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Anuar N, Yusop SN, Roberts KJ. Crystallisation of organic materials from the solution phase: a molecular, synthonic and crystallographic perspective. CRYSTALLOGR REV 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/0889311x.2022.2123916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nornizar Anuar
- School of Chemical Engineering, College of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Malaysia
- Centre for the Digital Design of Drug Products, School of Chemical and Process Engineering, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
| | - Siti Nurul’ain Yusop
- School of Chemical Engineering, College of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Malaysia
| | - Kevin J. Roberts
- Centre for the Digital Design of Drug Products, School of Chemical and Process Engineering, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
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2
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Lemir ID, Oksdath-Mansilla G, Castro-Godoy WD, Schmidt LC, Argüello JE. Photochemical C sp2-H bond thiocyanation and selenocyanation of activated arenes, batch and continuous-flow approaches. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2022; 21:849-861. [PMID: 35113403 DOI: 10.1007/s43630-021-00167-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2021] [Accepted: 12/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Herein, we report an eco-friendly photochemical oxidative Csp2-H thiocyanation and selenocyanation of activated arenes. The reaction proceeds under Violet LED irradiation in the presence of K2S2O8, which quickly oxidizes KSCN and KSeCN, finally producing arylthio/selenocyanates. Using this benign, atom-economic protocol, the desired chalcogenide products were obtained regioselectively, with isolated yields that range from very good to excellent. Although, mechanistic study indicates that it is difficult to distinguish between a radical to a SEAr reaction mechanism between the photo-induced formed •SCN, for the former, or NCSSCN, for the latter, to the aromatic heterocycles. The inhibition experiment together with the observed reactivity and regioselectivity, would be in agreement with the latter. The synthetic methodology designed could be successfully adapted to continuous-flow systems in a segmented-flow regime, employing the organic phase as the product reservoir. Using this setup, the advantage of the latter can be demonstrated by reducing the reaction time and improving the product yields. Similarly, the scaling up of the reaction to gram scale resulted in favorable outcomes by the flow setup, which installs the photo-flow chemistry as a powerful tool to be included into routine reaction procedures, which have great relevance for the pharmaceutical industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ignacio D Lemir
- INFIQC-CONICET-UNC, Dpto. de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Ciudad Universitaria, X5000HUA, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Gabriela Oksdath-Mansilla
- INFIQC-CONICET-UNC, Dpto. de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Ciudad Universitaria, X5000HUA, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Willber D Castro-Godoy
- CENSALUD-UES, Dpto. de Química, Física y Matemática, Facultad de Química y Farmacia, Universidad de El Salvador, Final Av. de Mártires y Héroes del 30 de Julio, San Salvador, 1101, El Salvador
| | - Luciana C Schmidt
- INFIQC-CONICET-UNC, Dpto. de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Ciudad Universitaria, X5000HUA, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Juan E Argüello
- INFIQC-CONICET-UNC, Dpto. de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Ciudad Universitaria, X5000HUA, Córdoba, Argentina.
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3
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De la Rosa MVG, Báez JPF, Romañach RJ, López-Mejías V, Stelzer T. Real-time concentration monitoring using a compact composite sensor array for in situ quality control of aqueous formulations. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2021; 206:114386. [PMID: 34607202 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2021.114386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2021] [Revised: 08/29/2021] [Accepted: 09/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Recent advancements have demonstrated the feasibility of refrigerator-sized pharmaceutical manufacturing platforms (PMPs) for integrated end-to-end manufacturing of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) into formulated drug products. Unlike typical laboratory- or industrial-scale setups, PMPs present unique requirements for process analytical technology (PAT) with respect to versatility, flexibility, and physical size to fit into the PMP space constraints. In this proof of principle study, a novel compact composite sensor array (CCSA) combining ultraviolet (UV) and near infrared (NIR) features at four different wavelengths (280, 340, 600, 860 nm) with temperature measuring capability in a 380 × 30 mm housing (length x diameter, 7 mm diameter at the probe head), were evaluated. The results indicate that the CCSA prototype is capable of measuring the solution and suspension concentrations in aqueous formulations of four model APIs (warfarin sodium isopropanol solvate, lidocaine hydrochloride monohydrate, 6-mercaptopurine monohydrate, acetaminophen) in situ and in real-time with similar accuracy as an established Raman spectrometer commonly applied for method development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mery Vet George De la Rosa
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus San Juan, PR 00936, USA; Crystallization Design Institute, Molecular Sciences Research Center, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, PR 00926, USA
| | - Jean P Feng Báez
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus San Juan, PR 00936, USA; Crystallization Design Institute, Molecular Sciences Research Center, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, PR 00926, USA
| | - Rodolfo J Romañach
- Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez Campus,. Mayagüez, PR, 00681, USA
| | - Vilmalí López-Mejías
- Crystallization Design Institute, Molecular Sciences Research Center, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, PR 00926, USA; Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras Campus, San Juan, PR 00931, USA.
| | - Torsten Stelzer
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus San Juan, PR 00936, USA; Crystallization Design Institute, Molecular Sciences Research Center, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, PR 00926, USA.
