Capsulated Cellular Nanosponges for the Treatment of Experimental Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Development of mesalamine loaded-fenugreek gum decorated pectin microspheres for colonic drug delivery: Ex-vivo and in-vitro characterizations

Mesalamine (MES) is a preferred therapeutic agent for managing various colon disorders, including inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD). However, conventional oral dosage forms of MES face significant limitations, which reduce their effectiveness in managing these conditions. To overcome these challenges, advanced dosage forms of MES are essential. Fenugreek gum (FG), a natural polysaccharide with non-toxicity, ease of synthesis, biodegradability, and biocompatibility, was selected as a key component for developing a novel delivery system. Calcium ion crosslinked MES-incorporated FG-decorated pectin microspheres (FG@MES/PM) were successfully designed for colon-specific drug delivery using an ionotropic gelation technique. The microspheres exhibited favorable physicochemical characteristics, including a particle size of 586nm, a polydispersity index of 0.348, an entrapment efficiency of 85.20±1.02%, and a drug content of 98.52±0.96%. Ex vivo mucoadhesion tests demonstrated strong mucoadhesive properties, highlighting the potential of FG@MES/PM to adhere effectively to the colonic mucosa. In vitro drug release studies showed a modified release profile, with 99.02±1.80% MES released over 24h. Release kinetics analysis confirmed that FG@MES/PM followed the Higuchi matrix model (R2=0.9867), indicating diffusion-controlled release. The drug release mechanism was characterized as anomalous (non-Fickian) transport, with a release exponent (n) of 0.563. Overall, FG@MES/PM demonstrated promising potential for colon-specific drug delivery, offering sustained release and enhanced mucoadhesion. This study underscores the utility of FG for developing advanced drug delivery systems targeting the colon. Future research should explore the broader application of FG and similar natural polysaccharides in designing efficient and biocompatible colon-targeted formulations to improve therapeutic outcomes for IBD and related conditions.

Inflammatory Microenvironment-Responsive Microsphere Vehicles Modulating Gut Microbiota and Intestinal Inflammation for Intestinal Stem Cell Niche Remodeling in Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Intestinal stem cells (ISCs) engage in proliferation to maintain a stable stem cell population and differentiate into functional epithelial subpopulations. This intricate process is upheld by various signals derived from the host and gut microbiota, establishing an ISC niche. However, during inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), this signaling niche undergoes dramatic changes, leading to impaired ISC and hindered restoration of the damaged intestinal epithelial barrier. This study introduces intestinal inflammatory microenvironment-responsive microsphere vehicles designed to remodel the ISC niche, offering an approach to treat IBD. Using an advanced emulsion technique, these microsphere vehicles specifically target colonic inflammation sites, delivering a responsive release of MXene and l-arginine. This delivery system is formulated to modulate intestinal flora and immune responses effectively. l-arginine is converted into nitric oxide to regulate the gut microbiome, while MXene serves as a nanoimmunomodulator to stabilize immune homeostasis. Our findings demonstrate that the anti-inflammatory properties of the microspheres are key to promoting epithelial repair and remodeling of the ISC niche. This study highlights the role of antioxidant microspheres as anti-inflammatory agents that indirectly support ISC function and gut regeneration.

Biosilicification-mimicking chiral nanostructures for targeted treatment of inflammatory bowel disease

The cascade reaction of lipopolysaccharides (LPS), cell-free DNA (cfDNA), and reactive oxygen species (ROS), drives the development of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Herein, we construct polyethylenimide (PEI)-L/D-tartaric acid (L/D-TA) complexes templated mesoporous organosilica nanoparticles (MON) (PEI-L/D-TA@MON) by mimicking biosilicification under ambient conditions within seconds. The chiral nanomedicines include four functional moieties, wherein PEI electrostatically attracts cfDNA, tetrathulfide bonds reductively react with ROS, silanol groups adsorb LPS, and L/D-TA enables chiral recognition and inflammatory localization. Following oral administration, PEI-L-TA@MON exhibiting preferential conformation stereoscopically matches with mucosa and anchors onto inflammatory intestine for lesion targeting. PEI-L-TA@MON eliminates LPS, ROS, and cfDNA, alleviating oxidative stress, inhibiting inflammatory cascade, and maintaining immune homeostasis to achieve IBD therapy. In addition, the rapid synthesis, low cost, energy-free preparation, negligible toxicity, satisfactory therapeutic effect, and facile conversion on therapeutic modes of PEI-L-TA@MON will bring changes for IBD treatment, providing research values and translational clinical prospects.

