Self-assembled graphene-dextran nanohybrid for killing drug-resistant cancer cells

Self-assembled inorganic nanomaterials for biomedical applications

Controlled self-assembly of inorganic nanoparticles has the potential to generate complex nanostructures with distinctive properties. The advancement of more precise techniques empowers researchers in constructing and assembling diverse building blocks, marking a pivotal evolution in nanotechnology and biomedicine. This progress enables the creation of customizable biomaterials with unique characteristics and functions. This comprehensive review takes an innovative approach to explore the current state-of-the-art self-assembly methods and the key interactions driving the self-assembly processes and provides a range of examples of biomedical and therapeutic applications involving inorganic or hybrid nanoparticles and structures. Self-assembly methods applied to bionanomaterials are presented, ranging from commonly used methods in cancer phototherapy and drug delivery to emerging techniques in bioimaging and tissue engineering. The most promising in vitro and in vivo experimental results achieved thus far are presented. Additionally, the review engages in a discourse on safety and biocompatibility concerns related to inorganic self-assembled nanomaterials. Finally, opinions on future challenges and prospects anticipated in this evolving field are provided.

Graphene/carbohydrate polymer composites as emerging hybrid materials in tumor therapy and diagnosis

Despite the introduction of various types of treatments for cancer control, cancer therapy faces several challenges such as aggressive behavior, heterogeneous characteristics, and the development of resistance. In contrast, the methods have depended on the creation and formulation of nanoparticles to impede tumor growth. Carbon nanoparticles have attracted considerable attention for cancer therapy, with graphene nanoparticles emerging as promising vehicles for delivering drugs and genes. Moreover, graphene composites can enhance immunotherapy, phototherapy, and combination therapies. Nonetheless, the biocompatibility and toxicity of graphene composites present difficulties. Consequently, this manuscript assesses the alteration of graphene nanocomposites using carbohydrate polymers. Altering graphene composites with carbohydrate polymers such as chitosan, hyaluronic acid, cellulose, and starch can enhance their efficacy in cancer treatment. Furthermore, graphene composites functionalized with carbohydrate polymers for tumor ablation induced by phototherapy. Graphene oxide and graphene quantum dots have been modified with carbohydrate polymers to enhance their therapeutic and diagnostic uses. These nanoparticles can transport gene therapy techniques like siRNA in the treatment of cancer. Despite the breakdown of these nanoparticles within the body, they maintain excellent biosafety and biocompatibility.

Graphene-Based Photodynamic Therapy and Overcoming Cancer Resistance Mechanisms: A Comprehensive Review

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a non-invasive therapy that has made significant progress in treating different diseases, including cancer, by utilizing new nanotechnology products such as graphene and its derivatives. Graphene-based materials have large surface area and photothermal effects thereby making them suitable candidates for PDT or photo-active drug carriers. The remarkable photophysical properties of graphene derivates facilitate the efficient generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) upon light irradiation, which destroys cancer cells. Surface functionalization of graphene and its materials can also enhance their biocompatibility and anticancer activity. The paper delves into the distinct roles played by graphene-based materials in PDT such as photosensitizers (PS) and drug carriers while at the same time considers how these materials could be used to circumvent cancer resistance. This will provide readers with an extensive discussion of various pathways contributing to PDT inefficiency. Consequently, this comprehensive review underscores the vital roles that graphene and its derivatives may play in emerging PDT strategies for cancer treatment and other medical purposes. With a better comprehension of the current state of research and the existing challenges, the integration of graphene-based materials in PDT holds great promise for developing targeted, effective, and personalized cancer treatments.

The Influence of Graphene Oxide-Fe3O4 Differently Conjugated with 10-Hydroxycampthotecin and a Rotating Magnetic Field on Adenocarcinoma Cells

