Patterns of Flexible Nanotubes Formed by Liquid-Ordered and Liquid-Disordered Membranes

The interplay of composition and mechanics in the thermodynamics of asymmetric ternary lipid membranes

Eukaryotic lipid membranes are both compositionally complex and strongly asymmetric. Preferential lipid interactions enable coexistence between two fluid phases and an associated critical point, while bilayer asymmetry leads to leaflet-specific values for many observables-most saliently composition, but also a difference in leaflet tensions, for which we introduced the term "differential stress." Lipid mixing thermodynamics has been extensively studied, notably in idealized ternary model systems, and interest in asymmetry has grown significantly in the past decade, but their interplay remains poorly understood. Here we propose a conceptual framework for the thermodynamics of asymmetric ternary lipid membranes. Cholesterol emerges as an essential actor playing two different roles: first, it controls lipid mixing; second, it couples the compositional phase points of the two leaflets by achieving chemical equilibrium between them. Since differential stress can squeeze cholesterol from one leaflet into the other, this couples mechanical properties such as lateral stresses and curvature torques directly to mixing thermodynamics. Using coarse-grained simulations, we explore implications for leaflet coexistence, mechanical stability of giant vesicles, and differential stress driven phase segregation in a single leaflet. We hope this framework enables a fresh look at some persistent puzzles in this field, most notably the elusive nature of lipid rafts.

The many faces of membrane tension for biomembranes and vesicles

Membrane tension is generated by external forces and constraints that affect the membrane's surface area. Many studies have been pursued to elucidate this intuitive concept. Here, we focus on biomimetic model systems, for which the notion of membrane tension can be elaborated in a quantitative manner. Bottom-up, these membrane systems are planar bilayers, unilamellar nanovesicles, and giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs). For planar bilayers and nanovesicles, we need to distinguish the mechanical bilayer tension within the whole bilayer from the mechanical leaflet tensions within the individual bilayer leaflets. In addition, the fluctuation spectrum of the bilayer defines the bilayer's fluctuation tension. These different tensions can be determined by molecular dynamics simulations. On the micron-scale, GUV membranes as observed by light microscopy, experience both a mechanical and a curvature-elastic tension, as follows from the theory of curvature elasticity. The curvature-elastic tension represents a material parameter, whereas the mechanical tension is a kind of hidden variable that depends on the size and shape of the membrane as demonstrated for multispherical shapes of GUVs. Furthermore, the excess membrane area stored in the shape fluctuations is again governed by a fluctuation tension. Many membrane systems exhibit characteristic tension thresholds. Examples include, the shapes of tubular membranes and the morphological responses of vesicle membranes to condensate droplets.

Regulating Biocondensates within Synthetic Cells via Segregative Phase Separation

Living cells orchestrate a myriad of biological reactions within a highly complex and crowded environment. A major factor responsible for such seamless assembly is the preferential interactions between the constituent macromolecules, that can drive demixing to produce coexisting phases and thus provide dynamic intracellular compartmentalization. However, the way multiple-phase separation phenomena, occurring simultaneously within the cytoplasmic space, influence each other is still largely unknown. Here, we show that the interplay between segregative and associative phase separation within cell-mimicking confinements can lead to rich dynamics between multiple phases and the lipid boundary. Using on-chip microfluidic systems, we encapsulate the associative and segregative components and externally trigger their phase separation within cell-sized vesicles. We find that segregative phases create microdomains and tend to dictate the fate of associative components by acting as molecular recruiters, membrane-targeting agents, and initiators of condensation. The obtained multiphase architecture provides an isolated microenvironment for condensates, restricting their molecular communication as well as diffusive motion, and can further lead to global shape transformation of the confinement itself in the form of wetted, hierarchical domains at the lipid membrane. In conclusion, we propose segregative phase separation as a universal condensation regulation strategy by managing their molecular distribution, process initiation, and spatial localization, including membrane interaction. The presented interplay between the two phase separation systems suggests a distinct design principle in constructing complex synthetic cells and controlling the behavior of artificial membraneless organelles within.

Lipid packing and cholesterol content regulate membrane wetting and remodeling by biomolecular condensates

Biomolecular condensates play a central role in cellular processes by interacting with membranes driving wetting transitions and inducing mutual remodeling. While condensates are known to locally alter membrane properties such as lipid packing and hydration, it remains unclear how membrane composition and phase state in turn affect condensate affinity. Here, we show that it is not only the membrane phase itself, but rather the degree of lipid packing that determines the condensate affinity for membranes. Increasing lipid chain length, saturation, or cholesterol content, enhances lipid packing, thereby decreasing condensate interaction. This regulatory mechanism is consistent across various condensate-membrane systems, highlighting the critical role of the membrane interface. In addition, protein adsorption promotes extensive membrane remodeling, including the formation of tubes and double-membrane sheets. Our findings reveal a mechanism by which membrane composition fine-tunes condensate wetting, highlighting its potential impact on cellular functions and organelle interactions.

Influence of the glycocalyx on the size and mechanical properties of plasma membrane-derived vesicles

Recent studies have reported that the overexpression of MUC1 glycoproteins on cell surfaces changes the morphology of cell plasma membranes and increases the blebbing of vesicles from them, supporting the hypothesis that entropic forces exerted by MUC1 change the spontaneous curvature of cell membranes. However, how MUC1 is incorporated into and influences the size and biophysical properties of plasma-membrane-blebbed vesicles is not understood. Here we report single-vesicle-level characterization of giant plasma membrane vesicles (GPMVs) derived from cells overexpressing MUC1, revealing a 40× variation in MUC1 density between GPMVs from a single preparation and a strong correlation between GPMV size and MUC1 density. By dispersing GPMVs in aqueous liquid crystals (LCs), we show that the elasticity of the LC can be used to strain individual GPMVs into spindle-like shapes, consistent with the straining of fluid-like membranes. To quantify the influence of MUC1 on membrane mechanical properties, we analyze the shapes of strained GPMVs within a theoretical framework that integrates the effects of MUC1 density and GPMV size on strain. We measure the spontaneous curvature of GPMV membranes to be 2-10 μm-1 and weakly influenced by the 40× variation in MUC1 density, a conclusion we validate by performing independent experiments in which MUC1 is enzymatically removed from GPMVs. Overall, our study advances the understanding of heterogeneity in size and MUC1 density in GPMVs, and establishes single-vesicle-level methods for characterization of mechanical properties within a heterogeneous population of GPMVs. Furthermore, our measurements highlight differences between membrane properties of GPMVs and their parent cells.

Biomolecular Condensates in Contact with Membranes

Biomolecular condensates are highly versatile membraneless organelles involved in a plethora of cellular processes. Recent years have witnessed growing evidence of the interaction of these droplets with membrane-bound cellular structures. Condensates' adhesion to membranes can cause their mutual molding and regulation, and their interaction is of fundamental relevance to intracellular organization and communication, organelle remodeling, embryogenesis, and phagocytosis. In this article, we review advances in the understanding of membrane-condensate interactions, with a focus on in vitro models. These minimal systems allow the precise characterization and tuning of the material properties of both membranes and condensates and provide a workbench for visualizing the resulting morphologies and quantifying the interactions. These interactions can give rise to diverse biologically relevant phenomena, such as molecular-level restructuring of the membrane, nano- to microscale ruffling of the condensate-membrane interface, and coupling of the protein and lipid phases.

