Appraisal of Chitosan-Gum Arabic-Coated Bipolymeric Nanocarriers for Efficient Dye Removal and Eradication of the Plant Pathogen Botrytis cinerea

Advances in Liposomal Interleukin and Liposomal Interleukin Gene Therapy for Cancer: A Comprehensive Review of Preclinical Studies

BACKGROUND

Preclinical studies on liposomal interleukin (IL) therapy demonstrate considerable promise in cancer treatment. This review explores the achievements, challenges, and future potential of liposomal IL encapsulation, focusing on preclinical studies.

METHODS

A structured search was conducted using the PubMed and Web of Science databases with the following search terms and Boolean operators: ("liposomal interleukin" OR "liposome-encapsulated interleukin") AND ("gene therapy" OR "gene delivery") AND ("cancer" OR "tumor" OR "oncology") AND ("pre-clinical studies" OR "animal models" OR "in vitro studies".

RESULTS

Liposomal IL-2 formulations are notable for enhancing delivery and retention at tumor sites. Recombinant human interleukin (rhIL-2) adsorbed onto small liposomes (35-50 nm) substantially reduces metastases in murine models. Hepatic metastasis models demonstrate superior efficacy of liposomal IL-2 over free IL-2 by enhancing immune responses, particularly in the liver. Localized delivery strategies, including nebulized liposomal IL-2 in canine pulmonary metastases and intrathoracic administration in murine sarcoma models, reduce systemic toxicity while promoting immune activation and tumor regression. Liposomal IL gene therapy, delivering cytokine genes directly to tumor sites, represents a notable advancement. Combining IL-2 gene therapy with other cytokines, including IL-6 or double-stranded RNA adjuvants, synergistically enhances macrophage and T-cell activation. Liposomal IL-4, IL-6, and IL-21 therapies show potential across various tumor types. Pairing liposomal IL-2 with chemotherapy or immune agents improves remission and survival. Innovative strategies, including PEGylation and ligand-targeted systems, optimize delivery, release, and therapeutic outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

Utilizing immune-stimulatory ILs through advanced liposomal delivery and gene therapy establishes a strong foundation for advancing cancer immunotherapy.

Gum Arabic: A Commodity with Versatile Formulations and Applications

Gum Arabic (GA), or acacia gum, refers to the dried exudate produced by certain Acacia trees. GA is composed mainly of a mixture of polysaccharides and glycoproteins, with proportions that can slightly differ from one species to another. It is commonly utilized in the food and pharmaceutical industries as a stabilizer or an emulsifier owing to its biocompatibility, hydrophilicity, and antibacterial properties. In addition, GA can be manipulated as it possesses many functional groups that can be used in grafting, cross-linking, or chemical modifications to add a new feature to the developed material. In this review, we highlight recent GA-based formulations, including nanoparticles, hydrogels, nanofibers, membranes, or scaffolds, and their possible applications in tissue regeneration, cancer therapy, wound healing, biosensing, bioimaging, food packaging, and antimicrobial and antifouling membranes.

Chitosan nanocomposites as a nano-bio tool in phytopathogen control

Chitosan, an economically viable and versatile biopolymer, exhibits a wide array of advantageous physicochemical and biological properties. Chitosan nanocomposites, formed by the amalgamation of chitosan or chitosan nanoparticles with other nanoparticles or materials, have garnered extensive attention across agricultural, pharmaceutical, and biomedical domains. These nanocomposites have been rigorously investigated due to their diverse applications, notably in combatting plant pathogens. Their remarkable efficacy against phytopathogens has positioned them as a promising alternative to conventional chemical-based methods in phytopathogen control, thus exploring interest in sustainable agricultural practices with reduced reliance on chemical interventions. This review aims to highlight the anti-phytopathogenic activity of chitosan nanocomposites, emphasizing their potential in mitigating plant diseases. Additionally, it explores various synthesis methods for chitosan nanoparticles to enhance readers' understanding. Furthermore, the analysis delves into elucidating the intricate mechanisms governing the antimicrobial effectiveness of these composites against bacterial and fungal phytopathogens.