Nanoparticles (e.g., graphene oxide, graphene oxide-Fe3O4 nanocomposite or hexagonal boron nitride) loaded with anti-cancer drugs and targeted at cancerous cells allowed researchers to determine the most effective in vitro conditions for anticancer treatment. For this reason, the main propose of the present study was to determine the effect of graphene oxide (GO) with iron oxide (Fe3O4) nanoparticles (GO-Fe3O4) covalently (c-GO-Fe3O4-HCPT) and non-covalently (nc-GO-Fe3O4-HCPT) conjugated with hydroxycamptothecin (HCPT) in the presence of a rotating magnetic field (RMF) on relative cell viability using the MCF-7 breast cancer cell line. The obtained GO-Fe3O4 nanocomposites demonstrated the uniform coverage of the graphene flakes with the nanospheres, with the thickness of the flakes estimated as ca. 1.2 nm. The XRD pattern of GO-Fe3O4 indicates that the crystal structure of the magnetite remained stable during the functionalization with HCPT that was confirmed with FTIR spectra. After 24 h, approx. 49% and 34% of the anti-cancer drug was released from nc-GO-Fe3O4-HCPT and c-GO-Fe3O4-HCPT, respectively. The stronger bonds in the c-GO-Fe3O4-HCPT resulted in a slower release of a smaller drug amount from the nanocomposite. The combined impact of the novel nanocomposites and a rotating magnetic field on MCF-7 cells was revealed and the efficiency of this novel approach has been confirmed. However, MCF-7 cells were more significantly affected by nc-GO-Fe3O4-HCPT. In the present study, it was found that the concentration of nc-GO-Fe3O4-HCPT and a RMF has the highest statistically significant influence on MCF-7 cell viability. The obtained novel nanocomposites and rotating magnetic field were found to affect the MCF-7 cells in a dose-dependent manner. The presented results may have potential clinical applications, but still, more in-depth analyses need to be performed.

Multifunctional graphene oxide nanoparticles for drug delivery in cancer

Recent advancements in nanotechnology have enabled us to develop sophisticated multifunctional nanoparticles or nanosystems for targeted diagnosis and treatment of several illnesses, including cancers. To effectively treat any solid tumor, the therapy should preferably target just the malignant cells/tissue with minor damage to normal cells/tissues. Graphene oxide (GO) nanoparticles have gained considerable interest owing to their two-dimensional planar structure, chemical/mechanical stability, excellent photosensitivity, superb conductivity, high surface area, and good biocompatibility in cancer therapy. Many compounds have been functionalized on the surface of GO to increase their biological applications and minimize cytotoxicity. The review presents an overview of the physicochemical characteristics, strategies for various modifications, toxicity and biocompatibility of graphene and graphene oxide, current trends in developing GO-based nano constructs as a drug delivery cargo and other biological applications, including chemo-photothermal therapy, chemo-photodynamic therapy, bioimaging, and theragnosis in cancer. Further, the review discusses the challenges and opportunities of GO, GO-based nanomaterials for the said applications. Overall, the review focuses on the therapeutic potential of strategically developed GO nanomedicines and comprehensively discusses their opportunities and challenges in cancer therapy.

Drug Release Kinetics of DOX-Loaded Graphene-Based Nanocarriers for Ovarian and Breast Cancer Therapeutics

Cancer remains one of the leading causes of death worldwide despite extensive efforts at developing curative treatments. Chemotherapy, one of the most common forms of treatment, lacks specificity and can induce collateral damages to healthy surrounding tissues/cells and elicit off-target toxic side effects. The carbon-based nanomaterial graphene, can load aromatic drugs with high efficiency, has good biocompatibility, and can be easily functionalised with targeting ligands, antibodies, and biomolecules to increase the accuracy of targeting specific areas; graphene has therefore been explored as a nanocarrier for classical chemotherapy drugs. In this work, seventeen publications that report the release of doxorubicin (DOX) from 2D graphene-based nanohybrids (graphene oxide and reduced graphene oxide) for the treatment of breast and ovarian cancers have been identified based on a range of inclusion and exclusion criteria. To aid in the clinical translation of proof-of-concept studies, this work identifies the pre-clinical experimental protocols and analyses the release kinetics of these publications. Fifteen of the papers utilised a change in pH as the stimulus for drug release, and two utilised either near infrared (NIR) or ultrasound as the stimulus. The extracted drug release data from these publications were fit to four known kinetic models. It was found that the majority of these data best fit the Weibull kinetic model. The agreement between the kinetic data in previously published literature provides a predictable estimation of DOX release from graphene-based nanocarriers. This study demonstrates the potential conjugation of graphene and DOX in drug delivery applications, and this knowledge can help improve to the design and formulation of future graphene-based nanocarriers. In addition, the use of further experimental testing and the standardisation of experimental protocols will be beneficial for future work. The incorporation of computational modelling prior to pre-clinical testing will also aid in the development of controlled and sustained DOX release systems that offer efficient and efficacious results.

Applications of Pristine and Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene, and Graphene Nanoribbons in Biomedicine

This review is dedicated to a comprehensive description of the latest achievements in the chemical functionalization routes and applications of carbon nanomaterials (CNMs), such as carbon nanotubes, graphene, and graphene nanoribbons. The review starts from the description of noncovalent and covalent exohedral modification approaches, as well as an endohedral functionalization method. After that, the methods to improve the functionalities of CNMs are highlighted. These methods include the functionalization for improving the hydrophilicity, biocompatibility, blood circulation time and tumor accumulation, and the cellular uptake and selectivity. The main part of this review includes the description of the applications of functionalized CNMs in bioimaging, drug delivery, and biosensors. Then, the toxicity studies of CNMs are highlighted. Finally, the further directions of the development of the field are presented.