Membrane nanotubes transform into double-membrane sheets at condensate droplets

Cellular membranes exhibit a multitude of highly curved morphologies such as buds, nanotubes, cisterna-like sheets defining the outlines of organelles. Here, we mimic cell compartmentation using an aqueous two-phase system of dextran and poly(ethylene glycol) encapsulated in giant vesicles. Upon osmotic deflation, the vesicle membrane forms nanotubes, which undergo surprising morphological transformations at the liquid-liquid interfaces inside the vesicles. At these interfaces, the nanotubes transform into cisterna-like double-membrane sheets (DMS) connected to the mother vesicle via short membrane necks. Using super-resolution (stimulated emission depletion) microscopy and theoretical considerations, we construct a morphology diagram predicting the tube-to-sheet transformation, which is driven by a decrease in the free energy. Nanotube knots can prohibit the tube-to-sheet transformation by blocking water influx into the tubes. Because both nanotubes and DMSs are frequently formed by cellular membranes, understanding the formation and transformation between these membrane morphologies provides insight into the origin and evolution of cellular organelles.

Coupling liquid phases in 3D condensates and 2D membranes: Successes, challenges, and tools

This review describes the major experimental challenges researchers meet when attempting to couple phase separation between membranes and condensates. Although it is well known that phase separation in a 2D membrane could affect molecules capable of forming a 3D condensate (and vice versa), few researchers have quantified the effects to date. The scarcity of these measurements is not due to a lack of intense interest or effort in the field. Rather, it reflects significant experimental challenges in manipulating coupled membranes and condensates to yield quantitative values. These challenges transcend many molecular details, which means they impact a wide range of systems. This review highlights recent exciting successes in the field, and it lays out a comprehensive list of tools that address potential pitfalls for researchers who are considering coupling membranes with condensates.

The reproduction process of Gram-positive protocells

Protocells are believed to have existed on early Earth prior to the emergence of prokaryotes. Due to their rudimentary nature, it is widely accepted that these protocells lacked intracellular mechanisms to regulate their reproduction, thereby relying heavily on environmental conditions. To understand protocell reproduction, we adopted a top-down approach of transforming a Gram-positive bacterium into a lipid-vesicle-like state. In this state, cells lacked intrinsic mechanisms to regulate their morphology or reproduction, resembling theoretical propositions on protocells. Subsequently, we grew these proxy-protocells under the environmental conditions of early Earth to understand their impact on protocell reproduction. Despite the lack of molecular biological coordination, cells in our study underwent reproduction in an organized manner. The method and the efficiency of their reproduction can be explained by an interplay between the physicochemical properties of cell constituents and environmental conditions. While the overall reproductive efficiency in these top-down modified cells was lower than their counterparts with a cell wall, the process always resulted in viable daughter cells. Given the simplicity and suitability of this reproduction method to early Earth environmental conditions, we propose that primitive protocells likely reproduced by a process like the one we described below.

Kinetic control of shape deformations and membrane phase separation inside giant vesicles

A variety of cellular processes use liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) to create functional levels of organization, but the kinetic pathways by which it proceeds remain incompletely understood. Here in real time, we monitor the dynamics of LLPS of mixtures of segregatively phase-separating polymers inside all-synthetic, giant unilamellar vesicles. After dynamically triggering phase separation, we find that the ensuing relaxation-en route to the new equilibrium-is non-trivially modulated by a dynamic interplay between the coarsening of the evolving droplet phase and the interactive membrane boundary. The membrane boundary is preferentially wetted by one of the incipient phases, dynamically arresting the progression of coarsening and deforming the membrane. When the vesicles are composed of phase-separating mixtures of common lipids, LLPS within the vesicular interior becomes coupled to the membrane's compositional degrees of freedom, producing microphase-separated membrane textures. This coupling of bulk and surface phase-separation processes suggests a physical principle by which LLPS inside living cells might be dynamically regulated and communicated to the cellular boundaries.

The reproduction of gram-negative protoplasts and the influence of environmental conditions on this process

Bacterial protoplasts are known to reproduce independently of canonical molecular biological processes. Although their reproduction is thought to be influenced by environmental conditions, the growth of protoplasts in their natural habitat has never been empirically studied. Here, we studied the life cycle of protoplasts in their native environment. Contrary to the previous perception that protoplasts reproduce in an erratic manner, cells in our study reproduced in a defined sequence of steps, always leading to viable daughter cells. Their reproduction can be explained by an interplay between intracellular metabolism, the physicochemical properties of cell constituents, and the nature of cations in the growth media. The efficiency of reproduction is determined by the environmental conditions. Under favorable environmental conditions, protoplasts reproduce with nearly similar efficiency to cells that possess a cell wall. In short, here we demonstrate the simplest method of cellular reproduction and the influence of environmental conditions on this process.

Biomolecular condensates modulate membrane lipid packing and hydration

Membrane wetting by biomolecular condensates recently emerged as a key phenomenon in cell biology, playing an important role in a diverse range of processes across different organisms. However, an understanding of the molecular mechanisms behind condensate formation and interaction with lipid membranes is still missing. To study this, we exploited the properties of the dyes ACDAN and LAURDAN as nano-environmental sensors in combination with phasor analysis of hyperspectral and lifetime imaging microscopy. Using glycinin as a model condensate-forming protein and giant vesicles as model membranes, we obtained vital information on the process of condensate formation and membrane wetting. Our results reveal that glycinin condensates display differences in water dynamics when changing the salinity of the medium as a consequence of rearrangements in the secondary structure of the protein. Remarkably, analysis of membrane-condensates interaction with protein as well as polymer condensates indicated a correlation between increased wetting affinity and enhanced lipid packing. This is demonstrated by a decrease in the dipolar relaxation of water across all membrane-condensate systems, suggesting a general mechanism to tune membrane packing by condensate wetting.

Elucidating the Morphology of the Endoplasmic Reticulum: Puzzles and Perspectives

Artificial or synthetic organelles are a key challenge for bottom-up synthetic biology. So far, synthetic organelles have typically been based on spherical membrane compartments, used to spatially confine selected chemical reactions. In vivo, these compartments are often far from being spherical and can exhibit rather complex architectures. A particularly fascinating example is provided by the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), which extends throughout the whole cell by forming a continuous network of membrane nanotubes connected by three-way junctions. The nanotubes have a typical diameter of between 50 and 100 nm. In spite of much experimental progress, several fundamental aspects of the ER morphology remain elusive. A long-standing puzzle is the straight appearance of the tubules in the light microscope, which form irregular polygons with contact angles close to 120°. Another puzzling aspect is the nanoscopic shapes of the tubules and junctions, for which very different images have been obtained by electron microcopy and structured illumination microscopy. Furthermore, both the formation and maintenance of the reticular networks require GTP and GTP-hydrolyzing membrane proteins. In fact, the networks are destroyed by the fragmentation of nanotubes when the supply of GTP is interrupted. Here, it is argued that all of these puzzling observations are intimately related to each other and to the dimerization of two membrane proteins anchored to the same membrane. So far, the functional significance of this dimerization process remained elusive and, thus, seemed to waste a lot of GTP. However, this process can generate an effective membrane tension that stabilizes the irregular polygonal geometry of the reticular networks and prevents the fragmentation of their tubules, thereby maintaining the integrity of the ER. By incorporating the GTP-hydrolyzing membrane proteins into giant unilamellar vesicles, the effective membrane tension will become accessible to systematic experimental studies.