Engineering a self-healing grafted chitosan-sodium alginate based hydrogel with potential keratinocyte cell migration property and inhibitory effect against fluconazole resistance Candida albicans biofilm

Biofilms developed by microorganisms cause an extremely severe clinical problem that leads to drug failure. Bioactive polymeric hydrogels display potential for controlling the formation of microorganism-based biofilms, but their rapid biodegradability in these biofilm sites is still a major challenge. To overcome this, chitosan (CS), a natural functional biomaterial, has been used because of its effective penetrability in the cell wall of microorganisms; however, its fast biodegradability has restricted its further use. Hence, in this study, to improve the stability of CS and increase its penetration retention inside a biofilm, grafted CS was prepared and then crosslinked with sodium alginate (SA) to synthesize CS-poly(MA-co-AA)SA hydrogel via a free radical grafting method, therefore enhancing its antibiofilm efficiency against biofilms. The prepared hydrogel demonstrated excellent effectiveness against (≥90 % inhibition) biofilms of Candida albicans. Additionally, in vitro and in vivo safety assays established that the prepared hydrogel can be used in a biofilm microenvironment and might reduce drug resistance burden owing to its long-term antibiofilm effect and improved CS stability at the biofilm site. Furthermore, in vitro wound healing outcomes of hydrogel indicated its potential application for chronic wound treatment. This research opens a new advanced strategy for biofilm-associated infection treatment, including wound treatment.

Gum Arabic polysaccharide embedded L-cysteine capped copper oxide nanocarriers selectively inhibit fluconazole-resistant C. albicans biofilm and remove the toxic dye from wastewater

Copper oxide nanocarriers have attracted increasing interest in the scientific community, including antimicrobial applications. Candida biofilm developed causes serious clinical problems, leading to drug failure caused by its inherent drug tolerance. Nanocarriers are a good alternative approach to solving this challenge because of their excellent penetration power inside biofilms. Hence, main objectives of this research were to prepare gum arabic-embedded L-cysteine-capped copper oxide nanocarriers (GCCuO NCs) and tested against C. albicans and explore another application. To achieve the main research objectives, GCCuO NCs were synthesized and investigated for antibiofilm potency against C. albicans. Various methods were employed to measure antibiofilm potency such as biofilm assay etc., of NCs. The nano size of GCCuO NCs is advantageous for augmenting penetration power and retention into biofilms. GCCuO NCs at 100 μg/mL exhibited significant antibiofilm activity against the C. albicans DAY185 by switching of yeast-to-hyphae and gene perturbation. The level of CR dye adsorption was 58.96 % using 30 μg/mL of NCs. Based on effective C. albicans biofilm inhibition and CR dye adsorption capacity of NCs, it can be suggested that present research work opens an innovative path to treat biofilm-associated fungal infections, and these NCs can be used for environmental remedies.

Synthesis of Bio-Based Polybenzoxazine and Its Antibiofilm and Anticorrosive Activities

Candida albicans are highly widespread pathogenic fungi in humans. Moreover, its developed biofilm causes serious clinical problems, leading to drug failure caused by its inherent drug tolerance. Hence, the inhibition of biofilm formation and virulence characteristics provide other means of addressing infections. Polymer composites (PCs) derived from natural products have attracted increasing interest in the scientific community, including antimicrobial applications. PCs are a good alternative approach to solving this challenge because of their excellent penetration power inside biofilms. The main objectives of this study were to synthesize a novel curcumin-based polybenzoxazine polymer composite (poly(Cu-A) PC) using Mannich condensation reaction and evaluate their potency as an antibiofilm and anticorrosive candidate against C. albicans. In addition, their anticorrosive efficacy was also explored. PC exhibited significant antibiofilm efficacy versus C. albicans DAY185 by the morphologic changing of yeast to hyphae, and>90% anticorrosive efficacy was observed at a higher dose of PC. These prepared PC were safe in vivo against Caenorhabditis elegans and Raphanus raphanistrum. The study shows that a polybenzoxazine polymer composite has the potential for controlling biofilm-associated fungal infections and virulence by C. albicans, and opens a new avenue for designing PCs as antifungal, anticorrosive agents for biofilm-associated fungal infections and industrial remediation.