MicroRNA Delivery by Graphene-Based Complexes into Glioblastoma Cells

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common primary and aggressive tumour in brain cancer. Novel therapies, despite achievements in chemotherapy, radiation and surgical techniques, are needed to improve the treatment of GBM tumours and extend patients’ survival. Gene delivery therapy mostly uses the viral vector, which causes serious adverse events in gene therapy. Graphene-based complexes can reduce the potential side effect of viral carries, with high efficiency of microRNA (miRNA) or antisense miRNA delivery to GBM cells. The objective of this study was to use graphene-based complexes to induce deregulation of miRNA level in GBM cancer cells and to regulate the selected gene expression involved in apoptosis. The complexes were characterised by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning transmission electron microscopy and zeta potential. The efficiency of miRNA delivery to the cancer cells was analysed by flow cytometry. The effect of the anticancer activity of graphene-based complexes functionalised by the miRNA sequence was analysed using 2,3-bis-(2-methoxy-4-nitro-5-sulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium-5-carboxyanilide salt (XTT) assays at the gene expression level. The results partly explain the mechanisms of miRNA deregulation stress, which is affected by graphene-based complexes together with the forced transport of mimic miR-124, miR-137 and antisense miR-21, -221 and -222 as an anticancer supportive therapy.

Functionalized Graphene Oxide for Chemotherapeutic Drug Delivery and Cancer Treatment: A Promising Material in Nanomedicine

The usage of nanomaterials for cancer treatment has been a popular research focus over the past decade. Nanomaterials, including polymeric nanomaterials, metal nanoparticles, semiconductor quantum dots, and carbon-based nanomaterials such as graphene oxide (GO), have been used for cancer cell imaging, chemotherapeutic drug targeting, chemotherapy, photothermal therapy, and photodynamic therapy. In this review, we discuss the concept of targeted nanoparticles in cancer therapy and summarize the in vivo biocompatibility of graphene-based nanomaterials. Specifically, we discuss in detail the chemistry and properties of GO and provide a comprehensive review of functionalized GO and GO-metal nanoparticle composites in nanomedicine involving anticancer drug delivery and cancer treatment.

When polymers meet carbon nanostructures: expanding horizons in cancer therapy

The development of hybrid materials, which combine inorganic with organic materials, is receiving increasing attention by researchers. As a consequence of carbon nanostructures high chemical versatility, they exhibit enormous potential for new highly engineered multifunctional nanotherapeutic agents for cancer therapy. Whereas many groups are working on drug delivery systems for chemotherapy, the use of carbon nanohybrids for radiotherapy is rarely applied. Thus, nanotechnology offers a wide range of solutions to overcome the current obstacles of conventional chemo- and/or radiotherapies. Within this review, the structure and properties of carbon nanostructures (carbon nanotubes, nanographene oxide) functionalized preferentially with different types of polymers (synthetic, natural) are discussed. In short, synthesis approaches, toxicity investigations and anticancer efficacy of different carbon nanohybrids are described.

Functionalized Carbon Nanostructures Versus Drug Resistance: Promising Scenarios in Cancer Treatment

Carbon nanostructures (CN) are emerging valuable materials for the assembly of highly engineered multifunctional nanovehicles for cancer therapy, in particular for counteracting the insurgence of multi-drug resistance (MDR). In this regard, carbon nanotubes (CNT), graphene oxide (GO), and fullerenes (F) have been proposed as promising materials due to their superior physical, chemical, and biological features. The possibility to easily modify their surface, conferring tailored properties, allows different CN derivatives to be synthesized. Although many studies have explored this topic, a comprehensive review evaluating the beneficial use of functionalized CNT vs G or F is still missing. Within this paper, the most relevant examples of CN-based nanosystems proposed for MDR reversal are reviewed, taking into consideration the functionalization routes, as well as the biological mechanisms involved and the possible toxicity concerns. The main aim is to understand which functional CN represents the most promising strategy to be further investigated for overcoming MDR in cancer.