Leaflet Tensions Control the Spatio-Temporal Remodeling of Lipid Bilayers and Nanovesicles

Biological and biomimetic membranes are based on lipid bilayers, which consist of two monolayers or leaflets. To avoid bilayer edges, which form when the hydrophobic core of such a bilayer is exposed to the surrounding aqueous solution, a single bilayer closes up into a unilamellar vesicle, thereby separating an interior from an exterior aqueous compartment. Synthetic nanovesicles with a size below 100 nanometers, traditionally called small unilamellar vesicles, have emerged as potent platforms for the delivery of drugs and vaccines. Cellular nanovesicles of a similar size are released from almost every type of living cell. The nanovesicle morphology has been studied by electron microscopy methods but these methods are limited to a single snapshot of each vesicle. Here, we review recent results of molecular dynamics simulations, by which one can monitor and elucidate the spatio-temporal remodeling of individual bilayers and nanovesicles. We emphasize the new concept of leaflet tensions, which control the bilayers' stability and instability, the transition rates of lipid flip-flops between the two leaflets, the shape transformations of nanovesicles, the engulfment and endocytosis of condensate droplets and rigid nanoparticles, as well as nanovesicle adhesion and fusion. To actually compute the leaflet tensions, one has to determine the bilayer's midsurface, which represents the average position of the interface between the two leaflets. Two particularly useful methods to determine this midsurface are based on the density profile of the hydrophobic lipid chains and on the molecular volumes.

Remodeling of Biomembranes and Vesicles by Adhesion of Condensate Droplets

Condensate droplets are formed in aqueous solutions of macromolecules that undergo phase separation into two liquid phases. A well-studied example are solutions of the two polymers PEG and dextran which have been used for a long time in biochemical analysis and biotechnology. More recently, phase separation has also been observed in living cells where it leads to membrane-less or droplet-like organelles. In the latter case, the condensate droplets are enriched in certain types of proteins. Generic features of condensate droplets can be studied in simple binary mixtures, using molecular dynamics simulations. In this review, I address the interactions of condensate droplets with biomimetic and biological membranes. When a condensate droplet adheres to such a membrane, the membrane forms a contact line with the droplet and acquires a very high curvature close to this line. The contact angles along the contact line can be observed via light microscopy, lead to a classification of the possible adhesion morphologies, and determine the affinity contrast between the two coexisting liquid phases and the membrane. The remodeling processes generated by condensate droplets include wetting transitions, formation of membrane nanotubes as well as complete engulfment and endocytosis of the droplets by the membranes.

Stepwise remodeling and subcompartment formation in individual vesicles by three ESCRT-III proteins

The endosomal sorting complex required for transport (ESCRT) is a multi-protein machinery involved in several membrane remodeling processes. Different approaches have been used to resolve how ESCRT proteins scission membranes. However, the underlying mechanisms generating membrane deformations are still a matter of debate. Here, giant unilamellar vesicles, microfluidic technology, and micropipette aspiration are combined to continuously follow the ESCRT-III-mediated membrane remodeling on the single-vesicle level for the first time. With this approach, we identify different mechanisms by which a minimal set of three ESCRT-III proteins from Entamoeba histolytica reshape the membrane. These proteins modulate the membrane stiffness and spontaneous curvature to regulate bud size and generate intraluminal vesicles even in the absence of ATP. We demonstrate that the bud stability depends on the protein concentration and membrane tension. The approaches introduced here should open the road to diverse applications in synthetic biology for establishing artificial cells with several membrane compartments.

PEO-b-PBD Diblock Copolymers Induce Packing Defects in Lipid/Hybrid Membranes and Improve Insertion Rates of Natively Folded Peptides

Hybrid membranes assembled from biological lipids and synthetic polymers are a promising scaffold for the reconstitution and utilization of membrane proteins. Recent observations indicate that inclusion of small fractions of polymer in lipid membranes can improve protein folding and function, but the exact structural and physical changes a given polymer sequence imparts on a membrane often remain unclear. Here, we use all-atom molecular dynamics simulations to study the structure of hybrid membranes assembled from DOPC phospholipids and PEO-b-PBD diblock copolymers. We verified our computational model using new and existing experimental data and obtained a detailed picture of the polymer conformations in the lipid membrane that we can relate to changes in membrane elastic properties. We find that inclusion of low polymer fractions induces transient packing defects into the membrane. These packing defects act as insertion sites for two model peptides, and in this way, small amounts of polymer content in lipid membranes can lead to large increases in peptide insertion rates. Additionally, we report the peptide conformational space in both pure lipid and hybrid membranes. Both membranes support similar alpha helical peptide structures, exemplifying the biocompatibility of hybrid membranes.

GM1 asymmetry in the membrane stabilizes pores

Cell membranes are highly asymmetric and their stability against poration is crucial for survival. We investigated the influence of membrane asymmetry on electroporation of giant unilamellar vesicles with membranes doped with GM1, a ganglioside asymmetrically enriched in the outer leaflet of neuronal cell membranes. Compared with symmetric membranes, the lifetimes of micronsized pores are about an order of magnitude longer suggesting that pores are stabilized by GM1. Internal membrane nanotubes caused by the GM1 asymmetry, obstruct and additionally slow down pore closure, effectively reducing pore edge tension and leading to leaky membranes. Our results point to the drastic effects this ganglioside can have on pore resealing in biotechnology applications based on poration as well as on membrane repair processes.

Hydration-mediated G-protein-coupled receptor activation

Although G-protein–coupled receptors (GPCRs) control vast physiological pathways, their activation remains chemically and physically enigmatic. Our osmotic stress studies of the visual receptor rhodopsin have redefined the standard model of GPCR signaling by revealing the essential role of bulk water. We show results consistent with a large number of water molecules flooding the rhodopsin interior during activation to stabilize the effector binding conformation. These results suggest a model of GPCR activation in which the receptor becomes solvent-swollen upon formation of the active state. We thus demonstrate the mechanism whereby water acts as a powerful allosteric modulator of a pharmacologically important membrane protein family.

The Rhodopsin family of G-protein–coupled receptors (GPCRs) comprises the targets of nearly a third of all pharmaceuticals. Despite structural water present in GPCR X-ray structures, the physiological relevance of these solvent molecules to rhodopsin signaling remains unknown. Here, we show experimental results consistent with the idea that rhodopsin activation in lipid membranes is coupled to bulk water movements into the protein. To quantify hydration changes, we measured reversible shifting of the metarhodopsin equilibrium due to osmotic stress using an extensive series of polyethylene glycol (PEG) osmolytes. We discovered clear evidence that light activation entails a large influx of bulk water (∼80–100 molecules) into the protein, giving insight into GPCR activation mechanisms. Various size polymer osmolytes directly control rhodopsin activation, in which large solutes are excluded from rhodopsin and dehydrate the protein, favoring the inactive state. In contrast, small osmolytes initially forward shift the activation equilibrium until a quantifiable saturation point is reached, similar to gain-of-function protein mutations. For the limit of increasing osmolyte size, a universal response of rhodopsin to osmotic stress is observed, suggesting it adopts a dynamic, hydrated sponge-like state upon photoactivation. Our results demand a rethinking of the role of water dynamics in modulating various intermediates in the GPCR energy landscape. We propose that besides bound water, an influx of bulk water plays a necessary role in establishing the active GPCR conformation that mediates signaling.

