalysis and flexible electronics. However, the understanding of the fundamental photophysics and charge transport dynamics of this new material is limited. Here, time-resolved terahertz (THz) spectroscopy is used to probe the transient photoconductivity of SnIP nanowire films and measure the carrier mobility. With insight into the highly anisotropic electronic structure from quantum chemical calculations, an electron mobility as high as 280 cm²   V^-1 s^-1 along the double-helix axis and a hole mobility of 238 cm²   V^-1 s^-1 perpendicular to the double-helix axis are detected. Additionally, infrared-active (IR-active) THz vibrational modes are measured, which shows excellent agreement with first-principles calculations, and an ultrafast photoexcitation-induced charge redistribution is observed that reduces the amplitude of a twisting mode of the outer SnI helix on picosecond timescales. Finally, it is shown that the carrier lifetime and mobility are limited by a trap density greater than 10¹⁸  cm^-3 . The results provide insight into the optical excitation and relaxation pathways of SnIP and demonstrate a remarkably high carrier mobility for such a soft and flexible material, suggesting that it could be ideally suited for flexible electronics applications.

The 2021 ultrafast spectroscopic probes of condensed matter roadmap

In the 60 years since the invention of the laser, the scientific community has developed numerous fields of research based on these bright, coherent light sources, including the areas of imaging, spectroscopy, materials processing and communications. Ultrafast spectroscopy and imaging techniques are at the forefront of research into the light-matter interaction at the shortest times accessible to experiments, ranging from a few attoseconds to nanoseconds. Light pulses provide a crucial probe of the dynamical motion of charges, spins, and atoms on picosecond, femtosecond, and down to attosecond timescales, none of which are accessible even with the fastest electronic devices. Furthermore, strong light pulses can drive materials into unusual phases, with exotic properties. In this roadmap we describe the current state-of-the-art in experimental and theoretical studies of condensed matter using ultrafast probes. In each contribution, the authors also use their extensive knowledge to highlight challenges and predict future trends.

Photoluminescence from Single-Walled MoS2 Nanotubes Coaxially Grown on Boron Nitride Nanotubes

Single-walled and multiwalled molybdenum disulfide (MoS₂) nanotubes have been coaxially synthesized on small-diameter boron nitride nanotubes (BNNTs) that are obtained from removing single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) in heteronanotubes of SWCNTs coated by BNNTs. The photoluminescence (PL) from single-walled MoS₂ nanotubes supported by core BNNTs is observed in this work, which evidences the direct bandgap structure of single-walled MoS₂ nanotubes with a diameter around 6-7 nm. The observation is consistent with our DFT results that the single-walled MoS₂ nanotube changes from an indirect-gap to a direct-gap semiconductor when the diameter of a nanotube is more than around 5.2 nm. On the other hand, when there are SWCNTs inside the heteronanotubes of BNNTs and single-walled MoS₂ nanotubes, the PL signal from MoS₂ nanotubes is considerably quenched. The charge transfer and energy transfer between SWCNTs and single-walled MoS₂ nanotubes were examined through characterizations by PL, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and Raman spectroscopy. Moreover, the PL signal from multiwalled MoS₂ nanotubes is significantly quenched. Single-walled and multiwalled MoS₂ nanotubes exhibit different Raman features in both resonant and nonresonant Raman spectra.