Two dimensional carbon based nanocomposites as multimodal therapeutic and diagnostic platform: A biomedical and toxicological perspective

Graphene based nanocomposites have revolutionized cancer treatment, diagnosis and imaging owing to its good compatibility, elegant flexibility, high surface area, low mass density along with excellent combined additive effect of graphene with other nanomaterials. This review inculcates the type of graphene based nanocomposites and their fabrication techniques to improve its properties as photothermal and theranostic platform. With decades' efforts, many significant breakthroughs in the method of synthesis and characterization in addition to various functionalization options of graphene based nanocomposite have paved a solid foundation for their potential applications in the cancer therapy. This work intends to provide a thorough, up-to-date holistic discussion on correlation of breakthroughs with their biomedical applications and illustrate how to utilize these breakthroughs to address long-standing challenges in the clinical translation of nanomedicines. This review also emphasizes on graphene based nanocomposites based toxicity concerns pertaining to delivery platforms.

Minocycline hydrochloride loaded graphene oxide enables enhanced osteogenic activity in the presence of Gram-positive bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus

Minocycline hydrochloride loaded graphene oxide films offer a solution for the issues of insufficient osseointegration and bacterial infections on the implants.

Reduced graphene oxide‐based bortezomib delivery system for photothermal chemotherapy with enhanced therapeutic efficacy

In cancer treatment, it still is a curial challenge to enhance therapeutic efficacy and reduce side effects. A novel reduced graphene oxide‐based nanoplatform (rGO/PDex) has been constructed to deliver an anticancer drug, bortezomib (BTZ), for photo‐chemotherapy. The structure and properties of the nanoplatform were characterized. The obtained data strongly indicated that rGO/PDex had enhanced stability. Further, folic acid was introduced and the resulting rGO/PDexF nanoplatform exhibited improved cellular uptake due to the active targeting effect. The anticancer drug BTZ could be effectively encapsulated into the rGO‐based nanoplatform and be released in a controlled manner. In vitro experiments demonstrated that BTZ‐loaded rGO‐based nanoparticles displayed enhanced therapeutic efficacy compared with the single chemotherapy, indicating the great potential of rGO‐based nanoparticles for cancer treatments. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry

Au-aided reduced graphene oxide-based nanohybrids for photo-chemotherapy

Graphene-based nanomaterials show great potential in photo-chemotherapy, but their photo-thermal effect is not very satisfactory. Herein, we presented a facile and low-cost strategy to grow Au clusters on the reduced graphene oxide (rGO) sheets aiming to improve photothermal effect. Au clusters with low-concentration was directly conjugated on the surface of rGO by electrostatic forces. To improve its biocompatibility, 3‑(3‑phenylureido) propanoic acid (PPA)-PEG (PPEG) had been introduced as biodegradable backbone to form rGO/Au/PPEG nanohybrids via π-π accumulation. The obtained rGO-based nanohybrids showed excellent biocompatibility, stability, low cytotoxicity, and enhanced photo-thermal conversion efficiency. To verify the synergistic photo-chemotherapy, doxorubicin (DOX) as a drug model had been loaded in rGO/Au/PPEG nanohybrids. The results indicated that rGO/Au/PPEG/DOX exhibited synergistic therapeutic efficacy compared with single chemotherapy or photothermal therapy, endowing this designed rGO-based nanohybrids with great potential for cancer treatments.

Nanoparticle-Mediated Combination Therapy: Two-in-One Approach for Cancer

Cancer represents a group of heterogeneous diseases characterized by uncontrolledgrowth and spread of abnormal cells, ultimately leading to death. Nanomedicine plays a significantrole in the development of nanodrugs, nanodevices, drug delivery systems and nanocarriers. Someof the major issues in the treatment of cancer are multidrug resistance (MDR), narrow therapeuticwindow and undesired side effects of available anticancer drugs and the limitations of anticancerdrugs. Several nanosystems being utilized for detection, diagnosis and treatment such as theranosticcarriers, liposomes, carbon nanotubes, quantum dots, polymeric micelles, dendrimers and metallicnanoparticles. However, nonbiodegradable nanoparticles causes high tissue accumulation andleads to toxicity. MDR is considered a major impediment to cancer treatment due to metastatictumors that develop resistance to chemotherapy. MDR contributes to the failure of chemotherapiesin various cancers, including breast, ovarian, lung, gastrointestinal and hematological malignancies.Moreover, the therapeutic efficiency of anticancer drugs or nanoparticles (NPs) used alone is lessthan that of the combination of NPs and anticancer drugs. Combination therapy has long beenadopted as the standard first-line treatment of several malignancies to improve the clinical outcome.Combination therapy with anticancer drugs has been shown to generally induce synergistic drugactions and deter the onset of drug resistance. Therefore, this review is designed to report andanalyze the recent progress made to address combination therapy using NPs and anticancer drugs.We first provide a comprehensive overview of the angiogenesis and of the different types of NPscurrently used in treatments of cancer; those emphasized in this review are liposomes, polymericNPs, polymeric micelles (PMs), dendrimers, carbon NPs, nanodiamond (ND), fullerenes, carbonnanotubes (CNTs), graphene oxide (GO), GO nanocomposites and metallic NPs used forcombination therapy with various anticancer agents. Nanotechnology has provided the convenienttools for combination therapy. However, for clinical translation, we need continued improvementsin the field of nanotechnology.