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Domokos A, Nagy B, Szilágyi B, Marosi G, Nagy ZK. Integrated Continuous Pharmaceutical Technologies—A Review. Org Process Res Dev 2021. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.oprd.0c00504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- András Domokos
- Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Organic Chemistry and Technology Department, H-1111 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Brigitta Nagy
- Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Organic Chemistry and Technology Department, H-1111 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Botond Szilágyi
- Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Faculty of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology, H-1111 Budapest, Hungary
| | - György Marosi
- Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Organic Chemistry and Technology Department, H-1111 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Zsombor Kristóf Nagy
- Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Organic Chemistry and Technology Department, H-1111 Budapest, Hungary
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5
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Bezerra MM, Leão RA, Miranda LS, de Souza RO. A brief history behind the most used local anesthetics. Tetrahedron 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2020.131628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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6
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Rogers L, Briggs N, Achermann R, Adamo A, Azad M, Brancazio D, Capellades G, Hammersmith G, Hart T, Imbrogno J, Kelly LP, Liang G, Neurohr C, Rapp K, Russell MG, Salz C, Thomas DA, Weimann L, Jamison TF, Myerson AS, Jensen KF. Continuous Production of Five Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients in Flexible Plug-and-Play Modules: A Demonstration Campaign. Org Process Res Dev 2020. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.oprd.0c00208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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Domokos A, Nagy B, Gyürkés M, Farkas A, Tacsi K, Pataki H, Liu YC, Balogh A, Firth P, Szilágyi B, Marosi G, Nagy ZK, Nagy ZK. End-to-end continuous manufacturing of conventional compressed tablets: From flow synthesis to tableting through integrated crystallization and filtration. Int J Pharm 2020; 581:119297. [PMID: 32243964 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2020.119297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2020] [Revised: 03/28/2020] [Accepted: 03/30/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
An end-to-end continuous pharmaceutical manufacturing process was developed for the production of conventional direct compressed tablets on a proof-of-concept level for the first time. The output reaction mixture of the flow synthesis of acetylsalicylic acid was crystallized continuously in a mixed suspension mixed product removal crystallizer. The crystallizer was directly connected to a continuous filtration carousel device, thus the crystallization, filtration and drying of acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) was carried out in an integrated 2-step process. Steady state was reached during longer operations and the interaction of process parameters was evaluated in a series of experiments. The filtered crystals were ready for further processing in a following continuous blending and tableting experiment due to the good flowability of the material. The ASA collected during the crystallization-filtration experiments was fed into a continuous twin-screw blender along with microcrystalline cellulose as tableting excipient. After continuous blending Near-Infrared spectroscopy was applied to in-line analyze the drug content of the powder mixture. A belt conveyor carried the mixture towards an eccentric lab-scale tablet press, which continuously produced 500 mg ASA-loaded compressed tablets of 100 mg dose strength. Thus, starting from raw materials, the final drug product was obtained by continuous manufacturing steps with appropriate quality.
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Affiliation(s)
- András Domokos
- Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Organic Chemistry and Technology Department, H-1111 Budapest, Hungary; Davidson School of Chemical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, United States
| | - Brigitta Nagy
- Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Organic Chemistry and Technology Department, H-1111 Budapest, Hungary; Davidson School of Chemical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, United States
| | - Martin Gyürkés
- Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Organic Chemistry and Technology Department, H-1111 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Attila Farkas
- Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Organic Chemistry and Technology Department, H-1111 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Kornélia Tacsi
- Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Organic Chemistry and Technology Department, H-1111 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Hajnalka Pataki
- Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Organic Chemistry and Technology Department, H-1111 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Yiqing Claire Liu
- Davidson School of Chemical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, United States
| | - Attila Balogh
- Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Organic Chemistry and Technology Department, H-1111 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Paul Firth
- Alconbury Weston Ltd. (AWL), Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire ST4 3PE, United Kingdom
| | - Botond Szilágyi
- Davidson School of Chemical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, United States
| | - György Marosi
- Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Organic Chemistry and Technology Department, H-1111 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Zoltán K Nagy
- Davidson School of Chemical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, United States; Department of Chemical Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, LE11 3TU, United Kingdom.
| | - Zsombor Kristóf Nagy
- Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Organic Chemistry and Technology Department, H-1111 Budapest, Hungary.