Orally Deliverable Iron-Ceria Nanotablets for Treatment of Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Ceria-based nanoparticles are versatile in treating various inflammatory diseases, but their feasibility in clinical translation is undermined by safety concerns and a limited delivery system. Meanwhile, the idiopathic nature of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) calls for a wider variety of therapeutics via moderation of the intestinal immune system. In this regard, the synthesis and oral formulation of iron-ceria nanoparticles (CF NPs) with enhanced nanozymic activity and lower toxicity risk than conventional ceria-based nanoparticles are reported. CF NPs are clustered in calcium phosphate (CaP) and coated with a pH-responsive polymer to provide the enteric formulation of iron-ceria nanotablets (CFNT). CFNT exhibits a marked alleviative efficacy in the dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced enterocolitis model in vivo by modulating the pro-inflammatory behavior of innate immune cells including macrophages and neutrophils, promoting anti-inflammatory cytokine profiles, and downregulating key transcription factors of inflammatory pathways.

Sishen Pill & Tongxieyaofang ameliorated ulcerative colitis through the activation of HIF-1α acetylation by gut microbiota-derived propionate and butyrate

BACKGROUND

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a chronic inflammatory bowel disease closely related to gut microbiota dysbiosis and intestinal homeostasis imbalance. Sishen Pill&Tongxieyaofang (SSP-TXYF) has a long history of application in traditional Chinese medicine and is widely used in UC clinics. However, its mechanism of action is still unclear.

PURPOSE

This study aimed to explore the potential regulatory role of SSP-TXYF in protecting against UC through metabolites produced by the intestinal microbiota, and elucidate its underlying molecular mechanism.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

16S rRNA and UPLC-QE-Orbitrap-MS were used to assess the microbiota and short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs). A rat model of 2,4,6-trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid (TNBS)-induced gut microbiota dysbiosis was used to study the effects of SSP-TXYF on UC in vivo. Intestinal epithelial cells-6 (IEC-6) were treated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The intestinal mucosal barrier (IMB) functions were investigated by alcian blue staining and western blot analysis. The mechanism of SSP-TXYF influenced the HIF-1α acetylation pathway was examined by real-time fluorescence quantitative PCR (qPCR), Western blotting, and Co-immunoprecipitation.

RESULTS

Using 16S rRNA gene-based microbiota analysis, we found that SSP-TXYF ameliorated TNBS-induced gut microbiota dysbiosis. We found that SSP-TXYF significantly inhibited the decreased abundance of Firmicutes in UC rats, in addition, the abundance of Actinobacteria was also improved. The mechanism of SSP-TXYF-treated TNBS-induced UC resulted from improved IMB functions via the activation of hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1α) acetylation. Notably, SSP-TXYF Enriched microbiota-derived metabolites propionate and butyrate, which could activate HIF-1α acetylation in IEC. Furthermore, exogenous treatment of propionate and butyrate reproduced similar protective effects as SSP-TXYF to UC through improving HIF-1α-dependent IMB functions.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, our findings suggest that the gut microbiota-propionate/butyrate-HIF-1α-IMB axis plays an important role in SSP-TXYF-maintaining intestinal homeostasis, which may represent a novel approach for UC prevention via the intervention of any link in this axis.

NIR-II Ratiometric Optical Theranostic Capsule for In Situ Diagnosis and Precise Therapy of Intestinal Inflammation

Capsules were widely used in clinical settings for the oral delivery of various drugs, although it remains challenging to trace real-time drug release behavior and adjust dosages based on the therapeutic effect. To address these issues, we developed theranostic capsules that loaded two kinds of fluorescence nanoparticles, H2O2-responsive Janus Ag/Ag2S nanoparticles (Ag/Ag2S JNPs) and the downconversion nanoparticles (DCNPs), and the dexamethasone (Dex) drug. The Ag/Ag2S JNPs exhibit a highly sensitive fluorescence (FL) signal at 1250 nm in response to H2O2, while the FL signal from the DCNPs at 1550 nm remains stable under physiological conditions. The ratio of these two FL signals formed the ratiometric FL signal, which shows correlation with the H2O2 concentration with a detection limit of 1.7 μM. Moreover, the capsules can be precisely delivered into the intestine, where they release the JNPs and DCNPs simultaneously. The H2O2-triggered ratiometric FL signals and images can diagnose inflammation and indicate its location. Meanwhile, the encapsulated Dex is released in the disease region, with ratiometric imaging allowing for real-time tracking of therapeutic efficacy and providing guidance for ongoing treatment. The theranostic capsule system provides an approach for quantitative detection of disease biomarkers and further localized release of therapeutics, thereby avoiding overdose and reducing side effects.