Biomedical applications of carbon nanomaterials: Drug and gene delivery potentials

One of the major components in the development of nanomedicines is the choice of the right biomaterial, which notably determines the subsequent biological responses. The popularity of carbon nanomaterials (CNMs) has been on the rise due to their numerous applications in the fields of drug delivery, bioimaging, tissue engineering, and biosensing. Owing to their considerably high surface area, multifunctional surface chemistry, and excellent optical activity, novel functionalized CNMs possess efficient drug-loading capacity, biocompatibility, and lack of immunogenicity. Over the past few decades, several advances have been made on the functionalization of CNMs to minimize their health concerns and enhance their biosafety. Recent evidence has also implied that CNMs can be functionalized with bioactive peptides, proteins, nucleic acids, and drugs to achieve composites with remarkably low toxicity and high pharmaceutical efficiency. This review focuses on the three main classes of CNMs, including fullerenes, graphenes, and carbon nanotubes, and their recent biomedical applications.

Engineering Multifunctional Coatings on Nanoparticles Based on Oxidative Coupling Assembly of Polyphenols for Stimuli-Responsive Drug Delivery

In this study, zein nanoparticles (NPs) with novel multifunctional coatings based on oxidative coupling assembly of polyphenols were synthesized for the first time. This coating was formed by oxidative self-polymerization of the organic ligands (polyphenols) in an alkaline condition, which could be biodegraded by acidic pH, as a result, impacting the pH-responsive property of the system. More importantly, the high level of intracellular glutathione (GSH) could induce the biodegradation of the polyphenol coatings, resulting in a fast release of trapped anticancer drugs in the cells. Based on confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) and cytotoxicity experiments, drug-loaded and polyphenol-coated zein NPs were shown to possess highly efficient internalization and an apparent cytotoxic effect on HeLa cells. Notably, the CLSM observation illustrated that coated zein NPs showed delayed drug release compared with free drug or DOX-loaded zein NPs without coatings, resulting from the pH-responsive release of loaded drug in the extra/intracellular environment. Additionally, the short-time cytotoxicity and morphology observation also confirmed the delayed drug release behavior of coated NPs. These highly biocompatible and biodegradable polyphenol-coated zein NPs may be promising vectors in the field of controlled-release biomedical applications and cancer therapy.

Cerasomes and Bicelles: Hybrid Bilayered Nanostructures With Silica-Like Surface in Cancer Theranostics

Over years, theranostic nanoplatforms have provided a new avenue for the diagnosis and treatment of various cancer types. To this end, a myriad of nanocarriers such as polymeric micelles, liposomes, and inorganic nanoparticles (NPs) with distinct physiochemical and biological properties are routinely investigated for preclinical and clinical studies. So far, liposomes have received great attention for various biomedical applications, however, it still suffers from insufficient morphological stability. On the other hand, inorganic NPs depicting excellent therapeutic ability have failed to address biocompatibility issues. This has raised a serious concern about the clinical approval of multifunctional organic or inorganic-based theranostic agents. Recently, partially silica coated nanohybrids such as cerasomes and bicelles demonstrating both diagnostic and therapeutic ability in a single system, have drawn profound attention as a fascinating novel drug delivery system. Compared with traditional liposomal or inorganic-based nanoformulations, this new and highly stable nanocarriers integrates the functional attributes of biomimetic liposomes and silica NPs, therefore, synergize strengths and functions, or even surpass weaknesses of individual components. This review at its best enlightens the emerging concept of such partially silica coated nanohybrids, fabrication strategies, and theranostic opportunities to combat cancer and related diseases.

Electrochemically stimulated drug release from flexible electrodes coated electrophoretically with doxorubicin loaded reduced graphene oxide

The electrochemically triggered release of doxorubicin (DOX) from flexible electrodes modified electrophoretically with reduced graphene oxide (rGO)-DOX is reported. The release is driven by a positive potential pulse that decreases the pH of the rGO-DOX surface locally, which is confirmed by scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) in situ. In vitro cell viability tests confirms that the delivery system meets therapeutic needs.