Multispherical shapes of vesicles highlight the curvature elasticity of biomembranes

Giant lipid vesicles form unusual multispherical or "multi-balloon" shapes consisting of several spheres that are connected by membrane necks. Such multispherical shapes have been recently observed when the two sides of the membranes were exposed to different sugar solutions. This sugar asymmetry induced a spontaneous curvature, the sign of which could be reversed by swapping the interior with the exterior solution. Here, previous studies of multispherical shapes are reviewed and extended to develop a comprehensive theory for these shapes. Each multisphere consists of large and small spheres, characterized by two radii, the large-sphere radius, R_l, and the small-sphere radius, R_s. For positive spontaneous curvature, the multisphere can be built up from variable numbers N_l and N_s of large and small spheres. In addition, multispheres consisting of N_*=N_l+N_s equally sized spheres are also possible and provide examples for constant-mean-curvature surfaces. For negative spontaneous curvature, all multispheres consist of one large sphere that encloses a variable number N_s of small spheres. These general features of multispheres arise from two basic properties of curvature elasticity: the local shape equation for spherical membrane segments and the stability conditions for closed membrane necks. In addition, the (N_l+N_s)-multispheres can form several (N_l+N_s)-patterns that differ in the way, in which the spheres are mutually connected. These patterns may involve multispherical junctions consisting of individual spheres that are connected to more than two neighboring spheres. The geometry of the multispheres is governed by two polynomial equations which imply that (N_l+N_s)-multispheres can only be formed within a certain restricted range of vesicle volumes. Each (N_l+N_s)-pattern can be characterized by a certain stability regime that depends both on the stability of the closed necks and on the multispherical geometry. Interesting and challenging topics for future studies include the response of multispheres to locally applied external forces, membrane fusion between spheres to create multispherical shapes of higher-genus topology, and the enlarged morphological complexity of multispheres arising from lipid phase separation and intramembrane domains.

Super-Resolution Imaging of Highly Curved Membrane Structures in Giant Vesicles Encapsulating Molecular Condensates

Molecular crowding is an inherent feature of cell interiors. Synthetic cells as provided by giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs) encapsulating macromolecules (poly(ethylene glycol) and dextran) represent an excellent mimetic system to study membrane transformations associated with molecular crowding and protein condensation. Similarly to cells, such GUVs exhibit highly curved structures like nanotubes. Upon liquid-liquid phase separation their membrane deforms into apparent kinks at the contact line of the interface between the two aqueous phases. These structures, nanotubes, and kinks, have dimensions below optical resolution. Here, these are studied with super-resolution stimulated emission depletion (STED) microscopy facilitated by immobilization in a microfluidic device. The cylindrical nature of the nanotubes based on the superior resolution of STED and automated data analysis is demonstrated. The deduced membrane spontaneous curvature is in excellent agreement with theoretical predictions. Furthermore, the membrane kink-like structure is resolved as a smoothly curved membrane demonstrating the existence of the intrinsic contact angle, which describes the wettability contrast of the encapsulated phases to the membrane. Resolving these highly curved membrane structures with STED imaging provides important insights in the membrane properties and interactions underlying cellular activities.

Remodeling of Membrane Shape and Topology by Curvature Elasticity and Membrane Tension

Cellular membranes exhibit a fascinating variety of different morphologies, which are continuously remodeled by transformations of membrane shape and topology. This remodeling is essential for important biological processes (cell division, intracellular vesicle trafficking, endocytosis) and can be elucidated in a systematic and quantitative manner using synthetic membrane systems. Here, recent insights obtained from such synthetic systems are reviewed, integrating experimental observations and molecular dynamics simulations with the theory of membrane elasticity. The study starts from the polymorphism of biomembranes as observed for giant vesicles by optical microscopy and small nanovesicles in simulations. This polymorphism reflects the unusual elasticity of fluid membranes and includes the formation of membrane necks or fluid 'worm holes'. The proliferation of membrane necks generates stable multi-spherical shapes, which can form tubules and tubular junctions. Membrane necks are also essential for the remodeling of membrane topology via membrane fission and fusion. Neck fission can be induced by fine-tuning of membrane curvature, which leads to the controlled division of giant vesicles, and by adhesion-induced membrane tension as observed for small nanovesicles. Challenges for future research include the interplay of curvature elasticity and membrane tension during membrane fusion and the localization of fission and fusion processes within intramembrane domains.

From reversible to irreversible: When the membrane nanotube pearling is coupled with phase separation

Membrane nanotubes, which are ubiquitous in biology and act as channels maintaining transport between different cells and organelles, readily undergo pearling in response to external stimuli. Membrane nanotube pearling involves generation of heterogeneous curvature coupled with redistribution of membrane components that may interfere with the shape recovery of pearled nanotubes. However, the mechanism underlying such delicate process remains unclear and difficult to study at the molecular scale in vivo. By means of molecular dynamics simulation, here we investigate pearling of multi-component membrane nanotubes and reversibility through manipulating system temperature and osmotic pressure. With the equilibrium shape of membrane nanotubes controlled by the osmotic pressure, our results demonstrate that the process of membrane nanotube pearling can be reversible or irreversible, depending on the phase segregation state. For the pearled nanotube releasing high surface energy, different lipid components redistribute along the tube axial direction. Lipids with unsaturated tails prefer gathering at the high-curvature shrinking region, whereas the swelling region is constituted by saturated lipids forming the liquid-ordered phase of a higher bending rigidity. Such curvature sensitive phase segregation minimizes the system free energy by reducing both the membrane bending energy and line tension at the phase boundary. As such, the pearled nanotube fails to recover its shape upon retracting stimuli, suggesting irreversibility of the membrane nanotube pearling coupled with phase separation. Given importance of membrane nanotube pearling in various cellular activities, these results provide a new mechanism of controlling equilibrium shapes of membrane nanotubes in complex cellular environment.

Intracellular wetting mediates contacts between liquid compartments and membrane-bound organelles

Protein-rich droplets, such as stress granules, P-bodies, and the nucleolus, perform diverse and specialized cellular functions. Recent evidence has shown the droplets, which are also known as biomolecular condensates or membrane-less compartments, form by phase separation. Many droplets also contact membrane-bound organelles, thereby functioning in development, intracellular degradation, and organization. These underappreciated interactions have major implications for our fundamental understanding of cells. Starting with a brief introduction to wetting phenomena, we summarize recent progress in the emerging field of droplet-membrane contact. We describe the physical mechanism of droplet-membrane interactions, discuss how these interactions remodel droplets and membranes, and introduce "membrane scaffolding" by liquids as a novel reshaping mechanism, thereby demonstrating that droplet-membrane interactions are elastic wetting phenomena. "Membrane-less" and "membrane-bound" condensates likely represent distinct wetting states that together link phase separation with mechanosensitivity and explain key structures observed during embryogenesis, during autophagy, and at synapses. We therefore contend that droplet wetting on membranes provides a robust and intricate means of intracellular organization.