Resistant starch grafted cerium-sulfasalazine infinite coordination polymers synergistically remold intestinal metabolic microenvironment for inflammatory bowel disease therapy

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic gastrointestinal disease which is closely related with the overproduced reactive oxygen species (ROS), increased pro-inflammatory cytokines and disordered intestinal microbes. However, current therapeutic methods usually ignored the interrelation among the pathogenesis, and mainly focused on a single factor, inducing clinical outcomes unsatisfied. Herein, biocompatible infinite coordination polymers of drugs (Ce-SASP-RS ICPs) composed of Ce ions, FDA-approved drug sulfasalazine (SASP) and natural ingredient resistant starch (RS) were developed for synergistic treatment of IBD. The proper Ce3+/Ce4+ ratio in Ce-SASP-RS ICPs can endow them with SOD-like activities, POD-like activities and •OH scavenging ability, which guarantee Ce-SASP-RS ICPs to simultaneously kill bacteria and maintain ROS balance through cascade reactions. Owing to the recovered redox balance microenvironment, SASP in Ce-SASP-RS ICPs can better play their anti-inflammatory function. Moreover, benefitting from the recovered metabolic balance of ROS and inflammatory cytokines in colon, resistant starch can also function better in modifying gut microbiota through generating short-chain fatty acids. Collectively, Ce-SASP-RS ICPs can synergistically restore intestinal metabolic microenvironment through modulating redox balance, attenuating inflammation and modifying intestinal flora. Hence, in view of the mutual influences among IBD pathogenesis, this work presents a synergistic intervention approach for effectively treating IBD.

Cell-derived biomimetic drug delivery system for inflammatory bowel disease therapy

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic recurrent disease with an increasing incidence year by year. At present, no safe and effective treatment for IBD exists. Thus, there is an urgent need to create new therapeutic options that have decreased adverse effects and positive clinical efficacy. A range of nanomaterials have fueled the advancement of nanomedicine in recent years, which is establishing more appealing and prospective treatment approaches for IBD. However, traditional synthetic nanomaterials still have some problems in the IBD drug delivery process, such as weak targeting ability of vectors, difficulty escaping immune surveillance, and poor biosecurity. Natural sources of biological nanomaterials have been identified to solve the above problems. A drug delivery system based on bionic technology is expected to achieve a new breakthrough in the targeted therapy of IBD by nanotechnology due to its organic integration of low immunogenicity and natural targeting of biological materials and the controllability and versatility of synthetic nanocarrier design. We begin this review by outlining the fundamental traits of both inflammatory and healthy intestinal microenvironments. Subsequently, we review the latest application of a cell-derived bionic drug delivery system in IBD therapy. Finally, we discuss the development prospects of this delivery system and challenges to its clinical translation. Biomimetic nanotherapy is believed to offer a new strategy for the treatment of IBD.

Cell Membrane-Coated Nanotherapeutics for the Targeted Treatment of Acute and Chronic Colitis

Integrin α4β1 and α4β7 are overexpressed in macrophages and leukocytes and play important roles in mediating cell homing and recruitment to inflammatory tissues. Herein, to enhance the targeting ability of nanotherapeutics for inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) treatment, cyclosporine A-loaded nanoparticles (CsA NPs) were coated with macrophage membranes (MM-CsA NPs) or leukocyte membranes (LM-CsA NPs). In vitro experiments demonstrated that the physicochemical properties of the nanotherapeutics (e.g., size, zeta potential, polymer dispersity index, and drug release profiles) did not obviously change after cell membrane coating. However, integrin α4β1 and α4β7 were expressed in MM-CsA NPs and LM-CsA NPs, respectively, which significantly inhibited normal macrophage phagocytosis and obviously increased uptake by proinflammatory macrophages and endothelial cells. In vivo experiments verified that cell membrane-coated nanotherapeutics have longer retention times in inflammatory intestinal tissues. Importantly, LM-CsA NPs significantly mitigated weight loss, alleviated colon shortening, decreased disease activity indices (DAIs), and promoted colon tissue repair in acute and chronic colitis model mice. Furthermore, LM-CsA NPs significantly decreased the expression of inflammatory factors such as TNF-α and IL-6 and increased the expression of gut barrier-related proteins such as E-cadherin, ZO-1, and occludin protein in colitis mice.