Self-assembling covalent organic framework functionalized magnetic graphene hydrophilic biocomposites as an ultrasensitive matrix for N-linked glycopeptide recognition

The development of additional functions and applications of covalent organic framework (COF)-derived materials still remains highly desired. In our work, a novel COF-functionalized magnetic graphene biocomposite (MagG@COF-5) was first developed as an ultrasensitive hydrophilic matrix via a facile self-assembly method for efficiently recognizing N-linked glycopeptides. By integrating the characteristics of the magnetic graphene and COF-5 layer, the MagG@COF-5 owns features of an outstanding magnetic response, a high specific area, strong hydrophilic properties and a unique size-exclusion effect. Accordingly, the MagG@COF-5 biocomposite showed excellent performance in N-linked glycopeptide analysis with a low detection limit (0.5 fmol μL^-1), an excellent size-exclusion effect (HRP digests/BSA, 1 : 600), good recyclability and reusability. More excitingly, the practical applicability of the biocomposite was evaluated by treatment with human serum (1 μL), in which 232 N-linked glycopeptides from 85 glycoproteins were detected. All the results demonstrate that the as-synthesized MagG@COF-5 biocomposite has huge potential for use in glycoproteome and clinical diagnosis fields. It will also open up new phases for application of COF-based materials.

Tailoring stimuli-responsive delivery system driven by metal-ligand coordination bonding

In this study, a novel coordination bonding system based on metal-tannic acid (TA) architecture on zein/carboxymethyl chitosan (CMCS) nanoparticles (NPs) was investigated for the pH-responsive drug delivery. CMCS has been reported to coat on zein NPs as delivery vehicles for drugs or nutrients in previous studies. The cleavage of either the "metal-TA" or "NH2-metal" coordination bonds resulted in significant release of guest molecules with high stimulus sensitivity, especially in mild acidic conditions. The prepared metal-TA-coated zein/CMCS NPs (zein/CMCS-TA/metal NPs) could maintain particle size in cell culture medium at 37°C, demonstrating good stability compared with zein/CMCS NPs. In vitro release behavior of doxorubicin hydrochloride (DOX)-loaded metal-TA film-coated zein/CMCS NPs (DOX-zein/CMCS-TA/metal NPs) showed fine pH responsiveness tailored by the ratio of zein to CMCS as well as the metal species and feeding concentrations. The blank zein/CMCS-TA/metal NPs (NPs-TA/metal) were of low cytotoxicity, while a high cytotoxic activity of DOX-zein/CMCS-TA/metal NPs (DOX-NPs-TA/metal) against HepG2 cells was demonstrated by in vitro cell assay. Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) and flow cytometry were combined to study the uptake efficiency of DOX-NPs or DOX-NPs-TA/metal. This system showed significant potential as a highly versatile and potent platform for drug delivery.

Inorganic Nanocarriers Overcoming Multidrug Resistance for Cancer Theranostics

Cancer multidrug resistance (MDR) could lead to therapeutic failure of chemotherapy and radiotherapy, and has become one of the main obstacles to successful cancer treatment. Some advanced drug delivery platforms, such as inorganic nanocarriers, demonstrate a high potential for cancer theranostic to overcome the cancer-specific limitation of conventional low-molecular-weight anticancer agents and imaging probes. Specifically, it could achieve synergetic therapeutic effects, demonstrating stronger killing effects to MDR cancer cells by combining the inorganic nanocarriers with other treatment manners, such as RNA interference and thermal therapy. Moreover, the inorganic nanocarriers could provide imaging functions to help monitor treatment responses, e.g., drug resistance and therapeutic effects, as well as analyze the mechanism of MDR by molecular imaging modalities. In this review, the mechanisms involved in cancer MDR and recent advances of applying inorganic nanocarriers for MDR cancer imaging and therapy are summarized. The inorganic nanocarriers may circumvent cancer MDR for effective therapy and provide a way to track the therapeutic processes for real-time molecular imaging, demonstrating high performance in studying the interaction of nanocarriers and MDR cancer cells/tissues in laboratory study and further shedding light on elaborate design of nanocarriers that could overcome MDR for clinical translation.

A Novel Electrostimulated Drug Delivery System Based on PLLA Composites Exploiting the Multiple Functions of Graphite Nanoplatelets