Coating Materials to Increase the Stability of Liposomes

Liposomes carry various compounds with applications in pharmaceutical, food, and cosmetic fields, and the administration route is especially parenteral, oral, or transdermal. Liposomes are used to preserve and release the internal components, thus maintaining the properties of the compounds, the stability and shelf life of the encapsulated products, and their functional benefits. The main problem in obtaining liposomes at the industrial level is their low stability due to fragile phospholipid membranes. To increase the stability of liposomes, phospholipid bilayers have been modified or different coating materials have been developed and studied, both for liposomes with applications in the pharmaceutical field and liposomes in the food field. In the cosmetic field, liposomes need no additional coating because the liposomal formulation is intended to have a fast penetration into the skin. The aim of this review is to provide current knowledge regarding physical and chemical factors that influence stability, coating materials for liposomes with applications in the pharmaceutical and food fields to increase the stability of liposomes containing various sensitive compounds, and absorption of the liposomes and commercial liposomal products obtained through various technologies available on the market.

Chitosan functionalized bismuth oxychloride/zinc oxide nanocomposite for enhanced photocatalytic degradation of Congo red

The industrial discharge of dye pollutant contaminated wastewater is the major cause of water and soil pollution. Photocatalysis is a promising and green remediation technology, which has received widespread attention in the remediation of hazardous dyes from aqueous environment and convert them into harmless compounds. Herein, we report the synthesis of chitosan (CS) functionalized bismuth oxychloride/zinc oxide (BiOCl/ZnO) nanocomposite by a modified hydrothermal route. The physiochemical characterization revealed that the synthesized nanocomposite have crystalline, agglomerated spherical along with rod shaped morphology and size range from 35 to 160 nm. FTIR peaks at 825, 727, 662 and 622 cm^-1 specified the presence of BiO and ZnO bonds, whereas peak at 1635 cm^-1 revealed the existence of amine groups which confirms the presence of CS in the synthesized CS-BiOCl/ZnO nanocomposite. Catalytic property of synthesized nanocomposite was evaluated by the degradation of Congo red (CR) under UV-light irradiation. CR dye degradation percentage was found to be 93 % within a short period of 40 min by utilizing UV-light. Furthermore, reusability of CS-BiOCl/ZnO photocatalyst was also investigated, and it remained significant photocatalytic activity after three consecutive cycles. Hence, the results obtained in this study revealed that CS-BiOCl/ZnO nanocomposite can be used as a potential photocatalyst to remediate organic pollutants in various industries.

Update on Chitosan-Based Hydrogels: Preparation, Characterization, and Its Antimicrobial and Antibiofilm Applications

Chitosan is a prominent biopolymer in research for of its physicochemical properties and uses. Each year, the number of publications based on chitosan and its derivatives increases. Because of its comprehensive biological properties, including antibacterial, antioxidant, and tissue regeneration activities, chitosan and its derivatives can be used to prevent and treat soft tissue diseases. Furthermore, chitosan can be employed as a nanocarrier for therapeutic drug delivery. In this review, we will first discuss chitosan and chitosan-based hydrogel polymers. The structure, functionality, and physicochemical characteristics of chitosan-based hydrogels are addressed. Second, a variety of characterization approaches were used to analyze and validate the physicochemical characteristics of chitosan-based hydrogel materials. Finally, we discuss the antibacterial, antibiofilm, and antifungal uses of supramolecular chitosan-based hydrogels. This review study can be used as a base for future research into the production of various types of chitosan-based hydrogels in the antibacterial and antifungal fields.