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Diab S, Gerogiorgis DI. Design Space Identification and Visualization for Continuous Pharmaceutical Manufacturing. Pharmaceutics 2020; 12:E235. [PMID: 32151096 PMCID: PMC7150984 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics12030235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2020] [Revised: 03/02/2020] [Accepted: 03/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Progress in continuous flow chemistry over the past two decades has facilitated significant developments in the flow synthesis of a wide variety of Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients (APIs), the foundation of Continuous Pharmaceutical Manufacturing (CPM), which has gained interest for its potential to reduce material usage, energy and costs and the ability to access novel processing windows that would be otherwise hazardous if operated via traditional batch techniques. Design space investigation of manufacturing processes is a useful task in elucidating attainable regions of process performance and product quality attributes that can allow insight into process design and optimization prior to costly experimental campaigns and pilot plant studies. This study discusses recent demonstrations from the literature on design space investigation and visualization for continuous API production and highlights attainable regions of recoveries, material efficiencies, flowsheet complexity and cost components for upstream (reaction + separation) via modeling, simulation and nonlinear optimization, providing insight into optimal CPM operation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Dimitrios I. Gerogiorgis
- School of Engineering, Institute for Materials and Processes (IMP), University of Edinburgh, The King’s Buildings, Edinburgh EH9 3FB, Scotland, UK;
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Weeranoppanant N, Adamo A. In-Line Purification: A Key Component to Facilitate Drug Synthesis and Process Development in Medicinal Chemistry. ACS Med Chem Lett 2020; 11:9-15. [PMID: 31938456 DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.9b00491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2019] [Accepted: 12/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
In-line purification is an important tool for flow chemistry. It enables effective handling of unstable intermediates and integration of multiple synthetic steps. The integrated flow synthesis is useful for drug synthesis and process development in medicinal chemistry. In this article, we overview current states of in-line purification methods. In particular, we focus on four common methods: scavenger column, distillation, nanofiltration, and extraction. Examples of their applications are provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nopphon Weeranoppanant
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Burapha University, 169 Longhard Bangsaen Road, Muang, Chonburi 02131, Thailand
- School of Biomolecular Science and Engineering, Vidyasirimedhi Institute of Science and Technology (VISTEC), Wangchan Valley 555 Moo 1 Payupnai, Wangchan, Rayong 21210 Thailand
| | - Andrea Adamo
- Zaiput Flow Technologies, 300 Second Avenue, Waltham, Massachusetts 02451, United States
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Diab S, Gerogiorgis DI. Technoeconomic Mixed Integer Nonlinear Programming (MINLP) optimization for design of Liquid‐Liquid Extraction (LLE) cascades in continuous pharmaceutical manufacturing of atropine. AIChE J 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/aic.16738] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Samir Diab
- Institute for Materials and Processes (IMP), School of Engineering University of Edinburgh Edinburgh Scotland UK
| | - Dimitrios I. Gerogiorgis
- Institute for Materials and Processes (IMP), School of Engineering University of Edinburgh Edinburgh Scotland UK
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11
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Vázquez Marrero VR, Berríos CP, Dios Rodríguez LD, Stelzer T, López-Mejías V. In the Context of Polymorphism: Accurate Measurement, and Validation of Solubility Data. CRYSTAL GROWTH & DESIGN 2019; 19:4101-4108. [PMID: 32863778 PMCID: PMC7453630 DOI: 10.1021/acs.cgd.9b00529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Solubility measurements for polymorphic compounds are often accompanied by solvent-mediated phase transformations. In this study, solubility measurements from undersaturated solutions are employed to investigate the solubility of the two most stable polymorphs of flufenamic acid (FFA forms I and III), tolfenamic acid (TA forms I and II), and the only known form of niflumic acid (NA). The solubility was measured from 278.15 to 333.15 K in four alcohols of a homologous series (methanol, ethanol, 1-propanol, n-butanol) using the polythermal method. It was established that the solubility of these compounds increases with increasing temperature. The solubility curves of FFA forms I and III intersect at ~315.15 K (42 °C) in all four solvents, which represents the transition temperature of the enantiotropic pair. In the case of TA, the solubility of form II could not be reliably obtained in any of the solvents because of the fast solvent-mediated phase transformation. The solubility of the only known form of NA was also determined, and no other polymorphs of NA were observed. The experimental solubility data of FFA (forms I and III), TA (form I), and NA in these four solvents was correlated using the modified Apelblat and λh model equations. The correlated and experimentally determined solubility data obtained serves to (i) guide the accurate determination of the solubility for polymorphic compounds, (ii) assess the role of the solvent in mediating transformations, and (iii) provide a route to engineer advanced crystallization processes for these pharmaceutical compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Víctor R. Vázquez Marrero