Wetting of phase-separated droplets on plant vacuole membranes leads to a competition between tonoplast budding and nanotube formation

Seeds of dicotyledonous plants store proteins in dedicated membrane-bounded organelles called protein storage vacuoles (PSVs). Formed during seed development through morphological and functional reconfiguration of lytic vacuoles in embryos [M. Feeney et al., Plant Physiol. 177, 241–254 (2018)], PSVs undergo division during the later stages of seed maturation. Here, we study the biophysical mechanism of PSV morphogenesis in vivo, discovering that micrometer-sized liquid droplets containing storage proteins form within the vacuolar lumen through phase separation and wet the tonoplast (vacuolar membrane). We identify distinct tonoplast shapes that arise in response to membrane wetting by droplets and derive a simple theoretical model that conceptualizes these geometries. Conditions of low membrane spontaneous curvature and moderate contact angle (i.e., wettability) favor droplet-induced membrane budding, thereby likely serving to generate multiple, physically separated PSVs in seeds. In contrast, high membrane spontaneous curvature and strong wettability promote an intricate and previously unreported membrane nanotube network that forms at the droplet interface, allowing molecule exchange between droplets and the vacuolar interior. Furthermore, our model predicts that with decreasing wettability, this nanotube structure transitions to a regime with bud and nanotube coexistence, which we confirmed in vitro. As such, we identify intracellular wetting [J. Agudo-Canalejo et al., Nature 591, 142–146 (2021)] as the mechanism underlying PSV morphogenesis and provide evidence suggesting that interconvertible membrane wetting morphologies play a role in the organization of liquid phases in cells.

Recent developments in membrane curvature sensing and induction by proteins

BACKGROUND

Membrane-bound intracellular organelles have characteristic shapes attributed to different local membrane curvatures, and these attributes are conserved across species. Over the past decade, it has been confirmed that specific proteins control the large curvatures of the membrane, whereas many others due to their specific structural features can sense the curvatures and bind to the specific geometrical cues. Elucidating the interplay between sensing and induction is indispensable to understand the mechanisms behind various biological processes such as vesicular trafficking and budding.

SCOPE OF REVIEW

We provide an overview of major classes of membrane proteins and the mechanisms of curvature sensing and induction. We then discuss the importance of membrane elastic characteristics to induce the membrane shapes similar to intracellular organelles. Finally, we survey recently available assays developed for studying the curvature sensing and induction by many proteins.

MAJOR CONCLUSIONS

Recent theoretical/computational modeling along with experimental studies have uncovered fascinating connections between lipid membrane and protein interactions. However, the phenomena of protein localization and synchronization to generate spatiotemporal dynamics in membrane morphology are yet to be fully understood.

GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE

The understanding of protein-membrane interactions is essential to shed light on various biological processes. This further enables the technological applications of many natural proteins/peptides in therapeutic treatments. The studies of membrane dynamic shapes help to understand the fundamental functions of membranes, while the medicinal roles of various macromolecules (such as proteins, peptides, etc.) are being increasingly investigated.

Membrane shape remodeling by protein crowding

The steric repulsion between proteins on biological membranes is one of the most generic mechanisms that cause membrane shape changes. We present a minimal model in which a spontaneous curvature is induced by asymmetric protein crowding. Our results show that the interplay between the induced spontaneous curvature and the membrane tension determines the energy-minimizing shapes, which describes the wide range of experimentally observed membrane shapes, i.e., flat membranes, spherical vesicles, elongated tubular protrusions, and pearling structures. Moreover, the model gives precise predictions on how membrane shape changes by protein crowding can be tuned by controlling the protein size, the density of proteins, and the size of the crowded domain.

Budding and Fission of Nanovesicles Induced by Membrane Adsorption of Small Solutes

Membrane budding and fission are essential cellular processes that produce new membrane compartments during cell and organelle division, for intracellular vesicle trafficking as well as during endo- and exocytosis. Such morphological transformations have also been observed for giant lipid vesicles with a size of many micrometers. Here, we report budding and fission processes of lipid nanovesicles with a size below 50 nm. We use coarse-grained molecular dynamics simulations, by which we can visualize the morphological transformations of individual vesicles. The budding and fission processes are induced by low concentrations of small solutes that absorb onto the outer leaflets of the vesicle membranes. In addition to the solute concentration, we identify the solvent conditions as a second key parameter for these processes. For good solvent conditions, the budding of a nanovesicle can be controlled by reducing the vesicle volume for constant solute concentration or by increasing the solute concentration for constant vesicle volume. After the budding process is completed, the budded vesicle consists of two membrane subcompartments which are connected by a closed membrane neck. The budding process is reversible as we demonstrate explicitly by reopening the closed neck. For poor solvent conditions, on the other hand, we observe two unexpected morphological transformations of nanovesicles. Close to the binodal line, at which the aqueous solution undergoes phase separation, the vesicle exhibits recurrent shape changes with closed and open membrane necks, reminiscent of flickering fusion pores (kiss-and-run) as observed for synaptic vesicles. As we approach the binodal line even closer, the recurrent shape changes are truncated by the fission of the membrane neck which leads to the division of the nanovesicle into two daughter vesicles. In this way, our simulations reveal a nanoscale mechanism for the budding and fission of nanovesicles, a mechanism that arises from the interplay between membrane elasticity and solute-mediated membrane adhesion.

Versatile Phospholipid Assemblies for Functional Synthetic Cells and Artificial Tissues

The bottom-up construction of a synthetic cell from nonliving building blocks capable of mimicking cellular properties and behaviors helps to understand the particular biophysical properties and working mechanisms of a cell. A synthetic cell built in this way possesses defined chemical composition and structure. Since phospholipids are native biomembrane components, their assemblies are widely used to mimic cellular structures. Here, recent developments in the formation of versatile phospholipid assemblies are described, together with the applications of these assemblies for functional membranes (protein reconstituted giant unilamellar vesicles), spherical and nonspherical protoorganelles, and functional synthetic cells, as well as the high-order hierarchical structures of artificial tissues. Their biomedical applications are also briefly summarized. Finally, the challenges and future directions in the field of synthetic cells and artificial tissues based on phospholipid assemblies are proposed.

Interactions between Phase-Separated Liquids and Membrane Surfaces

Liquid-liquid phase separation has recently emerged as an important fundamental organizational phenomenon in biological settings. Most studies of biological phase separation have focused on droplets that "condense" from solution above a critical concentration, forming so-called "membraneless organelles" suspended in solution. However, membranes are ubiquitous throughout cells, and many biomolecular condensates interact with membrane surfaces. Such membrane-associated phase-separated systems range from clusters of integral or peripheral membrane proteins in the plane of the membrane to free, spherical droplets wetting membrane surfaces to droplets containing small lipid vesicles. In this review, we consider phase-separated liquids that interact with membrane surfaces and we discuss the consequences of those interactions. The physical properties of distinct liquid phases in contact with bilayers can reshape the membrane, and liquid-liquid phase separation can construct membrane-associated protein structures, modulate their function, and organize collections of lipid vesicles dynamically. We summarize the common phenomena that arise in these systems of liquid phases and membranes.