Endoplasmic reticulum-targeted biomimetic nanoparticles induce apoptosis and ferroptosis by regulating endoplasmic reticulum function in colon cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a major threat to human health, as it is one of the most common malignancies with a high incidence and mortality rate. The cancer cell membrane (CCM) has significant potential in targeted tumor drug delivery due to its membrane antigen-mediated homologous targeting ability. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in cancer cells plays a crucial role in apoptosis and ferroptosis. In this study, we developed an ER-targeted peptide-modified CCM-biomimetic nanoparticle-delivered lovastatin (LOV) nanomedicine delivery system (EMPP-LOV) for cancer treatment. Both in vitro and in vivo experiments demonstrated that EMPP could effectively target cancer cells and localize within the ER. EMPP-LOV modulated ER function to promote apoptosis and ferroptosis in tumor cells. Furthermore, synergistic antitumor efficacy was observed in both in vitro and in vivo models. EMPP-LOV induced apoptosis in CRC cells by over-activating endoplasmic reticulum stress and promoted ferroptosis by inhibiting the mevalonate pathway, leading to synergistic tumor growth inhibition with minimal toxicity to major organs. Overall, the EMPP-LOV delivery system, with its subcellular targeting capability within tumor cells, presents a promising therapeutic platform for CRC treatment.

The Role of Nanoparticle Morphology on Enhancing Delivery of Budesonide for Treatment of Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic and recurrent inflammatory disease that affects the gastrointestinal tract. The major hurdles impeding IBD treatment are the low targeting efficiency and short retention time of drugs in IBD sites. Nanoparticles with specific shapes have demonstrated the ability to improve mucus retention and cellular uptake. Herein, mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) with various morphologies were used to deliver budesonide (BUD) for the treatment of IBD. The therapeutic efficacy is strongly dependent on their shapes. The system comprises different shapes of MSNs as carriers for budesonide (BUD), along with Eudragit S100 as the enteric release shell. The encapsulation of Eudragit S100 not only improved the stability of MSNs-BUD in the gastrointestinal tract but also conferred pH-responsive drug release properties. Then, MSNs efficiently deliver BUD to the colon site, and the special shape of MSNs plays a critical role in enhancing their permeability and retention in the mucus layer. Among them, dendritic MSNs (MSND) effectively reduced myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity and levels of inflammatory cytokines in the colon due to long retention time and rapid release in IBD sites, thereby enhancing the therapeutic efficacy against colitis. Given the special shapes of MSNs and pH-responsivity of Eudragit S100, BUD loaded in the voids of MSND (E@MSNs-BUD) could penetrate the mucous layer and be accurately delivered to the colon with minor side effects. This system is expected to complement current treatment strategies for the IBD.

Oral microsphere formulation of M2 macrophage-mimetic Janus nanomotor for targeted therapy of ulcerative colitis

Oral medication for ulcerative colitis (UC) is often hindered by challenges such as inadequate accumulation, limited penetration of mucus barriers, and the intricate task of mitigating excessive ROS and inflammatory cytokines. Here, we present a strategy involving sodium alginate microspheres (SAMs) incorporating M2 macrophage membrane (M2M)-coated Janus nanomotors (denominated as Motor@M2M) for targeted treatment of UC. SAM provides a protective barrier, ensuring that Motor@M2M withstands the harsh gastric milieu and exhibits controlled release. M2M enhances the targeting precision of nanomotors to inflammatory tissues and acts as a decoy for the neutralization of inflammatory cytokines. Catalytic decomposition of H2O2 by MnO2 in the oxidative microenvironment generates O2 bubbles, propelling Motor@M2M across the mucus barrier into inflamed colon tissues. Upon oral administration, Motor@M2M@SAM notably ameliorated UC severity, including inflammation mitigation, ROS scavenging, macrophage reprogramming, and restoration of the intestinal barrier and microbiota. Consequently, our investigation introduces a promising oral microsphere formulation of macrophage-biomimetic nanorobots, providing a promising approach for UC treatment.