A novel drug delivery system based on poly(l-lactide) (PLLA), graphite, and porphyrin was developed. In particular, 5,10,15,20-tetrakis(4-hydroxyphenyl)porphyrin (THPP) was chosen because, besides its potential as codispersing agent of graphite, it is a pharmacologically active molecule. Graphite nanoplatelets, homogeneously dispersed in both the neat PLLA and the PLLA/porphyrin films, which were prepared by solution casting, turned out to improve the crystallinity of the polymer. Moreover, IR measurements demonstrated that unlike PLLA/porphyrin film, where the porphyrin was prone to aggregate causing variable concentration throughout the sample, the system containing also GNP was characterized by a homogeneous dispersion of the above molecule. The effect of graphite nanoplatelets on the thermal stabilization, electrical conductivity, and improvement of mechanical properties of the polymer resulted to be increased by the addition of the porphyrin to the system, thus demonstrating the role of the molecule in ameliorating the filler dispersion in PLLA. The porphyrin release from the composite film, occurring both naturally and with the application of an electrical field, was measured using an UV-vis spectrophotometer. Indeed, voltage application turned out to improve significantly the kinetic of drug release. The biocompatibility of the polymer matrix as well as the mechanical and thermal properties of the composite together with its electrical response makes the developed material extremely promising in biological applications, particularly in the drug delivery field.

One-pot synthesis of dextran decorated reduced graphene oxide nanoparticles for targeted photo-chemotherapy

Graphene-based nanocarriers show great potential in photo-chemotherapy, however, to prepare desired reduced graphene oxide (rGO) nanoparticles in a facile way is still a challenge. Herein, a novel strategy has been presented to prepare rGO nanoparticle using dextran (Dex) as a reducing agent. In this strategy, Dex was directly conjugated on rGO by hydrogen bond and then self-assemble to form rGO/Dex nanoparticles. After decorated by dextran, rGO-based nanoparticles not only show excellent biocompatibility but also can load anticancer drug for photo-chemotherapy. The data of fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) analysis, Raman spectrum analysis, thermos-gravimetric analysis (TGA), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), the transmission electron microscope (TEM) image and dynamic light scattering (DLS) measurements powerfully proved that the stable rGO-based nanoparticles with desired nanosize have been successfully prepared. To verify the photo-chemotherapy, anticancer drug, doxorubicin (DOX), has been loaded on rGO/Dex nanoparticles (rGO/DOX/Dex). And RGD, a kind of oligopeptide which can improve the intracellular uptake by αvβ3 recognition, also has been introduced (rGO/DOX/RDex). Compared with single chemotherapy, rGO/DOX/Dex and rGO/DOX/RDex combining the local specific chemotherapy and external near-infrared (NIR) photo-thermal therapy show higher therapeutic efficacy, endowing the desired rGO-based nanoparticle with great potential for cancer treatments.

Polymeric Nanohybrids as a New Class of Therapeutic Biotransporters

A possible solution to enhance existing drug and gene therapies is to develop hybrid nanocarriers capable of delivering therapeutic agents in a controlled and targeted manner. This goal can be achieved by designing nanohybrid systems, which combine organic or inorganic nanomaterials with biomacromolecules into a single composite. The unique combination of properties along with their facile fabrication enables the design of smart carriers for both drug and gene delivery. These hybrids can be further modified with cell targeting motifs to enhance their biological interactivity. In this Talents and Trends article, an overview of emerging nanohybrid-based technologies will be provided to highlight their potential use as innovative platforms for improved cancer therapies and new strategies in regenerative medicine. The clinical relevance of these systems will be reviewed to define the current challenges which still need to be addressed to allow these therapies to move from bench to bedside.

Nanoparticle-Mediated Mitochondrial Damage Induces Apoptosis in Cancer

Detouring of conventional DNA damaging anticancer drugs into mitochondria to damage mitochondrial DNA is evolving as a promising strategy in chemotherapy. Inhibiting single target in mitochondria would eventually lead to the emergence of drug resistance. Moreover, targeting mitochondria selectively in cancer cells, keeping them intact in healthy cells, remains a major challenge. Herein, triphenylphosphine (TPP)-coated positively charged 131.6 nm spherical nanoparticles (NPs) comprised of α-tocopheryl succinate (TOS, inhibitor of complex II in electron transport chain) and obatoclax (Obt, inhibitor of Bcl-2) were engineered. The TOS-TPP-Obt-NPs entered into acidic lysosomes via macropinocytosis, followed by lysosomal escape and finally homed into mitochondria over a period of 24 h. Subsequently, these TOS-TPP-Obt-NPs triggered mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization (MOMP) by inhibiting antiapoptotic Bcl-2, leading to Cytochrome C release. These TOS-TPP-Obt-NPs mediated mitochondrial damage induced cellular apoptosis through caspase-9 and caspase-3 cleavage to show improved efficacy in HeLa cells. Moreover, TOS-TPP-Obt-NPs induced MOMP in drug-resistant triple negative breast cancer cells (MDA-MB-231), leading to remarkable efficacy, compared to the combination of free drugs in higher drug concentrations. Results presented here clearly stimulate the usage of multiple drugs to perturb simultaneously diverse targets, selectively in mitochondria, as next-generation cancer therapeutics.