Introduction to remodeling of biomembranes

In general, biomembranes and giant vesicles can respond to cues in their aqueous environment by remodeling their molecular composition, shape, or topology. This themed collection focuses on remodeling of membrane shape which is intimately related to membrane curvature. In this introductory contribution, we clarify the different notions of curvature and describe the general nanoscopic mechanisms for curvature generation and membrane scaffolding. At the end, we give a brief outlook on membrane tension.

Particle engulfment by strongly asymmetric membranes with area reservoirs

Biological cells are capable of undergoing extensive shape transformations thanks to the existence of membrane area reservoirs from which they can pull out membrane when required. A particularly relevant example of such membrane remodelling is given by endocytic and phagocytic processes, during which the cell membrane engulfs nano- and micrometer sized particles. Recently, it was shown that cell-like membrane reservoirs can be mimicked in giant vesicles with nanotubes stabilized by strong bilayer asymmetry, as quantified by the membrane's spontaneous curvature. Here, we theoretically investigate particle engulfment by such strongly-asymmetric membranes. We find that, depending on the sign of the spontaneous curvature, the engulfment transition may be continuous or discontinuous. Moreover, we find that, in the case of particle engulfment, the presence of asymmetry-stabilized reservoirs is not well captured by the constant-tension model typically used to describe cell-membrane deformations. This highlights the need for a better understanding of the nature of cellular membrane reservoirs, in order to accurately describe membrane remodelling processes.

Wrapping of Microparticles by Floppy Lipid Vesicles

Lipid membranes, the barrier defining living cells and many of their subcompartments, bind to a wide variety of nano- and micrometer sized objects. In the presence of strong adhesive forces, membranes can strongly deform and wrap the particles, an essential step in crossing the membrane for a variety of healthy and disease-related processes. A large body of theoretical and numerical work has focused on identifying the physical properties that underly wrapping. Using a model system of micron-sized colloidal particles and giant unilamellar lipid vesicles with tunable adhesive forces, we measure a wrapping phase diagram and make quantitative comparisons to theoretical models. Our data are consistent with a model of membrane-particle interactions accounting for the adhesive energy per unit area, membrane bending rigidity, particle size, and vesicle radius.

Elucidating the Membrane Dynamics and Encapsulation Mechanism of Large DNA Molecules Under Molecular Crowding Conditions Using Giant Unilamellar Vesicles

The conservation throughout evolution of membrane-bound structures that encapsulate genomic material indicates the existence of a simple, physical mechanism that facilitates the enclosing of long-stranded DNA by lipid bilayers. This study aimed to elucidate such a mechanism by investigating how molecular crowding promotes the spontaneous enveloping of model DNA into lipid bilayer membranes. Using fluorescence microscopy and giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs) we showed that a 166 kb DNA molecule coencapsulated with a model crowder attaches to the inner membrane of the GUVs as they osmotically deflate and after the DNA-membrane complex buds out. The set of results is consistent with the hypothesis that the depletion volume effect is responsible for the spontaneous encapsulation of DNA in the GUVs. This phenomenon may offer novel insights into the basic mechanisms governing membrane encapsulation of long-stranded nucleic acids found in celluar sytems that are independent of genetic control.

Membrane permeability to water measured by microfluidic trapping of giant vesicles

We use a microfluidic method to estimate the water permeability coefficient (p) of membranes. As model lipid membranes we employ giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs) composed of palmitoyloleoyl phosphatidylcholine and cholesterol (10 mol%). We have developed a microfluidic device with multiple chambers to trap GUVs and allow controlled osmotic exchange. Each chamber has a ring-shaped pressure-controlled valve which upon closure allows isolation of the GUVs in a defined volume. Opening the valves leads to a rapid fluid exchange between the trapping region and the microchannel network outside, thus allowing precise control over solution concentration around the GUVs contrary to other experimental approaches for permeability measurements reported in the literature. The area and volume changes of individual vesicles are monitored with confocal microscopy. The solute concentration in the immediate vicinity of the GUVs, and thus the concentration gradient across the membrane, is independently assessed. The data are well fitted by a simple model for water permeability which assumes that the rate of change in volume of a GUV per unit area is linearly proportional to concentration difference with permeability as the proportionality constant. Experiments of GUV osmotic deflation with hypertonic solutions yield the permeability of POPC/cholesterol 9/1 membranes to be p = 15.7 ± 5.5 μm s-1. For comparison, we also show results using two other approaches, which either do not take into account local concentration changes and/or do not resolve the precise vesicle shape. We point out the errors associated with these limitations. Finally, we also demonstrate the applicability of the microfluidic device for studying the dynamics of vesicles under flow.

Deformation Dynamics of Giant Unilamellar Vesicles in the Large Surface-to-Volume Ratio Regime: The Emergence of Neuron-like Morphology

Deformation of liposomes, or lipid vesicles, has been investigated extensively in terms of the thermodynamic equilibrium of the bending energy of the lipid bilayer membrane. However, the range of such deformation in previous literature has been limited within the moderate surface-to-volume ratio of the vesicles, in which axisymmetric shapes are dominant. Here, we show that neuron-like morphology, in which many lipid tubes extend radially from the mother vesicle, becomes dominant upon the slow osmotic shrinkage of giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs) initially larger than several tens of micrometers. We show that, in the time-lapse confocal imaging, the emergence of lipid tubes is initiated from the instability that appeared along the annular rim of the flat stomatocyte shape. Since these deformation dynamics into the neuron-like morphology resemble that of the milk-crown formation in liquid splashing, we discuss that the Rayleigh-Plateau capillary instability drives this transformation into a nonaxisymmetric shape.

Mechanical Tension of Biomembranes Can Be Measured by Super Resolution (STED) Microscopy of Force-Induced Nanotubes

Membrane tension modulates the morphology of plasma-membrane tubular protrusions in cells but is difficult to measure. Here, we propose to use microscopy imaging to assess the membrane tension. We report direct measurement of membrane nanotube diameters with unprecedented resolution using stimulated emission depletion (STED) microscopy. For this purpose, we integrated an optical tweezers setup in a commercial microscope equipped for STED imaging and established micropipette aspiration of giant vesicles. Membrane nanotubes were pulled from the vesicles at specific membrane tension imposed by the aspiration pipet. Tube diameters calculated from the applied tension using the membrane curvature elasticity model are in excellent agreement with data measured directly with STED. Our approach can be extended to cellular membranes and will then allow us to estimate the mechanical membrane tension within the force-induced nanotubes.