Melanin Nanoparticle-Modified Probiotics for Targeted Synergistic Therapy of Ulcerative Colitis

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a recurrent chronic mucosal inflammation disease whose most significant pathological characteristics are intestinal inflammation and damaged mucosal barrier induced by reactive oxygen/nitrogen species, abnormal immune microenvironment, and intestinal microecological imbalance. Oral probiotics are a living therapy for intestinal diseases, but their clinical application is hindered by poor bacterial biological activity and insufficient intestinal retention. Here, we developed a targeted oral formulation, functionalized probiotic Lf@MPB, with Lactobacillus fermentum (Lf) as the core and modified melanin nanoparticles (MNPs) on its surface through a click reaction of tricarboxyphenylboronic acid for synergistic therapy of UC. In vitro experiments showed that Lf@MPB not only possessed strong free radical scavenging ability, reduced cellular mitochondrial polarization, and inhibited apoptosis but also significantly enhanced the viability of Lf probiotics in simulated gastrointestinal fluid. Fluorescence imaging in vivo revealed the high accumulation of Lf@MPB at the site of intestinal inflammation in dextran sulfate sodium-induced UC mice. Moreover, in vivo results demonstrated that Lf@MPB effectively alleviated oxidative stress and inflammatory response and restored the intestinal barrier. In addition, 16S rRNA gene sequencing verified that Lf@MPB could increase the abundance and diversity of intestinal microbial communities and optimize microbial composition to inhibit the progression of UC. This work combines effective antioxidant and anti-inflammatory strategies with the oral administration of functionalized probiotics to provide a promising alternative for UC treatment.

Revolutionizing Neurocare: Biomimetic Nanodelivery Via Cell Membranes

Brain disorders represent a significant challenge in medical science due to the formidable blood-brain barrier (BBB), which severely limits the penetration of conventional therapeutics, hindering effective treatment strategies. This review delves into the innovative realm of biomimetic nanodelivery systems, including stem cell-derived nanoghosts, tumor cell membrane-coated nanoparticles, and erythrocyte membrane-based carriers, highlighting their potential to circumvent the BBB's restrictions. By mimicking native cell properties, these nanocarriers emerge as a promising solution for enhancing drug delivery to the brain, offering a strategic advantage in overcoming the barrier's selective permeability. The unique benefits of leveraging cell membranes from various sources is evaluated and advanced technologies for fabricating cell membrane-encapsulated nanoparticles capable of masquerading as endogenous cells are examined. This enables the targeted delivery of a broad spectrum of therapeutic agents, ranging from small molecule drugs to proteins, thereby providing an innovative approach to neurocare. Further, the review contrasts the capabilities and limitations of these biomimetic nanocarriers with traditional delivery methods, underlining their potential to enable targeted, sustained, and minimally invasive treatment modalities. This review is concluded with a perspective on the clinical translation of these biomimetic systems, underscoring their transformative impact on the therapeutic landscape for intractable brain diseases.

Efficient Delivery of Lomitapide using Hybrid Membrane-Coated Tetrahedral DNA Nanostructures for Glioblastoma Therapy

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most aggressive and prevalent primary malignant tumor of the central nervous system. Traditional chemotherapy has poor therapeutic effects and significant side effects due to drug resistance, the natural blood-brain barrier (BBB), and nonspecific distribution, leading to a lack of clinically effective therapeutic drugs. Here, 1430 small molecule compounds are screened based on a high-throughput drug screening platform and a novel anti-GBM drug, lomitapide (LMP) is obtained. Furthermore, a bionic nanodrug delivery system (RFA NPs) actively targeting GBM is constructed, which mainly consists of tetrahedral DNA nanocages (tFNA NPs) loaded with LMP as the core and a folate-modified erythrocyte-cancer cell-macrophage hybrid membrane (FRUR) as the shell. FRUR camouflage conferred unique features on tFNA NPs, including excellent biocompatibility, improved pharmacokinetic profile, efficient BBB permeability, and tumor targeting ability. The results show that the LMP RFA NPs exhibited superior and specific anti-GBM activities, reduced off-target drug delivery, prolonged lifespan, and has negligible side effects in tumor-bearing mice. This study combines high-throughput drug screening with biomimetic nanodrug delivery system technology to provide a theoretical and practical basis for drug development and the optimization of clinical treatment strategies for GBM treatment.