- Department of Biology, University of Puerto Rico—Río Piedras Campus, San Juan, Puerto Rico 00931, United States
- Crystallization Design Institute, Molecular Sciences Research Center, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico 00926, United States
| | - Carmen Piñero Berríos
- Crystallization Design Institute, Molecular Sciences Research Center, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico 00926, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico—Río Piedras Campus, San Juan, Puerto Rico 00931, United States
| | - Luz De Dios Rodríguez
- Department of Biology, University of Puerto Rico—Río Piedras Campus, San Juan, Puerto Rico 00931, United States
- Crystallization Design Institute, Molecular Sciences Research Center, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico 00926, United States
| | - Torsten Stelzer
- Crystallization Design Institute, Molecular Sciences Research Center, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico 00926, United States
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Puerto Rico—Medical Sciences Campus, San Juan, Puerto Rico 00936, United States
| | - Vilmalí López-Mejías
- Crystallization Design Institute, Molecular Sciences Research Center, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico 00926, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico—Río Piedras Campus, San Juan, Puerto Rico 00931, United States
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Diab S, Mytis N, Boudouvis AG, Gerogiorgis DI. Process modelling, design and technoeconomic Liquid–Liquid Extraction (LLE) optimisation for comparative evaluation of batch vs. continuous pharmaceutical manufacturing of atropine. Comput Chem Eng 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.compchemeng.2018.12.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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13
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De la Rosa MVG, Santiago R, Romero JM, Duconge J, Monbaliu JC, López-Mejías V, Stelzer T. Solubility Determination and Correlation of Warfarin Sodium 2‑Propanol Solvate in Pure, Binary, and Ternary Solvent Mixtures. JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL AND ENGINEERING DATA 2019; 64:1399-1413. [PMID: 32536719 PMCID: PMC7291792 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jced.8b00977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The solubility of warfarin sodium isopropanol solvate (WS·IPA), a widely used anticoagulant, was determined at temperatures ranging from 278.15 to 333.15 K in four pure solvents (acetone, ethanol, IPA, and water), five binary solvent mixtures (IPA + acetone, IPA + ethanol, IPA + water, IPA + heptane, and IPA + hexane), and five ternary solvent mixtures (IPA + acetone + heptane, IPA + acetone + hexane, IPA + ethanol + heptane, IPA + ethanol + hexane, and IPA + water + heptane) using the polythermal method. It was demonstrated that the solubility of WS·IPA increases with increasing temperature in the pure solvents and at constant solvent composition in the solvent mixtures. In addition, the solubility of WS·IPA in IPA increases with increasing content of acetone, ethanol, and water, which act as cosolvents, and decreases with increasing content of heptane and hexane, which act as antisolvents. The experimental solubility data of WS·IPA in pure solvents and binary and ternary solvent mixtures were correlated using the modified Apelblat and λh model equations. The correlated solubility data agree with the experimental data based on the relative deviation and the average relative deviation (ARD %) values. Thus, the correlated and experimentally derived solubility data of WS·IPA provide a pathway to engineer advanced pharmaceutical crystallization processes for WS·IPA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mery Vet George De la Rosa
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus, San Juan, Puerto Rico 00936, United States
- Crystallization Design Institute, Molecular Sciences Research Center, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico 00926, United States
| | - Roberto Santiago
- Crystallization Design Institute, Molecular Sciences Research Center, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico 00926, United States
- Department of Mathematics, University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras Campus, San Juan, Puerto Rico 00931, United States
| | - Joseph Malavé Romero
- Crystallization Design Institute, Molecular Sciences Research Center, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico 00926, United States
- Department of Biology, University of Puerto Rico, Bayamón Campus, Bayamón, Puerto Rico 00959, United States
| | - Jorge Duconge
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus, San Juan, Puerto Rico 00936, United States
| | - Jean-Christophe Monbaliu
- Center for Integrated Technology and Organic Synthesis, RU MolSys, University of Liège, B-4000 Liège, Sart Tilman, Belgium