Spatial Distribution of PEO-PPO-PEO Block Copolymer and PEO Homopolymer in Lipid Bilayers

Maintaining the integrity of cell membranes is indispensable for cellular viability. Poloxamer 188 (P188), a poly(ethylene oxide)-b-poly(propylene oxide)-b-poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO-PPO-PEO) triblock copolymer with a number-average molecular weight of 8700 g/mol and containing 80% by mass PEO, protects cell membranes from various external injuries and has the potential to be used as a therapeutic agent in diverse applications. The membrane protection mechanism associated with P188 is intimately connected with how this block copolymer interacts with the lipid bilayer, the main component of a cell membrane. Here, we report the distribution of P188 in a model lipid bilayer comprising 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-glycero-3-phosphocholine (POPC) using neutron reflectivity (NR) and atomic force microscopy (AFM). We also investigated the association of a PEO homopolymer (PEO8.4K; M_n = 8400 g/mol) that does not protect living cell membranes. These experiments were conducted following incubation of a 4.5 mmol/L polymer solution in a buffer that mimics physiological conditions with supported POPC bilayer membranes followed by washing with the aqueous medium. In contrast to previous reports, which dealt with P188 and PEO in salt-free solutions, both P188 and PEO8.4K penetrate into the inner portion of the lipid bilayer as revealed by NR, with approximately 30% by volume occupancy across the membrane without loss of bilayer structural integrity. These results indicate that PEO is the chemical moiety that principally drives P188 binding to bilayer membranes. No defects or phase-separated domains were observed in either P188- or PEO8.4K-incubated lipid bilayers when examined by AFM, indicating that polymer chains mingle homogeneously with lipid molecules in the bilayer. Remarkably, the breakthrough force required for penetration of the AFM tip through the bilayer membrane is unaffected by the presence of the large amount of P188 and PEO8.4K.

Modeling membrane nanotube morphology: the role of heterogeneity in composition and material properties

Membrane nanotubes are dynamic structures that may connect cells over long distances. Nanotubes are typically thin cylindrical tubes, but they may occasionally have a beaded architecture along the tube. In this paper, we study the role of membrane mechanics in governing the architecture of these tubes and show that the formation of bead-like structures along the nanotubes can result from local heterogeneities in the membrane either due to protein aggregation or due to membrane composition. We present numerical results that predict how membrane properties, protein density, and local tension compete to create a phase space that governs the morphology of a nanotube. We also find that there exists a discontinuity in the energy that impedes two beads from fusing. These results suggest that the membrane-protein interaction, membrane composition, and membrane tension closely govern the tube radius, number of beads, and the bead morphology.

Membrane rolling induced by bacterial toxins

Membrane curvature effects are important in numerous cellular processes and many membrane interacting proteins induce spontaneous curvature upon membrane binding. Shiga and cholera toxins both belong to the AB5 family of toxins and consist of a toxic A subunit and a membrane-binding pentameric B subunit. Shiga and cholera toxins induce tubular membrane invaginations in cells and GUVs due to curvature effects and the toxins are known from MD simulations to induce curvature. Membrane invaginations have been linked to uptake of the toxins into cells. As a novel model system to experimentally characterize curvature-inducing proteins, we study the morphology induced in planar membrane patches. It was previously shown that annexins induce distinct morphologies in membrane patches including membrane rolling. In this study we show that the B subunits of Shiga and cholera toxins (STxB, CTxB) both induce roll-up of cell-sized membrane patches. Rolling starts from the free membrane edges of the patch and is completed within a few seconds. We characterize the branched roll morphology and find experimental estimates for the spontaneous curvature of the toxins based on the topography of rolls. The estimates are in agreement with previous MD simulations. We quantify the dynamics of rolling as induced by the toxins and demonstrate agreement with a theoretical model of the rolling dynamics. The model solves the equation of motion for a membrane roll and includes viscous drag and adhesion to the support. The results suggest that membrane rolling may be a general phenomenon displayed by many proteins that induce negative curvature in membranes with free edges.

Simple sugars shape giant vesicles into multispheres with many membrane necks

Simple sugars such as glucose and sucrose are ubiquitous in all organisms. One remarkable property of these small solutes is their ability to protect biomembranes against dehydration damage. This property, which reflects the underlying sugar-lipid interactions, has been intensely studied for lipid bilayers interacting with a single sugar at low hydration. Here, we use giant vesicles to investigate fully hydrated lipid membranes in contact with two sugars, glucose and sucrose. The vesicles were osmotically balanced, with the same total sugar concentration in the interior and exterior aqueous solutions. However, the two solutions differed in their composition: the interior solution contained only sucrose whereas the exterior one contained primarily glucose. This sugar asymmetry generated a striking variety of multispherical or "multi-balloon" vesicle shapes. Each multisphere involved only a single membrane that formed several spherical segments, which were connected by narrow, hourglass-shaped membrane necks. These morphologies revealed that the sugar-lipid interactions generated a significant spontaneous curvature with a magnitude of about 1 μm^-1. Such a spontaneous curvature can be generated both by depletion and by adsorption layers of the sugar molecules arising from effectively repulsive and attractive sugar-lipid interactions. All multispherical shapes are stable over a wide range of parameters, with a substantial overlap between the different stability regimes, reflecting the rugged free energy landscape in shape space. One challenge for future studies is to identify pathways within this landscape that allow us to open and close the membrane necks of these shapes in a controlled and reliable manner. We will then be able to apply these multispheres as metamorphic chambers for chemical reactions and nanoparticle growth.

Active probing of the mechanical properties of biological and synthetic vesicles

BACKGROUND

The interest in mechanics of synthetic and biological vesicles has been continuously growing during the last decades. Liposomes serve as model systems for investigating fundamental membrane processes and properties. More recently, extracellular vesicles (EVs) have been investigated mechanically as well. EVs are widely studied in fundamental and applied sciences, but their material properties remained elusive until recently. Elucidating the mechanical properties of vesicles is essential to unveil the mechanisms behind a variety of biological processes, e.g. budding, vesiculation and cellular uptake mechanisms.

SCOPE OF REVIEW

The importance of mechanobiology for studies of vesicles and membranes is discussed, as well as the different available techniques to probe their mechanical properties. In particular, the mechanics of vesicles and membranes as obtained by nanoindentation, micropipette aspiration, optical tweezers, electrodeformation and electroporation experiments is addressed.

MAJOR CONCLUSIONS

EVs and liposomes possess an astonishing rich, diverse behavior. To better understand their properties, and for optimization of their applications in nanotechnology, an improved understanding of their mechanical properties is needed. Depending on the size of the vesicles and the specific scientific question, different techniques can be chosen for their mechanical characterization.

GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE

Understanding the mechanical properties of vesicles is necessary to gain deeper insight in the fundamental biological mechanisms involved in vesicle generation and cellular uptake. This furthermore facilitates technological applications such as using vesicles as targeted drug delivery vehicles. Liposome studies provide insight into fundamental membrane processes and properties, whereas the role and functioning of EVs in biology and medicine are increasingly elucidated.