Antimicrobial photodynamic inactivation of wastewater microorganisms by halogenated indole derivative capped zinc oxide

Novel 5-bromoindole (5B)-capped zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles (5BZN) were synthesized to improve the antibacterial, antibiofilm, and disinfection processes for the control of microorganisms in wastewater treatment. When exposed to 5BZN, the biofilm density and cell attachment were reduced dramatically, as measured by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The 5BZN were also investigated for photodynamic treatment of multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria and toxicity. The combination of 5B and ZnO exhibited strong antibacterial and antibiofilm activities against MDR bacteria even at low doses (20 μg/mL). After 12.5 mW/cm² blue LED irradiation, the composite 5BZN showed superior photodynamic inactivation of two wastewater MDR, Enterobacter tabaci E2 and Klebsiella quasipneumoniae SC3, with cell densities reduced by 3.9 log CFU/mL and 4.7 log CFU/mL, respectively, after 120 min. The mechanism of bacterial inactivation was studied using a scavenging investigation, and H₂O₂ was identified mainly as the reactive species for bacterial inactivation. The 5BZN exhibited higher photodynamic inactivation towards the total coliform bacteria in wastewater effluents under a blue LED light intensity of 12.5 mW/cm² with almost complete inactivation of the coliform bacteria cells within 40 min. Furthermore, when 5BZN (100 mg/L) was added to the reactor, the level of tetracycline antibiotic degradation was increased by 63.6% after 120 min. The toxicity test, animal model nematode studies and seed germination assays, showed that 5BZN is harmless, highlighting its tremendous potential as a self-healing agent in large-scale photodynamic disinfection processes.

Synthesis and Characterization of Novel Sprayed Ag-Doped Quaternary Cu2MgSnS4 Thin Film for Antibacterial Application

In this work, the effects of silver doping with different Ag/(Ag + Cu) ratios (i.e., 2%, 5% and 10% at.% in the spray solution) on the structural, morphological, optical, electrical and antibacterial properties of Cu₂MgSnS₄ (CMTS) thin film grown by spray pyrolysis have been studied. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) and selected area electron diffraction (SAED) results have shown that the kesterite phase of CMTS thin films has a maximum crystallite size of about 19.60 nm for 5% Ag/(Ag + Cu). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images have shown spherical grain shapes. The transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and high-resolution TEM (HRTEM) microscopy observations confirmed the intrinsic reticular planes of CMTS thin film with (112) as a preferred orientation and interplanar spacing value of 3.1 Å. The optical properties showed high absorbance and an absorption coefficient of about 10⁴ cm^-1 in the visible region with an optical band gap energy of 1.51 eV. Impedance analysis spectroscopy demonstrated good electrical properties of the CMTS film obtained using 5% Ag/(Ag + Cu). The antibacterial activity of the undoped and Ag-doped particles of CMTS obtained using 5% Ag/(Ag + Cu) against different strains of pathogenic bacteria was tested using the agar well diffusion method. These results showed a significant antibacterial activity of the Ag-doped CMTS particle, which was much higher than the undoped CMTS particles. These experimental findings may open new practices for the Ag-doped CMTS compound, especially the one obtained using 5% Ag/(Ag + Cu), in antibacterial application.

A Three-Dimensional Bioprinted Copolymer Scaffold with Biocompatibility and Structural Integrity for Potential Tissue Regeneration Applications