| | - Vilmalí López-Mejías
- Crystallization Design Institute, Molecular Sciences Research Center, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico 00926, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras Campus, San Juan, Puerto Rico 00931, United States
| | - Torsten Stelzer
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus, San Juan, Puerto Rico 00936, United States
- Crystallization Design Institute, Molecular Sciences Research Center, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico 00926, United States
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Diab S, McQuade DT, Gupton BF, Gerogiorgis DI. Process Design and Optimization for the Continuous Manufacturing of Nevirapine, an Active Pharmaceutical Ingredient for HIV Treatment. Org Process Res Dev 2019. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.oprd.8b00381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Samir Diab
- Institute for Materials and Processes (IMP), School of Engineering, University of Edinburgh, The Kings Buildings, Edinburgh EH9 3FB, Scotland, U.K
| | - D. Tyler McQuade
- Department of Chemical and Life Sciences Engineering, School of Engineering, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23284-3028, United States
| | - B. Frank Gupton
- Department of Chemical and Life Sciences Engineering, School of Engineering, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23284-3028, United States
| | - Dimitrios I. Gerogiorgis
- Institute for Materials and Processes (IMP), School of Engineering, University of Edinburgh, The Kings Buildings, Edinburgh EH9 3FB, Scotland, U.K
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15
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Zorrilla-Veloz RI, Stelzer T, López-Mejías V. Measurement and Correlation of the Solubility of 5-Fluorouracil in Pure and Binary Solvents. JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL AND ENGINEERING DATA 2018; 63:3809-3817. [PMID: 38106881 PMCID: PMC10722872 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jced.8b00425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2023]
Abstract
The solubility of 5-ffuorouracil (5-FU), a widely used chemotherapeutic agent to treat solid tumors, which include colorectal, head and neck, breast, and lung cancer, was determined at temperatures ranging from 278.15 to 333.15 K in 11 pure solvents and binary water + ethanol solvent mixtures using the polythermal method. It was demonstrated that the solubility of 5-FU increases with increasing temperature in the pure solvents and at constant solvent composition in the solvent mixtures. Moreover, the solubility of 5-FU in the solvent mixtures exceeds its solubility in pure water and ethanol. The experimental solubility data of 5-FU in the pure solvents and solvent mixtures were correlated using the modified Apelblat and λh model equations. The predicted solubility data obtained agree with the experimental data based on the calculated relative deviation (RD) and the average relative deviation (ARD%) values. The selected solvents are categorized as either Class 2 or 3 (less toxic and lower risk to human health) solvents, and hence the correlated and experimentally derived solubility data of 5-FU presented provide a pathway to develop and engineer enhanced pharmaceutical processes and products based on this compound.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rocío I. Zorrilla-Veloz
- Department of Biology, University of Puerto Rico - Río Piedras Campus, San Juan, Puerto Rico 00931, United States
- Crystallization Design Institute, Molecular Sciences Research Center, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico 00926, United States
| | - Torsten Stelzer
- Crystallization Design Institute, Molecular Sciences Research Center, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico 00926, United States
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Puerto Rico - Medical Sciences Campus, San Juan, Puerto Rico 00936, United States
| | - Vilmalí López-Mejías
- Crystallization Design Institute, Molecular Sciences Research Center, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico 00926, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico - Río Piedras Campus, San Juan, Puerto Rico 00931, United States
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Gérardy R, Emmanuel N, Toupy T, Kassin VE, Tshibalonza NN, Schmitz M, Monbaliu JCM. Continuous Flow Organic Chemistry: Successes and Pitfalls at the Interface with Current Societal Challenges. European J Org Chem 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/ejoc.201800149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 144] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Romaric Gérardy
- Center for Integrated Technology and Organic Synthesis; Department of Chemistry; Research Unit MolSys; University of Liège; Quartier Agora, Allée du six Aout, 13 4000 Liège (Sart Tilman) Belgium
| | - Noémie Emmanuel
- Center for Integrated Technology and Organic Synthesis; Department of Chemistry; Research Unit MolSys; University of Liège; Quartier Agora, Allée du six Aout, 13 4000 Liège (Sart Tilman) Belgium
| | - Thomas Toupy
- Center for Integrated Technology and Organic Synthesis; Department of Chemistry; Research Unit MolSys; University of Liège; Quartier Agora, Allée du six Aout, 13 4000 Liège (Sart Tilman) Belgium
| | - Victor-Emmanuel Kassin