Optimization of the Inverted Emulsion Method for High-Yield Production of Biomimetic Giant Unilamellar Vesicles

In the field of bottom-up synthetic biology, lipid vesicles provide an important role in the construction of artificial cells. Giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs), due to their membrane's similarity to natural biomembranes, have been widely used as cellular mimics. So far, several methods exist for the production of GUVs with the possibility to encapsulate biological macromolecules. The inverted emulsion-based method is one such technique, which has great potential for rapid production of GUVs with high encapsulation efficiencies for large biomolecules. However, the lack of understanding of various parameters that affect production yields has resulted in sparse adaptation within the membrane and bottom-up synthetic biology research communities. Here, we optimize various parameters of the inverted emulsion-based method to maximize the production of GUVs. We demonstrate that the density difference between the emulsion droplets, oil phase, and the outer aqueous phase plays a crucial role in vesicle formation. We also investigated the impact that centrifugation speed/time, lipid concentration, pH, temperature, and emulsion droplet volume has on vesicle yield and size. Compared to conventional electroformation, our preparation method was not found to significantly alter the membrane mechanical properties. Finally, we optimize the parameters to minimize the time from workbench to microscope and in this way open up the possibility of time-sensitive experiments. In conclusion, our findings will promote the usage of the inverted emulsion method for basic membrane biophysics studies as well as the development of GUVs for use as future artificial cells.

Artificial Cell Membranes Interfaced with Optical Tweezers: A Versatile Microfluidics Platform for Nanomanipulation and Mechanical Characterization

Cell lipid membranes are the site of vital biological processes, such as motility, trafficking, and sensing, many of which involve mechanical forces. Elucidating the interplay between such bioprocesses and mechanical forces requires the use of tools that apply and measure piconewton-level forces, e.g., optical tweezers. Here, we introduce the combination of optical tweezers with free-standing lipid bilayers, which are fully accessible on both sides of the membrane. In the vicinity of the lipid bilayer, optical trapping would normally be impossible due to optical distortions caused by pockets of the solvent trapped within the membrane. We solve this by drastically reducing the size of these pockets via tuning of the solvent and flow cell material. In the resulting flow cells, lipid nanotubes are straightforwardly pushed or pulled and reach lengths above half a millimeter. Moreover, the controlled pushing of a lipid nanotube with an optically trapped bead provides an accurate and direct measurement of important mechanical properties. In particular, we measure the membrane tension of a free-standing membrane composed of a mixture of dioleoylphosphatidylcholine (DOPC) and dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC) to be 4.6 × 10^-6 N/m. We demonstrate the potential of the platform for biophysical studies by inserting the cell-penetrating trans-activator of transcription (TAT) peptide in the lipid membrane. The interactions between the TAT peptide and the membrane are found to decrease the value of the membrane tension to 2.1 × 10^-6 N/m. This method is also fully compatible with electrophysiological measurements and presents new possibilities for the study of membrane mechanics and the creation of artificial lipid tube networks of great importance in intra- and intercellular communication.

Nanotube-Mediated Path to Protocell Formation

Cellular compartments are membrane-enclosed, spatially distinct microenvironments that confine and protect biochemical reactions in the biological cell. On the early Earth, the autonomous formation of compartments is thought to have led to the encapsulation of nucleotides, thereby satisfying a starting condition for the emergence of life. Recently, surfaces have come into focus as potential platforms for the self-assembly of prebiotic compartments, as significantly enhanced vesicle formation was reported in the presence of solid interfaces. The detailed mechanism of such formation at the mesoscale is still under discussion. We report here on the spontaneous transformation of solid-surface-adhered lipid deposits to unilamellar membrane compartments through a straightforward sequence of topological changes, proceeding via a network of interconnected lipid nanotubes. We show that this transformation is entirely driven by surface-free energy minimization and does not require hydrolysis of organic molecules or external stimuli such as electrical currents or mechanical agitation. The vesicular structures take up and encapsulate their external environment during formation and can subsequently separate and migrate upon exposure to hydrodynamic flow. This may link the self-directed transition from weakly organized bioamphiphile assemblies on solid surfaces to protocells with secluded internal contents.

Giant Vesicles and Their Use in Assays for Assessing Membrane Phase State, Curvature, Mechanics, and Electrical Properties

Giant unilamellar vesicles represent a promising and extremely useful model biomembrane system for systematic measurements of mechanical, thermodynamic, electrical, and rheological properties of lipid bilayers as a function of membrane composition, surrounding media, and temperature. The most important advantage of giant vesicles over other model membrane systems is that the membrane responses to external factors such as ions, (macro)molecules, hydrodynamic flows, or electromagnetic fields can be directly observed under the microscope. Here, we briefly review approaches for giant vesicle preparation and describe several assays used for deducing the membrane phase state and measuring a number of material properties, with further emphasis on membrane reshaping and curvature.

Binding constant of membrane-anchored receptors and ligands that induce membrane curvatures

Cell adhesion is crucial for immune response, tissue formation, and cell locomotion. The adhesion process is mediated by the specific binding of membrane-anchored receptor and ligand proteins. These adhesion proteins are in contact with the membranes and may generate curvature, which has been shown for a number of membrane proteins to play an important role in membrane remodeling. An important question remains of whether the local membrane curvatures induced by the adhesion proteins affect their binding. We've performed Monte Carlo simulations of a mesoscopic model for membrane adhesion via the specific binding of curvature-inducing receptors and ligands. We find that the curvatures induced by the adhesion proteins do affect their binding equilibrium constant. We presented a theory that takes into account the membrane deformations and protein-protein interactions due to the induced curvatures, and agrees quantitatively with our simulation results. Our study suggests that the ability to induce membrane curvatures represents a molecular property of the adhesion proteins and should be carefully considered in experimental characterization of the binding affinity.

Giant Vesicles Encapsulating Aqueous Two-Phase Systems: From Phase Diagrams to Membrane Shape Transformations

In this review, we summarize recent studies on giant unilamellar vesicles enclosing aqueous polymer solutions of dextran and poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG), highlighting recent results from our groups. Phase separation occurs for these polymer solutions with concentration above a critical value at room temperature. We introduce approaches used for constructing the phase diagram of such aqueous two-phase system by titration, density and gel permeation chromatography measurements of the coexisting phases. The ultralow interfacial tension of the resulting water-water interface is investigated over a broad concentration range close to the critical point. The scaling exponent of the interfacial tension further away from the critical point agrees well with mean field theory, but close to this point, the behavior disagrees with the Ising value of 1.26. The latter discrepancy arises from the molar mass fractionation of dextran between coexisting phases. Upon encapsulation of the PEG–dextran system into giant vesicles followed by osmotic deflation, the vesicle membrane becomes completely or partially wetted by the aqueous phases, which is controlled by the phase behavior of the polymer mixture and the lipid composition. Deflation leads to a reduction of the vesicle volume and generates excess area of the membrane, which can induce interesting transformations of the vesicle morphology such as vesicle budding. More dramatically, the spontaneous formation of many membrane nanotubes protruding into the interior vesicle compartment reveals a substantial asymmetry and spontaneous curvature of the membrane segments in contact with the PEG-rich phase, arising from the asymmetric adsorption of polymer molecules onto the two leaflets of the bilayers. These membrane nanotubes explore the whole PEG-rich phase for the completely wetted membrane but adhere to the liquid-liquid interface as the membrane becomes partially wetted. Quantitative estimates of the spontaneous curvature are obtained by analyzing different aspects of the tubulated vesicles, which reflect the interplay between aqueous phase separation and spontaneous curvature. The underlying mechanism for the curvature generation is provided by the weak adsorption of PEG onto the lipid bilayers, with a small binding affinity of about 1.6 k_BT per PEG chain. Our study builds a bridge between nanoscopic membrane shapes and membrane-polymer interactions.