The present study was to investigate the rheological property, printability, and cell viability of alginate−gelatin composed hydrogels as a potential cell-laden bioink for three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting applications. The 2 g of sodium alginate dissolved in 50 mL of phosphate buffered saline solution was mixed with different concentrations (1% (0.5 g), 2% (1 g), 3% (1.5 g), and 4% (2 g)) of gelatin, denoted as GBH-1, GBH-2, GBH-3, and GBH-4, respectively. The properties of the investigated hydrogels were characterized by contact angle goniometer, rheometer, and bioprinter. In addition, the hydrogel with a proper concentration was adopted as a cell-laden bioink to conduct cell viability testing (before and after bioprinting) using Live/Dead assay and immunofluorescence staining with a human corneal fibroblast cell line. The analytical results indicated that the GBH-2 hydrogel exhibited the lowest loss rate of contact angle (28%) and similar rheological performance as compared with other investigated hydrogels and the control group. Printability results also showed that the average wire diameter of the GBH-2 bioink (0.84 ± 0.02 mm (*** p < 0.001)) post-printing was similar to that of the control group (0.79 ± 0.05 mm). Moreover, a cell scaffold could be fabricated from the GBH-2 bioink and retained its shape integrity for 24 h post-printing. For bioprinting evaluation, it demonstrated that the GBH-2 bioink possessed well viability (>70%) of the human corneal fibroblast cell after seven days of printing under an ideal printing parameter combination (0.4 mm of inner diameter needle, 0.8 bar of printing pressure, and 25 °C of printing temperature). Therefore, the present study suggests that the GBH-2 hydrogel could be developed as a potential cell-laden bioink to print a cell scaffold with biocompatibility and structural integrity for soft tissues such as skin, cornea, nerve, and blood vessel regeneration applications.

Grafted Chitosan-Hyaluronic Acid (CS-g-poly (MA-co-AN) HA) Complex Inhibits Fluconazole-Resistant Candida albicans Biofilm Formation

Fungal resistance that leads to the failure of drug therapy due to biofilm development is a major clinical challenge. Various polysaccharides have been used to control biofilm formation by drug-resistant fungi, and this study was undertaken to develop chitosan (CS)-modified materials and evaluate their abilities to inhibit Candida biofilm growth. CS was grafted with methacrylamide (MA) and acrylonitrile (AN) and, to improve its application characteristics further, was grafted with hyaluronic acid to produce CS-g-poly (MA-co-AN) HA complex. Grafting and complex formation were confirmed using spectroscopic techniques. CS-g-poly (MA-co-AN) HA was tested to investigate its ability to inhibit Candida albicans biofilm formation and showed significant antibiofilm activity at 200 µg/mL. Additionally, CS-g-poly (MA-co-AN) HA did not have any toxic effect on Caenorhabditis elegans. Thus, this study provides an innovative means of preventing microorganism-associated biofilm formation.

Development of Biocompatible Polyhydroxyalkanoate/Chitosan-Tungsten Disulphide Nanocomposite for Antibacterial and Biological Applications

The unique structures and multifunctionalities of two-dimensional (2D) nanomaterials, such as graphene, have aroused increasing interest in the construction of novel scaffolds for biomedical applications due to their biocompatible and antimicrobial abilities. These two-dimensional materials possess certain common features, such as high surface areas, low cytotoxicities, and higher antimicrobial activities. Designing suitable nanocomposites could reasonably improve therapeutics and reduce their adverse effects, both medically and environmentally. In this study, we synthesized a biocompatible nanocomposite polyhydroxyalkanoate, chitosan, and tungsten disulfide (PHA/Ch-WS₂). The nanocomposite PHA/Ch-WS₂ was characterized by FESEM, elemental mapping, FTIR, and TGA. The objective of this work was to investigate the antimicrobial activity of PHA/Ch-WS₂ nanocomposites through the time–kill method against the multi-drug-resistant model organisms Escherichia coli (E. coli) K1 and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Further, we aimed to evaluate the cytotoxicity of the PHA/Ch-WS₂ nanocomposite using HaCaT cell lines by using a lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) assay. The results demonstrated very significant bactericidal effects of the PHA/Ch-WS₂ nanocomposite, and thus, we hypothesize that the nanocomposite would feasibly suit biomedical and sanitizing applications without causing any adverse hazard to the environment.