- Center for Integrated Technology and Organic Synthesis; Department of Chemistry; Research Unit MolSys; University of Liège; Quartier Agora, Allée du six Aout, 13 4000 Liège (Sart Tilman) Belgium
| | - Nelly Ntumba Tshibalonza
- Center for Integrated Technology and Organic Synthesis; Department of Chemistry; Research Unit MolSys; University of Liège; Quartier Agora, Allée du six Aout, 13 4000 Liège (Sart Tilman) Belgium
| | - Michaël Schmitz
- Center for Integrated Technology and Organic Synthesis; Department of Chemistry; Research Unit MolSys; University of Liège; Quartier Agora, Allée du six Aout, 13 4000 Liège (Sart Tilman) Belgium
| | - Jean-Christophe M. Monbaliu
- Center for Integrated Technology and Organic Synthesis; Department of Chemistry; Research Unit MolSys; University of Liège; Quartier Agora, Allée du six Aout, 13 4000 Liège (Sart Tilman) Belgium
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17
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Zhang P, Weeranoppanant N, Thomas DA, Tahara K, Stelzer T, Russell MG, O'Mahony M, Myerson AS, Lin H, Kelly LP, Jensen KF, Jamison TF, Dai C, Cui Y, Briggs N, Beingessner RL, Adamo A. Advanced Continuous Flow Platform for On-Demand Pharmaceutical Manufacturing. Chemistry 2018; 24:2776-2784. [PMID: 29385292 DOI: 10.1002/chem.201706004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
As a demonstration of an alternative to the challenges faced with batch pharmaceutical manufacturing including the large production footprint and lengthy time-scale, we previously reported a refrigerator-sized continuous flow system for the on-demand production of essential medicines. Building on this technology, herein we report a second-generation, reconfigurable and 25 % smaller (by volume) continuous flow pharmaceutical manufacturing platform featuring advances in reaction and purification equipment. Consisting of two compact [0.7 (L)×0.5 (D)×1.3 m (H)] stand-alone units for synthesis and purification/formulation processes, the capabilities of this automated system are demonstrated with the synthesis of nicardipine hydrochloride and the production of concentrated liquid doses of ciprofloxacin hydrochloride, neostigmine methylsulfate and rufinamide that meet US Pharmacopeia standards.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ping Zhang
- Novartis Institute of Biomedical Research, 250 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Nopphon Weeranoppanant
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Burapha University, 169 Long-Hard Bangsaen Road, Chonburi, 20131, Thailand
| | - Dale A Thomas
- Department of Chemical Engineering or Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Kohei Tahara
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Engineering, Gifu Pharmaceutical University, 1-25-4 Daigaku-Nishi, Gifu, 501-1196, Japan
| | - Torsten Stelzer
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus, San Juan, PR, 00936, USA
| | - Mary Grace Russell
- Department of Chemical Engineering or Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Marcus O'Mahony
- Pharmaceutical & Preclinical Sciences, Vertex Pharmaceuticals Inc., 50 Northern Avenue, Boston, MA, 02210, USA
| | - Allan S Myerson
- Department of Chemical Engineering or Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Hongkun Lin
- Department of Chemical Engineering or Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Liam P Kelly
- Department of Chemical Engineering or Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Klavs F Jensen
- Department of Chemical Engineering or Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Timothy F Jamison
- Department of Chemical Engineering or Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Chunhui Dai
- Department of Chemical Engineering or Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Yuqing Cui
- Department of Chemical Engineering or Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Naomi Briggs
- Department of Chemical Engineering or Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Rachel L Beingessner
- Department of Chemical Engineering or Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Andrea Adamo
- Department of Chemical Engineering or Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
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18
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Azad MA, Osorio JG, Brancazio D, Hammersmith G, Klee DM, Rapp K, Myerson A. A compact, portable, re-configurable, and automated system for on-demand pharmaceutical tablet manufacturing. Int J Pharm 2018; 539:157-164. [PMID: 29366938 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2018.01.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2017] [Revised: 01/08/2018] [Accepted: 01/13/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Due to the complex nature of the pharmaceutical supply chain, the industry faces several major challenges when it comes to ensuring an adequate supply of quality drug products. These challenges are not only the causes of supply chain disruptions and financial loss, but can also prevent underserved and remote areas from receiving life-saving drugs. As a preliminary demonstration to mitigate all these challenges, at MIT we have developed active pharmaceutical ingredients manufacturing in a miniature platform. However, manufacturing of final oral solid dosage as tablets from drug substances had not been demonstrated. In this study, a compact, portable, re-configurable, and automated tablet manufacturing system, roughly the size of a North American household oven, [72.4 cm (length) × 53.3 cm (width) × 134.6 cm (height)] was designed, built and demonstrated. This miniature system is able to manufacture on-demand tablets from drug crystals on a scale of hundreds to thousands per day. Ibuprofen and Diazepam, each having different drug loading, were manufactured using this miniature system and meet U.S. Pharmacopeia standards. We foresee this flexible, miniature, plug-and-play pharmaceutical solids dosage manufacturing system advancing on-demand ready-to-use pharmaceuticals enabling future treatment of human diseases at the point-of-care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad A Azad