Decorated reduced graphene oxide for photo-chemotherapy

The biocompatibility and toxicity are still the key issues for graphene-based nanocarriers in the application of photothermal therapy. Herein, a novel surface modification strategy to prepare dextran decorated reduced graphene oxide (rGO) sheets has been presented. In this strategy, octadecanic acid is conjugated on dextran and used as a hydrophobic anchor to prepare dextran decorated rGO sheets. After being decorated by dextran, rGO sheets not only show excellent biocompatibility but also can load anticancer drugs for photo-chemotherapy. The data of Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) analysis, Raman spectrum analysis, thermo-gravimetric analysis (TGA), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), the transmission electron microscopy (TEM) image and dynamic light scattering (DLS) measurements powerfully prove that the desired rGO compound with the ideal nano-size has been successfully prepared and is stable enough. To verify the photo-chemotherapy, an anticancer drug, doxorubicin (DOX), has been loaded into the decorated rGO sheets (rGO/DOX/C18D). Furthermore, to improve the intracellular uptake, folic acid (FA), as a common target molecule, has been introduced (rGO/DOX/C18DF). Compared with single chemotherapy, rGO/DOX/C18D and rGO/DOX/C18DF combining the local specific chemotherapy and external near-infrared (NIR) photo-thermal therapy show higher therapeutic efficacy, endowing the decorated rGO nanoparticle with great potential for cancer treatments.

Supramolecular design of coordination bonding architecture on zein nanoparticles for pH-responsive anticancer drug delivery

A pH-responsive system by constructing a designable coordination bonding-based metal-tannic acid (TA) architecture on zein nanoparticles (NPs) has been investigated. Film formation was initiated by the adsorption of the polyphenol and directed by pH-dependent, multivalent coordination bonding. The prepared metal-TA coated zein NPs (zein-TA/metal NPs) demonstrated good stability to maintain particle size in cell culture medium at 37 °C. The microstructure of the NPs was revealed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). To confirm the surface chemical information of the NPs, XPS analysis was performed. Furthermore, in vitro viability studies revealed that the zein-TA/metal NPs showed no significant cytotoxicity against HepG2 cells for 24h. Because of the pH-responsive coordination bonding between TA and metal ions, the functional property of the metal-TA films was tailored for drug delivery. Biocompatible AuNPs were produced using zein-TA/metal NPs as reducing and stabilizing agents which were promising in the photothermal therapy of cancers and other diseases.

Graphene as cancer theranostic tool: progress and future challenges

Nowadays cancer remains one of the main causes of death in the world. Current diagnostic techniques need to be improved to provide earlier diagnosis and treatment. Traditional therapy approaches to cancer are limited by lack of specificity and systemic toxicity. In this scenario nanomaterials could be good allies to give more specific cancer treatment effectively reducing undesired side effects and giving at the same time accurate diagnosis and successful therapy. In this context, thanks to its unique physical and chemical properties, graphene, graphene oxide (GO) and reduced graphene (rGO) have recently attracted tremendous interest in biomedicine including cancer therapy.

Herein we analyzed all studies presented in literature related to cancer fight using graphene and graphene-based conjugates. In this context, we aimed at the full picture of the state of the art providing new inputs for future strategies in the cancer theranostic by using of graphene.

We found an impressive increasing interest in the material for cancer therapy and/or diagnosis. The majority of the works (73%) have been carried out on drug and gene delivery applications, following by photothermal therapy (32%), imaging (31%) and photodynamic therapy (10%). A 27% of the studies focused on theranostic applications. Part of the works here discussed contribute to the growth of the theranostic field covering the use of imaging (i.e. ultrasonography, positron electron tomography, and fluorescent imaging) combined to one or more therapeutic modalities. We found that the use of graphene in cancer theranostics is still in an early but rapidly growing stage of investigation. Any technology based on nanomaterials can significantly enhance their possibility to became the real revolution in medicine if combines diagnosis and therapy at the same time. We performed a comprehensive summary of the latest progress of graphene cancer fight and highlighted the future challenges and the innovative possible theranostic applications.

A cross-linking graphene oxide–polyethyleneimine hybrid film containing ciprofloxacin: one-step preparation, controlled drug release and antibacterial performance

A graphene oxide film was cross-linked by polyethyleneimine as a novel drug delivery system which showed excellent antibacterial performance.

Dendron conjugation to graphene oxide using click chemistry for efficient gene delivery

Owing to its large surface area and rapid cellular uptake, graphene oxide (GO) is emerging as an attractive candidate material for delivery of drugs and genes.