Ingestible Artificial Urinary Biomarker Probes for Urine Test of Gastrointestinal Cancer

Although colorectal cancer diagnosed at an early stage shows high curability, methods simultaneously possessing point-of-care testing ability and high sensitivity are limited. Here, an orally deliverable biomarker-activatable probe (termed as HATS) for early detection of orthotopic tumors via remote urinalysis is presented. To enable its oral delivery to the colon, HATS is designed to have remarkable resistance to acidity and digestive enzymes in the stomach and small intestine and negligible intestinal absorption. Upon reaction with a cancer biomarker in the colon segment, HATS releases a small fragment of tetrazine that can transverse the intestinal barrier, enter blood circulation, and ultimately undergo renal clearance to urine. Subsequently, the urinary tetrazine fragment is detected by bioorthogonal reaction with trans-cyclooctene-caged resorufin (TCO-Reso) to afford a rapid and specific fluorescence enhancement of TCO-Reso. Such signal readout is correlated with the urinary tetrazine concentration and thus measures the level of cancer biomarkers in the colon. HATS-based optical urinalysis detects orthotopic colon tumors two weeks earlier than clinical serological tests and can be developed to a point-of-care paper test. Thereby, HATS-based urinalysis provides a non-invasive and sensitive approach to cancer screening at low-resource settings.

Probiotics Armed with In Situ Mineralized Nanocatalysts and Targeted Biocoatings for Multipronged Treatment of Inflammatory Bowel Disease

While oral probiotics show promise in treating inflammatory bowel disease, the primary challenge lies in sustaining their activity and retention within the inflamed gastrointestinal environment. In this work, we develop an engineered probiotic platform that is armed with biocatalytic and inflamed colon-targeting nanocoatings for multipronged management of IBD. Notably, we achieve the in situ growth of artificial nanocatalysts on probiotics through a bioinspired mineralization strategy. The resulting ferrihydrite nanostructures anchored on bacteria exhibit robust catalase-like activity across a broad pH range, effectively scavenging ROS to alleviate inflammation. The further envelopment with fucoidan-based shields confers probiotics with additional inflamed colon-targeting functions. Upon oral administration, the engineered probiotics display markedly improved viability and colonization within the inflamed intestine, and they further elicit boosted prophylactic and therapeutic efficacy against colitis through the synergistic interplay of nanocatalysis-based immunomodulation and probiotics-mediated microbiota reshaping. The robust and multifunctional probiotic platforms offer great potential for the comprehensive management of gastrointestinal disorders.

Fecal microbiota transplantation ameliorates abdominal obesity through inhibiting microbiota-mediated intestinal barrier damage and inflammation in mice

Abdominal obesity (AO), characterized by the excessive abdominal fat accumulation, has emerged as a significant public health concern due to its metabolic complications and escalating prevalence worldwide, posing a more pronounced threat to human health than general obesity. While certain studies have indicated that intestinal flora contributed to diet-induced general obesity, the precise involvement of gut microbiota in the development of AO, specifically the accumulation of abdominal fat, remains inadequately explored. In this study, the 16 S rDNA sequencing was employed to analyze gut flora alterations, and the intestinal microbiota dysbiosis characterized by a vanishing decline of Akkermansia was found in the AO group. Along with notable gut microbiota changes, the intestinal mucosal barrier damage and metabolic inflammation were detected, which collectively promoted metabolic dysregulation in AO. Furthermore, the metabolic inflammation and AO were ameliorated after the intestinal microbiota depletion with antibiotics (ABX) drinking, underscoring a significant involvement of gut microbiota dysbiosis in the progression of AO. More importantly, our findings demonstrated that the transplantation of healthy intestinal flora successfully reversed the gut microbiota dysbiosis, particularly the decline of Akkermansia in the AO group. The gut flora reshaping has led to the repair of gut barrier damage and mitigation of metabolic inflammation, which ultimately ameliorated abdominal fat deposition. Our study established the role of interactions between gut flora, mucus barrier, and metabolic inflammation in the development of AO, thereby offering a theoretical foundation for the clinical application of fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) as a treatment for AO.

Bioinspired and biomimetic strategies for inflammatory bowel disease therapy

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is an idiopathic chronic inflammatory bowel disease with high morbidity and an increased risk of cancer or death, resulting in a heavy societal medical burden. While current treatment modalities have been successful in achieving long-term remission and reducing the risk of complications, IBD remains incurable. Nanomedicine has the potential to address the high toxic side effects and low efficacy in IBD treatment. However, synthesized nanomedicines typically exhibit some degree of immune rejection, off-target effects, and a poor ability to cross biological barriers, limiting the development of clinical applications. The emergence of bionic materials and bionic technologies has reshaped the landscape in novel pharmaceutical fields. Biomimetic drug-delivery systems can effectively improve biocompatibility and reduce immunogenicity. Some bioinspired strategies can mimic specific components, targets or immune mechanisms in pathological processes to produce targeting effects for precise disease control. This article highlights recent research on bioinspired and biomimetic strategies for the treatment of IBD and discusses the challenges and future directions in the field to advance the treatment of IBD.