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Juan G Osorio
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - David Brancazio
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Gregory Hammersmith
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - David M Klee
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Kersten Rapp
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Allan Myerson
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
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19
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Imbrogno J, Rogers L, Thomas DA, Jensen KF. Continuous purification of active pharmaceutical ingredients utilizing polymer membrane surface wettability. Chem Commun (Camb) 2018; 54:70-73. [DOI: 10.1039/c7cc08218e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Liquid–liquid extraction followed by dual membrane based phase separation in flow enables fully continuous purification of active pharmaceutical ingredients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph Imbrogno
- Department of Chemical Engineering
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology
- Cambridge
- USA
| | - Luke Rogers
- Department of Chemical Engineering
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology
- Cambridge
- USA
| | - Dale A. Thomas
- Department of Chemical Engineering
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology
- Cambridge
- USA
- Department of Mechanical Engineering
| | - Klavs F. Jensen
- Department of Chemical Engineering
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology
- Cambridge
- USA
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering
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20
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Jamkhindikar SP, Stretz HA, Massingill JL, Betancourt T. High throughput fiber reactor process for organic nanoparticle production: Poly(
N
‐isopropylacrylamide), polyacrylamide, and alginate. J Appl Polym Sci 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/app.45524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sumit P. Jamkhindikar
- Department of Chemical EngineeringTennessee Technological UniversityCookeville Tennessee38501
| | - Holly A. Stretz
- Department of Chemical EngineeringTennessee Technological UniversityCookeville Tennessee38501
| | | | - Tania Betancourt
- Department of Chemistry and BiochemistryTexas State UniversitySan Marcos Texas78666
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21
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Örkényi R, Éles J, Faigl F, Vincze P, Prechl A, Szakács Z, Kóti J, Greiner I. Continuous Synthesis and Purification by Coupling a Multistep Flow Reaction with Centrifugal Partition Chromatography. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201703852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Róbert Örkényi
- Department of Organic Chemistry and Technology; Budapest University of Technology and Economics; Budafoki út 8. 1111 Budapest Hungary
| | - János Éles
- Gedeon Richter Plc.; Gyömrői út 19-21. 1103 Budapest Hungary
| | - Ferenc Faigl
- Department of Organic Chemistry and Technology; Budapest University of Technology and Economics; Budafoki út 8. 1111 Budapest Hungary
| | - Péter Vincze
- Gedeon Richter Plc.; Gyömrői út 19-21. 1103 Budapest Hungary
| | - Anita Prechl
- Gedeon Richter Plc.; Gyömrői út 19-21. 1103 Budapest Hungary
| | - Zoltán Szakács
- Gedeon Richter Plc.; Gyömrői út 19-21. 1103 Budapest Hungary
| | - János Kóti
- Gedeon Richter Plc.; Gyömrői út 19-21. 1103 Budapest Hungary
| | - István Greiner
- Gedeon Richter Plc.; Gyömrői út 19-21. 1103 Budapest Hungary
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22
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Örkényi R, Éles J, Faigl F, Vincze P, Prechl A, Szakács Z, Kóti J, Greiner I. Continuous Synthesis and Purification by Coupling a Multistep Flow Reaction with Centrifugal Partition Chromatography. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2017; 56:8742-8745. [PMID: 28548374 PMCID: PMC5519935 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201703852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Continuous-flow multistep synthesis is combined with quasi-continuous final-product purification to produce pure products from crude reaction mixtures. In the nucleophilic aromatic substitution of 2,4-difluoronitrobenzene with morpholine followed by a heterogeneous catalytic hydrogenation, the desired monosubstituted product can be continuously separated from the co- and by-products in a purity of over 99 % by coupling a flow reactor sequence to a multiple dual-mode (MDM) centrifugal partition chromatography (CPC) device. This purification technique has many advantages over HPLC, such as higher resolution and no need for column replacement or silica recycling, and it does not suffer from irreversible adsorption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Róbert Örkényi