A novel approach to control Botrytis cinerea fungal infections: uptake and biological activity of antifungals encapsulated in nanoparticle based vectors

Botrytis cinerea, responsible for grey mold diseases, is a pathogen with a broad host range, affecting many important agricultural crops, in pre and post harvesting of fruits and vegetables. Commercial fungicides used to control this pathogen are often subjected to photolysis, volatilization, degradation, leaching, and runoff during application. In this context, the use of a delivery system, based on poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanoparticles (PLGA NPs) represents an innovative approach to develop new pesticide formulations to successfully fight B. cinerea infections. In order to study NPs uptake, B. cinerea conidia and mycelium were treated with PLGA NPs loaded with the high fluorescent probe coumarin 6 (Cu6-PLGA NPs) and analyzed under ApoTome fluorescence microscopy. The observations revealed that 50 nm Cu6-PLGA NPs penetrated into B. cinerea conidia and hyphae, as early as 10 min after administration. Pterostilbene, a natural compound, and fluopyram, a synthetic antifungal, were entrapped in PLGA NPs, added to B. cinerea conidia and mycelium, and their antifungal activity was tested. The results revealed that the compounds loaded in NPs exhibited a higher activity against B. cinerea. These results lay the foundations for the use of PLGA NPs as a new strategy in plant pest management.

Development of chitosan/tannic acid/corn starch multifunctional bilayer smart films as pH-responsive actuators and for fruit preservation

The design of intelligent films for pH-responsive actuators fully constructed from natural biopolymers remains challenging. This study used natural biopolymers to develop a new type of smart and multifunctional chitosan/tannic acid/corn starch (CHT/TA/CS) bilayer films, which can be used for pH-responsive actuators and fruit preservation. We studied the microstructural morphology, physicochemical, antioxidant, antimicrobial properties of the films. Compared with the CHT film, the water vapor permeability (WVP) values of the CHT/TA/CS bilayer films were reduced by 3.1 times, and the tensile strength was increased by 4.6 times. The CHT/TA/CS bilayer films also exhibited high 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) (94.6%) and hydroxyl (OH) (97.5%) radical scavenging activity. The bilayer films had good antimicrobial activity. The CHT/TA/CS bilayer films exhibited different directional deformation behaviors in acid-base solutions and could be used as pH-responsive actuators. By changing the solution's pH, the bilayer films could grab and release heavy objects 21 times heavier than themselves. Furthermore, the CHT/TA/CS bilayer coating prolonged the bananas' storage time from three to six days, and its weight loss was reduced by 14%. The developed CHT/TA/CS bilayer films have potential application in degradable materials, soft robotics fields, and food packaging materials.

Cellulose Nanomaterials as a Future, Sustainable and Renewable Material

Cellulose nanomaterials (CNs) are renewable, bio-derived materials that can address not only technological challenges but also social impacts. This ability results from their unique properties, for example, high mechanical strength, high degree of crystallinity, biodegradable, tunable shape, size, and functional surface chemistry. This minireview provides chemical and physical features of cellulose nanomaterials and recent developments as an adsorbent and an antimicrobial material generated from bio-renewable sources.

Bacterial Cellulose: Production, Characterization, and Application as Antimicrobial Agent

Bacterial cellulose (BC) is recognized as a multifaceted, versatile biomaterial with abundant applications. Groups of microorganisms such as bacteria are accountable for BC synthesis through static or agitated fermentation processes in the presence of competent media. In comparison to static cultivation, agitated cultivation provides the maximum yield of the BC. A pure cellulose BC can positively interact with hydrophilic or hydrophobic biopolymers while being used in the biomedical domain. From the last two decades, the reinforcement of biopolymer-based biocomposites and its applicability with BC have increased in the research field. The harmony of hydrophobic biopolymers can be reduced due to the high moisture content of BC in comparison to hydrophilic biopolymers. Mechanical properties are the important parameters not only in producing green composite but also in dealing with tissue engineering, medical implants, and biofilm. The wide requisition of BC in medical as well as industrial fields has warranted the scaling up of the production of BC with added economy. This review provides a detailed overview of the production and properties of BC and several parameters affecting the production of BC and its biocomposites, elucidating their antimicrobial and antibiofilm efficacy with an insight to highlight their therapeutic potential.