- Department of Organic Chemistry and TechnologyBudapest University of Technology and EconomicsBudafoki út 8.1111BudapestHungary
| | - János Éles
- Gedeon Richter Plc.Gyömrői út 19–21.1103BudapestHungary
| | - Ferenc Faigl
- Department of Organic Chemistry and TechnologyBudapest University of Technology and EconomicsBudafoki út 8.1111BudapestHungary
| | - Péter Vincze
- Gedeon Richter Plc.Gyömrői út 19–21.1103BudapestHungary
| | - Anita Prechl
- Gedeon Richter Plc.Gyömrői út 19–21.1103BudapestHungary
| | | | - János Kóti
- Gedeon Richter Plc.Gyömrői út 19–21.1103BudapestHungary
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23
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Duereh A, Sato Y, Smith RL, Inomata H. Methodology for Replacing Dipolar Aprotic Solvents Used in API Processing with Safe Hydrogen-Bond Donor and Acceptor Solvent-Pair Mixtures. Org Process Res Dev 2017. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.oprd.6b00401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alif Duereh
- Graduate
School of Engineering, ‡Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Research Center of Supercritical Fluid Technology, Tohoku University, Aramaki
Aza Aoba 6-6-11, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8579, Japan
| | - Yoshiyuki Sato
- Graduate
School of Engineering, ‡Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Research Center of Supercritical Fluid Technology, Tohoku University, Aramaki
Aza Aoba 6-6-11, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8579, Japan
| | - Richard Lee Smith
- Graduate
School of Engineering, ‡Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Research Center of Supercritical Fluid Technology, Tohoku University, Aramaki
Aza Aoba 6-6-11, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8579, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Inomata
- Graduate
School of Engineering, ‡Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Research Center of Supercritical Fluid Technology, Tohoku University, Aramaki
Aza Aoba 6-6-11, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8579, Japan
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24
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Bana P, Örkényi R, Lövei K, Lakó Á, Túrós GI, Éles J, Faigl F, Greiner I. The route from problem to solution in multistep continuous flow synthesis of pharmaceutical compounds. Bioorg Med Chem 2016; 25:6180-6189. [PMID: 28087127 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2016.12.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2016] [Revised: 12/20/2016] [Accepted: 12/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Recent advances in the field of continuous flow chemistry allow the multistep preparation of complex molecules such as APIs (Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients) in a telescoped manner. Numerous examples of laboratory-scale applications are described, which are pointing towards novel manufacturing processes of pharmaceutical compounds, in accordance with recent regulatory, economical and quality guidances. The chemical and technical knowledge gained during these studies is considerable; nevertheless, connecting several individual chemical transformations and the attached analytics and purification holds hidden traps. In this review, we summarize innovative solutions for these challenges, in order to benefit chemists aiming to exploit flow chemistry systems for the synthesis of biologically active molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Péter Bana
- Department of Organic Chemistry and Technology, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, H-1521 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Róbert Örkényi
- Department of Organic Chemistry and Technology, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, H-1521 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Klára Lövei
- Gedeon Richter Plc., Gyömrői út 19-21, H-1103 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Ágnes Lakó
- Department of Organic Chemistry and Technology, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, H-1521 Budapest, Hungary
| | | | - János Éles
- Gedeon Richter Plc., Gyömrői út 19-21, H-1103 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Ferenc Faigl
- Department of Organic Chemistry and Technology, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, H-1521 Budapest, Hungary; MTA-BME Organic Chemical Technology Research Group, Budafoki út 8, H-1111 Budapest, Hungary
| | - István Greiner
- Gedeon Richter Plc., Gyömrői út 19-21, H-1103 Budapest, Hungary.
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25
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Stelzer T, Wong SY, Chen J, Myerson AS. Evaluation of PAT Methods for Potential Application in Small-Scale, Multipurpose Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Platforms. Org Process Res Dev 2016. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.oprd.6b00129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Torsten Stelzer
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Shin Yee Wong
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Jie Chen
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Allan S. Myerson
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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